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<article article-type="editorial" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" xml:lang="pt" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">
	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">dic</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq Bras Cardiol: Imagem cardiovasc.</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.47593/2675-312X/20223502eabc301</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Editorial</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Apêndice Atrial Esquerdo: Anatomia, Função e Importância na Formação de Trombos</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Silva</surname>
						<given-names>Taylla Mendes</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Oliveira</surname>
						<given-names>Gustavo Brandão de</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Barros</surname>
						<given-names>Thais Lins de Souza</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Andrade</surname>
						<given-names>André Barbosa de</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Furlan</surname>
						<given-names>Bruno Bom</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Nunes</surname>
						<given-names>Maria do Carmo de Pereira</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Clínicas</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital das Clínicas, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brasil.</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv2">Programa de Pós–Graduação em Ciências Aplicadas à Saúde do Adulto</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Programa de Pós–Graduação em Ciências Aplicadas à Saúde do Adulto da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brasil.</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3">
				<label>3</label>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Acadêmicos de Medicina, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brasil.</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01"> Correspondência: Maria do Carmo do Pereira Nunes • Avenida Professor Alfredo Balena, 190, Santa Efigênia. CEP: 0130 100 – Belo Horizonte, MG, Brasil. E-mail: <email>mcarmo@waymail.com.br</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="con">
					<p>Contribuição dos autores</p>
					<p>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa: Silva TM e Oliveira GB; obtenção de dados: Silva TM, Andrade BA; Furlan BB e Barros TLS; análise e interpretação dos dados: Oliveira GB e Nunes MCP; redação do manuscrito: Silva TM, Andrade BA; Furlan BB e Barros TLS; revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante: Nunes MCP.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p>Conflito de interesses</p>
					<p>Os autores declaram não terem conflitos de interesse.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>30</day>
				<month>06</month>
				<year>2022</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<year>2022</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>35</volume>
			<issue>2</issue>
			<elocation-id>eabc301</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>10</day>
					<month>3</month>
					<year>2022</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>20</day>
					<month>4</month>
					<year>2022</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>4</day>
					<month>5</month>
					<year>2022</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License, which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="16"/>
				<table-count count="2"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="58"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introdução</title>
			<p>O apêndice atrial esquerdo (AAE) é uma extensão do átrio esquerdo (AE) e apresenta uma estrutura anatômica complexa e propriedades fisiopatológicas únicas. O AAE funciona como uma câmara de descompressão durante a sístole ventricular esquerda e em condições de pressão atrial esquerda elevada. Apesar de anteriormente ter sido considerado uma porção relativamente insignificante da anatomia cardíaca, o AAE vem se destacando como uma estrutura importante envolvida na gênese da formação de trombos e eventos tromboembólicos. Mais recentemente, com o desenvolvimento dos dispositivos de fechamento percutâneo, a avaliação da morfologia do AAE tornou-se cada vez mais importante.</p>
			<p>O presente artigo visa descrever a anatomia e morfologia do AAE, os parâmetros para avaliação da sua função, os desafios no diagnóstico de trombos e as principais modalidades de imagens com ênfase no ecocardiograma transesofágico.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Anatomia do apêndice atrial esquerdo</title>
			<p>O AAE é uma estrutura tubular longa e fina com base estreita originando do corpo do AE<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura 1</xref>). Macroscopicamente, o AAE é visualizado na borda esquerda do coração, comumente entre o ventrículo esquerdo (VE) e as veias pulmonares;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> ele se estende entre as paredes anteriores e laterais do AE. Sua ponta pode assumir diversas posições, sendo que, em geral, direciona-se anterossuperiormente, sobrepondo a borda esquerda da via de saída do ventrículo direito ou o tronco pulmonar e o ramo principal da coronária esquerda e a artéria circunflexa, mas também pode se direcionar lateral ou posteriormente, alcançando o seio transverso do pericárdio em alguns pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Anatomicamente, o AAE está intimamente relacionado à artéria pulmonar que se encontra superior a ele e em sua porção inferior à parede livre do VE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f01">
					<label>Figura 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Visão macroscópica do apêndice atrial esquerdo. Imagens feitas a partir de corações explantados mostrando o aspecto externo e interno do apêndice atrial esquerdo. (A) Visão externa de apêndice unilobulado. (B) Visão interna de apêndice unilobulado. (C) Visão externa de apêndice multilobulado. (D) Visão interna de apêndice multilobulado.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-35-02-eabc301-gf01.tif"/>
					<attrib>Imagens adquiridas em colaboração com anatomopatologista Geraldo Brasileiro Filho.</attrib>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>O óstio do AAE (OAAE) é separado dos orifícios das veias pulmonares esquerdas pela crista lateral esquerda.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Do outro lado, a parede lisa do AE separa o OAAE do ânulo mitral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Na transição entre o endocárdio liso do AE e a superfície enrugada do AAE, é notado um estreitamento que marca o orifício do apêndice. A morfologia do orifício do AAE pode ser elíptica (68,9%), sendo que o eixo longo geralmente fica orientado obliquamente ao ânulo mitral, em forma de pé <italic>foot-like</italic> (10%), triangular (7,7%) ou redonda (5,7%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
			<p>O AAE passa por uma região estreitada antes de se abrir em seu corpo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Nessa região, podem ser observados lobos variando entre um a quatro, sendo que um AAE multilobulado (com dois ou mais lobos) é visto em 80% dos pacientes, conforme demonstrado por Veinot et al. em 500 corações <italic>post-mortem</italic>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Nesse estudo, ao quantificar a frequência de um, dois, três e quatro lobos, foram constatados, respectivamente: 20%, 54%, 23% e 3%, diferente de outro estudo mais recente de autópsias, no qual dois lobos foram observados em 64,3% e três lobos em 35,7% dos espécimes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> A quantificação do número de lobos é importante porque um número maior de lobos está associado à presença de trombo independentemente do risco clínico e da estase sanguínea.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
			<p>O AAE apresenta grande diversidade anatômica. Wang et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> estabeleceram uma classificação que é comumente utilizada para categorizar quatro tipos morfológicos: o “<italic>chicken wing</italic>”, ou “asa de galinha”, é a mais comum (48%); seguida de “<italic>cactus</italic>”, ou “cacto” (30%); “<italic>windsock</italic>”, ou “biruta” (19%) e “<italic>cauliflower</italic>” ou “couve-flor” (3%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Essas categorias apresentam relação com o risco de formação de coágulo, sendo que o formato de couve-flor aparentemente é o mais comumente associado a eventos embólicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Além disso, essa morfologia está associada à menor velocidade de fluxo sanguíneo,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> apresentando maior predisposição para a estase sanguínea enquanto o asa de galinha apresentaria menor risco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Em um estudo, Anselmino et al. relacionou as morfologias couve-flor e asa de galinha com um maior risco para isquemia cerebral silenciosa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Entretanto, uma limitação dessa classificação é seu caráter subjetivo, observador-dependente e a possibilidade de sobreposição entre as diferentes morfologias conforme o ângulo de visualização.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Além disso, outros fatores influenciam o risco de eventos tromboembólicos,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> incluindo diâmetro menor do orifício, quantidade de trabeculações<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> e número de lobos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Um estudo<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> destacou que o número e o tamanho dos lobos e seus orifícios podem ser fatores mais importantes na determinação de risco de eventos tromboembólicos do que a forma assumida pelo AAE.</p>
			<p>Diferentemente do AE, cuja parede é lisa, a superfície interna do AAE é trabeculado apresentando feixes musculares<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> chamados de músculos pectíneos, que formam endentações complexas. A disposição dos feixes musculares é semelhante a das folhas de palmeira, em forma de pena ou leque.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Os grupamentos musculares mais calibrosos podem ser confundidos com trombos ou massas intra-atriais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> O AAE também apresenta grande variabilidade em seu tamanho a depender de sexo (maior em homens), idade (crescendo cerca de 0,20cm<sup>3</sup> por década)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> e presença de fibrilação atrial (FA). Foi constatada diferença significativa nas dimensões dos AAEs, que são mais volumosos e com orifícios maiores nos pacientes com FA quando comparado aos pacientes em ritmo sinusal.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Função do Apêndice Atrial Esquerdo</title>
			<p>O AAE possui funções mecânicas e endócrinas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Sua complacência é maior que a do restante do átrio, e, por isso, é capaz de modular a pressão na câmara, compensando sobrecargas de volume e aumentos de pressão. Além disso, o apêndice possui a maior concentração de grânulos de peptídeo natriurético atrial (PNA) do AE<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> (cerca de 30%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> O estímulo para secreção de PNA é a distensão dos cardiomiócitos, e, por ser mais complacente e concentrar a maior quantidade de PNA, o AAE é mais sensível às variações de volume e pressão e exerce maior controle sobre a redução da pressão arterial e aumento da frequência cardíaca, diurese e natriurese.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
			<p>O AAE realiza contração ativa,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> e sua velocidade de fluxo pode ser quantificada pelo Doppler pulsátil. Na maioria dos pacientes submetidos ao ecocardiograma transesofágico (ECO-TE), esse fluxo é quadrifásico<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 2</xref>). A primeira onda corresponde ao fluxo de saída pela contração do apêndice ao final da diástole ventricular. A segunda representa o fluxo anterógrado de enchimento do AAE durante a diástole atrial. A terceira onda possui um componente positivo e um negativo, que são reflexões de ondas mecânicas ao final sístole ventricular (nessa fase, são descritos inúmeros padrões diferentes de ondas positivas e negativas de baixa amplitude).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Por último, há um fluxo de saída do AAE durante a fase de enchimento rápido ventricular. A velocidade de fluxo diminuída no AAE se relaciona à presença de contraste espontâneo (CE), <italic>sludge</italic> e trombo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f02">
					<label>Figura 2</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Comparação do padrão de fluxo no apêndice atrial esquerdo em ritmo sinusal com o ciclo cardíaco e o eletrocardiograma.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-35-02-eabc301-gf02.tif"/>
					<attrib>Fonte: adaptado de Delgado et al.<sup>26</sup> AAE: apêndice atrial esquerdo; VE: ventrículo esquerdo; AE: átrio esquerdo; ECG: eletrocardiograma.</attrib>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>A avaliação da função do AAE pode ser realizada por meio de vários parâmetros. As velocidades de enchimento e esvaziamento do AAE por meio do Doppler pulsátil expressam a função contrátil do AAE. Além disso, áreas, volumes e fração de ejeção do AAE usando diferentes métodos constituem medidas que refletem a função do AAE.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Estase Sanguínea E Formação De Trombo</title>
			<p>As alterações de contratilidade do AAE podem levar à formação de trombos e a subsequentes eventos tromboembólicos,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> independentemente da presença de FA.</p>
			<p>Em geral, na FA, há uma diminuição da contratilidade do AAE, com diminuição das velocidades do fluxo sanguíneo e dilatação do AAE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> O processo de remodelação associado à FA faz com que o AAE funcione como uma bolsa estática, cedendo à estagnação e à trombose. Estima-se que, em aproximadamente 75% dos pacientes com episódios cardioembólicos, os êmbolos surgem do AAE. Trombos no AAE estão presentes em até 14% dos pacientes com a FA aguda (&lt;3 dias).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Além disso, a formação de trombos pode se desenvolver mesmo em pacientes com FA que estão recebendo terapia de anticoagulação terapêutica. Um estudo demonstrou que 1,6% dos pacientes tratados com anticoagulação por 1 mês tiveram evidência ecocardiográfica de um trombo no AAE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Dados limitados sugerem que pacientes com insuficiência ventricular esquerda e pressão diastólica final elevada do VE também podem ser fatores de risco para trombo no AAE na ausência de FA. Vigna et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> encontraram trombos do AAE em 8 dos 58 pacientes com cardiomiopatia dilatada que estavam em ritmo sinusal. Consequentemente, o risco de formação de trombo no AAE parece estar relacionado à disfunção do AAE decorrente de pressões de enchimento elevadas, independentemente de sua causa.</p>
			<p>Acredita-se que a interação complexa do endotélio atrial, constituintes do sangue e estase sanguínea (ou seja, os componentes da tríade de Virchow) resulta na formação de agregados de plaquetas ativadas e leucócitos<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> ou agregados de eritrócitos mediada por fibrinogênio manifestando-se,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> como contraste ecocardiográfico denso espontâneo ou “fumaça”. Esses agregados podem progredir para sludge e, eventualmente ao trombo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Métodos de imagem para avaliação do apêndice atrial esquerdo</title>
			<sec>
				<title>Ecocardiograma tranesofágico</title>
				<p>A ecocardiografia transesofágica (ETE) é o método de escolha para o estudo da anatomia e função do AAE. A sensibilidade e a especificidade da ETE para detecção de trombos do AAE, quando comparadas com as observadas em intraoperatórios, são de ٩٢٪ e ٩٨٪, respectivamente,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> com valores preditivos negativos e positivos de 100% e 86%, respectivamente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> A ausência de um trombo confirma que é seguro prosseguir com a cardioversão, com baixa taxa de eventos tromboembólicos (0% a 0,8%) em pacientes que estão adequadamente anticoagulados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Uma avaliação completa do AAE deve incluir imagens do AE, do VE e da valva mitral, juntamente de uma avaliação detalhada da morfologia do AAE, contração e velocidades de fluxo usando a ecocardiografia bi e tridimensional.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> A avaliação do AAE pode ser iniciada por meio do corte de quatro câmaras, porém, por ser uma estrutura lateral, deve-se rodar a sonda em sentido anti-horário e fleti-la, para se trazer o AAE para o centro da tela. Também no corte duas câmaras, pode-se dar um <italic>zoom</italic> no AAE ou reduzir a profundidade da tela, para se avaliar o AAE com maior precisão.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> O ETE bidimensional fornece excelente caracterização do AE e do AAE, devido à proximidade anatômica dessas estruturas com o esôfago. Apesar de ser uma estrutura tubular estreita e de anatomia complexa, os trombos do AAE podem ser identificados com precisão satisfatória pelo ETE. Entretanto, a sensibilidade diminui, quando se trata de pequenos trombos ou trombos localizados dentro de um lobo lateral.</p>
				<p>Para melhor avaliar o AAE, é rotineiramente utilizada a avaliação funcional por meio do Doppler (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 3</xref>). O Doppler pulsátil deve ser colocado a 1 a 2cm do OAAE. A medida da velocidade do fluxo no AAE obtida pelo Doppler pulsado é um indicador de risco da formação de trombo (o risco aumenta à medida que a velocidade diminui).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Velocidades &lt;40cm/s estão associadas a um maior risco de acidente vascular cerebral e à presença de CE,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> com velocidades decrescentes de &lt;20cm/s associadas à identificação de trombo dentro do AAE e a maior incidência de eventos tromboembólicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> A presença de velocidades &lt;40cm/s requer avaliação meticulosa do AAE antes da cardioversão ou intervenções envolvendo o AE e AEE.</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f03">
						<label>Figura 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Ecocardiograma transesofágico demonstrando (A) o fluxo no interior do apêndice atrial esquerdo com velocidade normal (50cm/s) em paciente em ritmo sinusal, com átrio esquerdo de dimensões normais e sem a presença de contraste espontâneo. (B) Fluxo no interior do apêndice atrial esquerdo com velocidade reduzida (14cm/s) em paciente em pós-operatório de troca valvar mitral (prótese mecânica), em ritmo sinusal, com átrio esquerdo dilatado e presença de contraste espontâneo no interior do apêndice atrial esquerdo.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-35-02-eabc301-gf03.tif"/>
						<attrib>AAE: apêndice atrial esquerdo.</attrib>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>O trombo do AE é definido como massa ecodensa no AAE ou AE distinto do endocárdio do AE ou dos músculos pectíneos<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 4</xref>). Vários são os diagnósticos diferenciais e a interpretação equivocada de trombos, incluindo sombra acústica do ligamento do Marshall, músculos pectíneos ou a não diferenciação do <italic>sludge</italic> e contraste ecogênico espontâneo denso.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f04">
						<label>Figura 4</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Ecocardiograma transesofágico mostrando o apêndice atrial esquerdo preenchido pelo Doppler colorido (A). Contraste espontâneo (B) e sludge (C) no interior do apêndice atrial esquerdo. Na imagem D, a seta indica um trombo no apêndice atrial esquerdo; também há contraste espontâneo no interior do átrio esquerdo.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-35-02-eabc301-gf04.tif"/>
						<attrib>AE: átrio esquerdo; VE: ventrículo esquerdo.</attrib>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Os casos em que as imagens do AAE são subótimas, os agentes de contraste de ultrassom são úteis para melhorar a visualização do AAE. O uso de contraste elimina muitos dos artefatos e, geralmente, demonstra completa opacificação do AAE ou revela defeitos de preenchimento em seu corpo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> A imagem ecocardiográfica do AAE é operador-dependente e, logo, tem curva de aprendizado. A variabilidade interobservador é considerada uma limitação importante dessa investigação, já que pode ocorrer discordância de 22% interobservadores no diagnóstico de trombo.</p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Desafios no diagnóstico de trombo no apêndice atrial esquerdo</title>
			<p>A avaliação ecocardiográfica do AAE exige análise cuidadosa do ecocardiografista. Há situações em que uma interpretação equivocada de imagens no interior do AAE pode levar a condutas precipitadas. A musculatura pectínea exuberante ou lobos do próprio apêndice podem ser interpretados como trombos que resultam em uso de terapia anticoagulante desnecessária (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figura 5</xref>). O diagnóstico equivocado de trombos leva também à suspensão de procedimentos percutâneos, como oclusão do AAE, oclusão de forame oval patente, comunicação interatrial, implante de MitraClip®, ablação de FA e valvoplastia mitral com cateter balão. Tais procedimentos envolvem a manipulação de cateteres no interior dos átrios e, consequentemente, aumentariam o risco de embolização.</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f05">
					<label>Figura 5</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Ecocardiograma transesofágico em corte de esôfago médio a 50° evidenciando uma massa no interior do apêndice atrial esquerdo, que pode ser facilmente interpretada como trombo (seta) (A). Imagem do mesmo paciente a 105° esclarecendo que a massa se tratava provavelmente dos três lobos do apêndice atrial esquerdo (B). Na imagem C, artefato de reverberação (seta) produzido pela crista cumarínica e visualizado no interior do apêndice atrial esquerdo.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-35-02-eabc301-gf05.tif"/>
					<attrib>AE: átrio esquerdo; AAE: apêndice atrial esquerdo; VE: ventrículo esquerdo.</attrib>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>A exclusão de trombos do AAE usando a ETE pode permitir uma cardioversão precoce e segura, evitando anticoagulação prolongada antes da cardioversão.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
			<p>O trombo no interior do AAE deve ser diferenciado dos músculos pectíneos, artefato de reverberação originado da crista cumarínica, septos entre múltiplos lobos,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> CE e <italic>sludge</italic>.</p>
			<p>Os trombos localizam-se frequentemente na extremidade distal do AAE e quase sempre estão confinados ao seu lúmen e aderidos à parede do AAE. Possuem movimentação independente e padrão de ecogenicidade diferente da parede do AAE. Ainda, têm consistência uniforme e textura diferente da parede do AAE. Sua morfologia é variada, mas geralmente arredondada. Frequentemente, estão associados a presença de CE no interior do AE.</p>
			<p>Artefatos de reverberação também são encontrados no interior do AAE e estão localizados em uma posição duas vezes a distância do transdutor até a crista cumarínica. Sua mobilidade é totalmente dependente do movimento da crista cumarínica. Tem morfologia compatível à do objeto ou estrutura que causa o artefato e não possui relação com a presença de CE no AE. Reduzir o ganho e usar outros planos de imagem são artifícios dos quais o ecocardiografista pode utilizar para evitar a formação do artefato. Por outro lado, a aparência em degrau e a posição numa distância dobrada reforçam a presença de artefato de reverberação no interior do AAE. O ecocardiografista deve ficar atento em relação à presença de uma crista cumarínica proeminente, que também pode ser diagnosticada erroneamente como trombo.</p>
			<p>Os músculos pectíneos, por sua vez, estão confinados ao corpo do AAE. Sua mobilidade acompanha o movimento do apêndice e possui ecogenicidade idêntica à da parede do AAE. Não há relação com a presença de CE.</p>
			<p>O CE também é conhecido como fumaça, uma névoa rodopiante de densidade variável e que reflete a baixa velocidade do fluxo sanguíneo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> Pode ser classificado em quatro grupos (1 a 4+) dependendo da intensidade, da localização e do presença do turbilhão (movimento), de acordo com o método proposto por Fatkin et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> conforme descrito na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref>. No entanto, a quantificação do CE na prática clínica é difícil e depende da qualidade da imagem, configurações de ganho e experiência do operador.</p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t1">
					<label>Tabela 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Classificação do contraste espontâneo de acordo com o método proposto por Fatkin et al.</title>
					</caption>
					<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
						<colgroup>
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
						</colgroup>
						<thead>
							<tr>
								<th>Grau</th>
								<th>CEE</th>
								<th>Descrição</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody>
							<tr>
								<td align="center">0</td>
								<td>Nenhum</td>
								<td>Ausência de ecogenicidade</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="center">1 +</td>
								<td>Leve</td>
								<td>Ecogenicidade mínima localizada no AAE ou esparsamente distribuída na cavidade principal do AE, que pode ser detectável apenas transitoriamente durante o ciclo cardíaco</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="center">2+</td>
								<td>Leve a moderado</td>
								<td>Padrão de redemoinho mais denso do que 1+, mas com distribuição semelhante, detectável sem configurações de ganho aumentadas</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="center">3+</td>
								<td>Moderado</td>
								<td>Turbilhão moderado e denso no AAE, geralmente associado com intensidade menor na cavidade principal. Pode flutuar em intensidade, mas é detectável constantemente em todo o ciclo cardíaco</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="center">4+</td>
								<td>Intenso</td>
								<td>Ecodensidade intensa e padrões de redemoinho muito lentos no AAE, geralmente com densidade semelhante na cavidade principal</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Sludge</td>
								<td>Intenso</td>
								<td>Estado pré-trombótico podendo ser definido como ecodensidade gelatinosa, sem uma massa bem definida e presente durante todo o ciclo cardíaco</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<attrib>Fonte: Fatkin et al.<sup>42</sup> CEE: contraste ecogênico espontâneo; AAE: apêndice atrial esquerdo; AE: átrio esquerdo.</attrib>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
			<p>O CE pode ser observado em até 60% dos pacientes com FA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> A terapia com aspirina e varfarina não parece afetar a presença de CE no AE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> Embora os pacientes com CE denso visto dentro do AAE apresentem taxa de acidente vascular cerebral de 18,2% ao ano se não forem tratados com varfarina e um risco de acidente vascular cerebral de 4,5% ao ano com dose ajustada de varfarina, a presença de um trombo do AAE triplica a taxa geral de acidente vascular cerebral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
			<p>O <italic>sludge</italic> (lodo ou lama) é um fluido dinâmico, de ecodensidade gelatinosa, sem uma massa bem definida e está presente durante todo o ciclo cardíaco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> Muitas vezes, é difícil diferenciar <italic>sludge</italic> de trombo. O <italic>sludge</italic> representa um estágio posterior ao CE, anterior à formação do trombo e pode ter significado prognóstico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup></p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Outras modalidades de imagem na avaliação do apêndice atrial esquerdo</title>
			<sec>
				<title>Ecocardiograma transtorácico</title>
				<p>A capacidade da ecocardiografia transtorácica (ETT) para identificar ou excluir trombos no AE e no AAE é limitada, com sensibilidade relatada de 40% a 60%, devido principalmente à má visualização do AAE, onde reside a maioria dos trombos atriais (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06">Figura 6</xref>). Nesse sentido, o uso de imagens harmônicas e a administração de agentes de contraste ultrassonográficos podem aumentar sua acurácia na detecção de trombos intracavitários.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f06">
						<label>Figura 6</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Ecocarcadiograma transtorácico evidenciando o apêndice atrial esquerdo em corte apical 4 câmaras (A) e corte apical 2 câmaras (B).</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-35-02-eabc301-gf06.tif"/>
						<attrib>VE: ventrículo esquerdo; AAE: apêndice atrial esquerdo; AE: átrio esquerdo; AD: ‘trio direito; VD: ventrículo direito.</attrib>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Ecocardiograma com contraste</title>
				<p>Desde o final da década de 1990, os agentes de contraste ultrassonográfico são administrados para melhorar a visualização das bordas endocárdicas, incluindo o aprimoramento da avaliação do AAE. Estudos recentes de interrogação aprimorada de AE e do AAE revelaram melhorias estatisticamente significativas nas medidas dimensionais e características de esvaziamento. Nos casos de imagens subótimas do AAE, os agentes de contraste são úteis para melhorar a visualização do AAE, eliminar artefatos e revelar defeitos de preenchimento em seu corpo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Os agentes de contraste melhoram o delineamento da borda endocárdica das câmaras cardíacas, porém sua aplicação na detecção ou na exclusão de trombos não foi implementada na rotina clínica. Várias razões explicam essa circunstância, como o uso de marcadores preditivos de formação de trombo – como o Doppler pulsado do fluxo sanguíneo no AAE e a avaliação do CE; a baixa prevalência de trombo no AAE (5% a 13% em pacientes com FA e sem anticoagulação terapêutica) e o risco menor ainda de evento embólico. Além disso, a aplicação de contraste ultrassonográfico aumenta o tempo de realização do exame e seu custo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A capacidade do agente de contraste em opacificar completamente o AAE mesmo na presença de artefatos durante a imagem nativa minimiza a falsa identificação de trombos e permite o delineamento de trombos atriais, reduzindo a quantidade de ETE inconclusivos e melhorando o grau de confiança interpretativa do ecocardiografista. Entretanto, nos casos em que as imagens sem contraste são diagnósticas e na ausência de evidência de CE, o uso do contraste demonstra não adicionar confiança no diagnóstico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Ecocardiograma tridimensional</title>
				<p>O desenvolvimento do ETE tridimensional melhorou a habilidade de avaliar o AAE, ao permitir uma perspectiva seletiva de sua anatomia e melhor discriminação entre artefatos, massas e trombos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f07">Figura 7</xref>). O método tridimensional permite uma avaliação mais abrangente dos múltiplos lobos do AAE, que podem estar localizados em diferentes planos, além de uma estimativa mais precisa de sua geometria, tamanho e função, com melhor distinção entre músculos pectíneos e trombos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f07">
						<label>Figura 7</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Ecocarcadiograma transesofágico tridimensional evidenciando o apêndice atrial esquerdo em várias projeções permitindo a avaliação de sua função contrátil.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-35-02-eabc301-gf07.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Os dados ainda são limitados quanto à sensibilidade e à especificidade do ETE tridimensional para detecção de trombos no AAE. No entanto, com os recentes avanços na terapia de dispositivos percutâneos para fechamento do AAE, o ETE tridimensional tornou-se importante tanto no planejamento de procedimentos, como sendo guia de intervenções.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Ecocardiografia intracardíaca</title>
				<p>É um método de imagem alternativo quando ETE é indisponível ou inconclusivo. A ecocardiografia intracardíaca (ICE) pode fornecer múltiplas visualizações e imagens detalhadas do AAE para diagnosticar, de forma confiável, a presença de trombos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup>Embora seja menos sensível em comparação com o ETE para detecção de trombo, ela pode ser um método complementar, especialmente quando os achados do ETE merecem uma avaliação mais aprofundada. No entanto, sendo um procedimento invasivo, seu uso é limitado na prática diária e reservado principalmente para o laboratório de cateterismo cardíaco durante procedimentos intervencionistas planejados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Tomografia computadorizada</title>
				<p>Pode identificar trombos do AAE com boa sensibilidade e com especificidade moderada. Estudos recentes concluíram que a triagem de trombo em AE e AAE com tomografia computadorizada (TC) <italic>multislice</italic> isolada é provavelmente suficiente e não inferior comparada à ETE em pacientes com FA paroxística e função sistólica normal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Entretanto, atualmente, não se recomenda TC para rastreio de trombos no AE e AAE<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f08">Figura 8</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f08">
						<label>Figura 8</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Angiotomografia evidenciando um trombo no apêndice atrial esquerdo e átrio esquerdo.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-35-02-eabc301-gf08.tif"/>
						<attrib>Imagens fornecidas pelo cardiologista Victor Pimentel de Matos.</attrib>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>A TC gera dados volumétricos tridimensionais do coração, que podem ser reconstruídos ao longo de diferentes planos e fases cardíacas, para fornecer uma avaliação precisa da anatomia do AAE, com alta resolução espacial e temporal e avaliação quantitativa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Entretanto, a TC não é altamente específica para presença de trombo e, portanto, a alta taxa de resultados falso-positivos e o uso de radiação e de meios de contraste à base de iodo são as principais limitações seu amplo uso.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Ressonância magnética cardíaca</title>
				<p>A ressonância magnética cardíaca (RMC) constitui o principal método de imagem para avaliação de massas cardíacas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> As diversas técnicas de aquisição de imagens fornecem informações relevantes quanto aos componentes histológicos e a vascularização das massas que, em conjunto com dados clínicos, podem auxiliar na distinção entre massas neoplásicas benignas e malignas, não neoplásicas (trombos e cistos) ou outras estruturas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Entre as massas não neoplásicas, os trombos intracavitários são os mais comuns, cuja aparência à RMC depende do tempo de sua formação. Em casos mais agudos, em que o trombo se encontra com grande quantidade de oxi-hemoglobina, os trombos tendem a aparecer com sinal aumentado nas sequências ponderadas em T1 e T2. Nos casos subagudos, há hipersinal em T1 e hipossinal em T2; em razão de efeitos paramagnéticos da meta-hemoglobina e nos casos crônicos, o trombo se torna pobre em água, e os restos celulares são substituídos por tecido fibroso, levando, assim, ao baixo sinal em T1 e T2.</p>
				<p>O agente de contraste paramagnético tem função importante no auxílio da diferenciação tecidual entre trombo e tumor. A imagem de perfusão de primeira passagem permite a clara distinção do trombo em relação ao miocárdio adjacente, uma vez que o trombo é estrutura avascular e, classicamente, não absorve o meio de contraste. Além disso, o uso do realce tardio com gadolínio pode quantificar a fibrose atrial, que está independentemente associada a presença de trombos no AAE e CE, podendo ser um método de estratificação de risco adicional.</p>
				<p>No entanto, a RMC foi avaliada em um número limitado de estudos, e sua sensibilidade e sua especificidade para identificar trombo no AAE são semelhantes às da TC, com alta concordância com ETE. Assim, apesar das evidentes vantagens da RMC, ainda existem limitações ao seu uso generalizado na prática clínica, não sendo a modalidade de imagem recomendada para avaliação de trombos em AE ou AAE.</p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusão</title>
			<p>O apêndice atrial esquerdo é uma estrutura complexa, com anatomia variável, constituindo o local mais comum de formação de trombos no contexto da fibrilação atrial não valvar. A função do apêndice atrial esquerdo exerce um papel importante na estase do fluxo sanguíneo e risco de formação de trombos, com subsequentes eventos tromboembólicos. O ecocardiograma transesofágico é a modalidade de imagem de escolha na avaliação do apêndice atrial esquerdo, com elevada acurácia para detectar trombos. As terapias transcateter atuais e emergentes, especialmente a implantação de dispositivos de oclusão e exclusão do apêndice atrial esquerdo, destacaram ainda mais a importância de compreender a anatomia e a função do apêndice atrial esquerdo na prática clínica.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
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	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Editorial</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Left Atrial Appendage: Anatomy, Function, and Importance in Thrombus Formation</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Silva</surname>
						<given-names>Taylla Mendes</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Oliveira</surname>
						<given-names>Gustavo Brandão de</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Barros</surname>
						<given-names>Thais Lins de Souza</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Andrade</surname>
						<given-names>André Barbosa de</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Furlan</surname>
						<given-names>Bruno Bom</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Nunes</surname>
						<given-names>Maria do Carmo de Pereira</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1001">
				<label>1</label>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital das Clínicas, School of Medicine, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil.</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2001">
				<label>2</label>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Graduate Program in Sciences Applied to Adult Health, School of Medicine, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil.</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3001">
				<label>3</label>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Medical Student, School of Medicine, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil.</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01001"> Mailing Address: Maria do Carmo do Pereira Nunes • Avenida Professor Alfredo Balena, 190, Santa Efigênia. CEP: 0130 100 – Belo Horizonte, MG, Brasil. E-mail: mcarmo@waymail.com.br </corresp>
				<fn fn-type="con">
					<p>Authors’ contributions</p>
					<p>Research conception and design: Silva TM e Oliveira GB; data collection: Silva TM, Andrade BA; Furlan BB e Barros TLS; data analysis and interpretation: Oliveira GB e Nunes MCP; manuscript writing: Silva TM, Andrade BA; Furlan BB e Barros TLS; critical review of the manuscript for important content: Nunes MCP.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p>Conflict of interest</p>
					<p>The authors have declared that they have no conflict of interest.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introduction</title>
				<p>The left atrial appendage (LAA) is an extension of the left atrium (LA) and has complex anatomical structure and unique pathophysiological properties. The LAA functions as a decompression chamber during left ventricular (LV) systole and under increased left atrial pressure conditions. Despite previously being considered a relatively insignificant portion of the cardiac anatomy, the LAA has been highlighted as an important structure involved in the genesis of thrombus formation and thromboembolic events. With the recent development of percutaneous closure devices, LAA morphology assessments have become increasingly important. This article aims to describe LAA anatomy and morphology, function assessment parameters, thrombus diagnostic challenges, and the main imaging modalities, particularly transesophageal echocardiography.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>LAA anatomy</title>
				<p>The LAA is a long, thin tubular structure with a narrow base that originates from the LA body (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Figure 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Macroscopically, the LAA is visualized at the left border of the heart between the LV and the pulmonary veins.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> It commonly extends between the anterior and lateral LA walls. Its tip can be variously positioned, most commonly being in the anterosuperior direction and overlapping the left border of the right ventricular outflow tract or the pulmonary trunk and the main branch of the left coronary artery and the circumflex artery, but it can also be in the lateral or posterior direction, reaching the transverse sinus of the pericardium in some patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Anatomically, the superior portion of the LAA is closely related to the pulmonary artery, while its inferior portion is close to the free LV wall.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f01001">
						<label>Figure 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Macroscopical view of the LAA. Images made from explanted hearts showing the external and internal aspect of the LAA. (A) External view of a one-lobe appendage. (B) Internal view of a one-lobe appendage. (C) External view of a multilobed appendage. (A) Internal view of a multilobed appendage.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-35-02-eabc301-gf01-en.tif"/>
						<attrib>Images acquired in collaboration with anatomopathologist Geraldo Brasileiro Filho.</attrib>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>The LAA ostium (LAAO) is separated from the left pulmonary vein orifices by the left lateral crest.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> On the other side, the smooth LA wall separates the LAAO from the mitral annulus.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> A narrowing that marks the orifice of the appendix is visualized in the transition between the smooth LA endocardium and the wrinkled LAA surface. Morphologically, the LAAO can be elliptical (68.9%), while its long axis is usually oriented obliquely to the mitral annulus in a foot-like (10%), triangular (7.7%), or round (5.7%) shape.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The LAA passes through a narrowed region before its body opens up.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> In this region, one to four lobes can be observed, and a multilobulated LAA (with two or more lobes) was seen in 80% of patients in a relevant study by Veinot JP et al. of 500 postmortem hearts.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> That study reported the frequency of one, two, three, and four lobes as 20%, 54%, 23%, and 3%, respectively, not corroborating a more recent postmortem study in which two lobes were observed in 64.3% and three lobes in 35.7% of specimens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> The quantification of the number of lobes is important because a greater number of lobes is associated with the presence of thrombus regardless of clinical risk and blood stasis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The LAA presents great anatomical diversity. Wang et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> established the classification used to categorize four morphological types, with the “chicken-wing” shape being the most common (48%), followed by the “cactus” (30%), “windsock” (19%), and “cauliflower” (3%) shapes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> These categories are related to the risk of clot formation, with the cauliflower shape being apparently more associated with embolic events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> This morphology is also associated with lower blood flow velocity,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> a greater predisposition to blood stasis, while the chicken-wing shape is associated with a lower risk.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> A Czech study by Stefan et al. related the cauliflower and chicken-wing shapes with a higher risk of silent cerebral ischemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> However, this classification is limited by its subjective and observer-dependent nature as well as the possibility of overlapping morphologies according to viewing angle.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Other factors also influence the risk of thromboembolic events,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> including a smaller orifice diameter, higher number of trabeculations,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> and higher number of lobes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Another study<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> highlighted that number and size of lobes and their orifices may be more important factors in risk of thromboembolic events than LAA shape.</p>
				<p>Unlike the LA, whose wall is smooth, the internal LAA surface is trabecular, presenting muscle bundles<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> called pectineal muscles that form complex indentations (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Figure 1</xref>). These muscle bundles resemble feather- or fan-shaped palm leaves.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Larger muscle groups can be confused with thrombi or intra-atrial masses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> The LAA also presents great size variability by sex (greater in men), age (growing about 0.20 cm<sup>3</sup> per decade),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> and the presence of atrial fibrillation. LAA dimensions are significantly more voluminous and have larger orifices in patients with atrial fibrillation than in those with sinus rhythm.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>LAA function</title>
				<p>The LAA has both mechanical and endocrine functions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Its compliance is greater than that of the rest of the atrium; therefore, it can modulate the pressure in the chamber and compensate for volume overloads and pressure increases. In addition, the appendix has the highest concentration of atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) granules in the LA (about 30%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Cardiomyocyte distention stimulates ANP secretion; therefore, as it is more compliant and concentrates the largest amount of ANP, the LAA is more sensitive to volume and pressure changes and has greater control of decreased blood pressures and increased heart rate, diuresis, and natriuresis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The LAA performs active contraction,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> and its flow velocity can be quantified by pulsed Doppler. In most patients undergoing transesophageal echocardiography (TEE), this is a four-phase flow (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 2</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> The first wave corresponds to the outflow caused by appendage contraction at the end of ventricular diastole. The second wave represents the antegrade LAA filling flow during atrial diastole. The third wave has positive and negative components that reflect the mechanical waves at ventricular end systole (in this phase, numerous patterns of low-amplitude positive and negative waves are described).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> And finally, outflow from the LAA occurs during the rapid ventricular filling phase. The decreased flow velocity in the LAA relates to the presence of spontaneous contrast (SC), sludge, and thrombus.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f02001">
						<label>Figure 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Comparison between the flow pattern in the LAA in sinus rhythm, the cardiac cycle, and the electrocardiogram (ECG).</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-35-02-eabc301-gf02-en.tif"/>
						<attrib>Adapted from Delgado et al.<sup>26</sup> LA: left atrium; LV: left ventricle.</attrib>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>LAA function can be assessed by several parameters. LAA filling and emptying velocities by pulsed Doppler express the LAA contractile function. In addition, LAA area, volume, and ejection fraction measurements by different methods reflect LAA function.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Blood stasis and thrombus formation</title>
				<p>LAA contractility changes can lead to thrombus formation and subsequent thromboembolic events<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> regardless of the presence of atrial fibrillation (AF). AF generally presents with decreased LAA contractility, decreased blood flow velocities, and LAA dilation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> The AF-related remodeling process makes the LAA function a static pocket, resulting in stagnation and thrombosis.</p>
				<p>Approximately 75% of patients with cardioembolic episodes are estimated to have emboli arising from the LAA. LAA thrombi are present in up to 14% of patients with acute AF (&lt;3 days).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Thrombus formation can develop even in AF patients receiving therapeutic anticoagulation therapy. A previous study showed that 1.6% of patients treated with anticoagulants for 1 month had echocardiographic evidence of a thrombus in the LAA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Limited data suggest that LV failure and increased LV end-diastolic pressure may also be risk factors for LAA thrombus in the absence of AF. Vigna et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> identified LAA thrombi in eight of 58 patients with dilated cardiomyopathy and sinus rhythm. Consequently, the risk of thrombus formation in the LAA appears to be related to LAA dysfunction resulting from increased filling pressures regardless of cause.</p>
				<p>The complex interaction of atrial endothelium, blood constituents, and blood stasis (i.e., the components of Virchow’s triad) results in the formation of activated platelet aggregates and leukocytes<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> or fibrinogen-mediated erythrocyte aggregates<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> that present as spontaneous dense echocardiographic contrast or “smoke.” These aggregates can progress to sludge and, eventually, thrombus.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Imaging methods for assessing the LAA</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Transesophageal echocardiography</title>
					<p>TEE is the method of choice for studying LAA anatomy and function. Its sensitivity and specificity for detecting LAA thrombi compared to those observed intraoperatively are 92% and 98%, respectively,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> with negative and positive predictive values of 100% and 86%, respectively<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup>. The absence of a thrombus confirms that it is safe to proceed with cardioversion, with a low rate of thromboembolic events (0–0.8%) in adequately anticoagulated patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A complete LAA assessment should include LA, LV, and mitral valve imaging associated with a detailed assessment of LAA morphology, contraction, and flow velocities using two- and three-dimensional (3D) echocardiography.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> LAA assessments can be started using a four-chamber section; however, as it is a lateral structure, the probe must be rotated counterclockwise and flexed to bring it to the center of the screen. Also, using a two-chamber section, the LAA can be zoomed or screen depth can be reduced to increase assessment accuracy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> Two-dimensional TEE provides excellent LA and LAA characterization due to the anatomical proximity of these structures to the esophagus. Despite the LAA being a narrow tubular structure with a complex anatomy, thrombi within it can be identified with satisfactory accuracy by TEE. However, assessment sensitivity decreases in cases of small thrombi or those located within a lateral lobe.</p>
					<p>Functional Doppler assessment is routinely used to improve LAA analyses (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figure 3</xref>). The pulsed Doppler should be placed at 1–2 cm from the LAAO. LAA flow velocity measured by pulsed Doppler is an indicator of risk of thrombus formation (risk increases as velocity decreases).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Velocities &lt; 40 cm/s are associated with an increased risk of stroke and the presence of SC,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> with decreasing velocities of &lt;20 cm/s being associated with thrombi in the LAA and a higher incidence of thromboembolic events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> Velocities &lt; 40 cm/s require meticulous LAA assessments before cardioversion or interventions involving the LA and LAA.</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f03001">
							<label>Figure 3</label>
							<caption>
								<title>TEE demonstrating in (A) the normal velocity (50 cm/s) flow in the LAA of a patient in sinus rhythm, with an LA of normal dimensions and without the presence of SC. In (B), the reduced velocity (14 cm/s) flow in the LAA of a patient in the postoperative period of mitral valve replacement (mechanical prosthesis), in sinus rhythm, with dilated LA and presence of SC in the LAA.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-35-02-eabc301-gf03-en.tif"/>
							<attrib>AAE: apêndice atrial esquerdo.</attrib>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>LA thrombus is defined as an echogenic mass in the LAA or LA distinct from the LA endocardium or pectineal muscles (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04001">Figure 4</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> Several differential diagnoses and thrombi misinterpretations should be considered, including acoustic shadowing of the ligament of Marshall, pectineal muscles, or non-differentiation of sludge and dense spontaneous echogenic contrast.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f04001">
							<label>Figure 4</label>
							<caption>
								<title>TEE showing the LAA filled in by color Doppler in image A. Images B and C show the presence of SC (B) and sludge (C) inside the LAA, respectively. In image D, the arrow indicates a thrombus in the LAA and the presence of SC in the LA.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-35-02-eabc301-gf04-en.tif"/>
							<attrib>LV: left ventricle. LA: left atrium.</attrib>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>In cases in which the LAA images are suboptimal, ultrasound contrast agents help improve LAA visualization. The use of contrast eliminates many artifacts and usually demonstrates complete LAA opacification or filling defects.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
					<p>LAA echocardiographic imaging is operator-dependent and, therefore, has a learning curve. Interobserver variability is an important limitation of this investigation since interobserver disagreement rates can reach 22% in the diagnosis of thrombus.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Challenges in diagnosing LAA thrombus</title>
					<p>Echocardiographic evaluation of the LAA requires careful analysis by the echocardiographer. In some situations, LAA imaging misinterpretations can lead to hasty decisions. Exuberant pectineal musculature or appendage lobes can be interpreted as thrombi, thereby resulting in the use of unnecessary anticoagulant therapy (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05001">Figure 5</xref>). Thrombus misdiagnosis also leads to suspended percutaneous procedures, such as LAA, patent foramen ovale, and atrial septal defect occlusion, MitraClip implantation, AF ablation, and mitral valvuloplasty with a balloon catheter. Such procedures involve manipulation of catheters inside the atria and, consequently, increase the risk of embolization.</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f05001">
							<label>Figure 5</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Mid-esophageal slice TEE at 50º showing a mass within the LAA that can be easily interpreted as a thrombus (arrow) (A). Image of the same patient at 105º, clarifying that the mass is probably the three LAA lobes (B). Image C shows a reverberation artifact (arrow) produced by the coumadin ridge and visualized inside the LAA.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-35-02-eabc301-gf05-en.tif"/>
							<attrib>LV: left ventricle; LA: left atrium; LAA: left atrial appendage.</attrib>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>Ruling out LAA thrombi using TEE may enable early and safe cardioversion without the need for prolonged previous anticoagulation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup>Thrombi within the LAA must be differentiated from the pectineal muscles, reverberation artifact originating from the coumadin ridge, septa between multiple lobes,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> SC, and sludge.</p>
					<p>Thrombi are often located at the distal end of the LAA, almost always confined to its lumen and adherent to its walls. They have independent movement and echogenicity patterns as well as uniform consistency and textures that differ from those of the LAA wall. Their morphology varies, but they are generally rounded (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04001">Figure 4</xref>). They are often associated with the presence of SC within the LA.</p>
					<p>Reverberation artifacts are also found within the LAA, being located at a position twice the distance from the transducer to the coumadin ridge. Its mobility totally depends on the coumadin crest movement. Its morphology is compatible with that of the object or structure that causes the artifact and is not related to the presence of SC in the LA. Reducing gain and using other imaging planes are strategies that the echocardiographer can use to avoid artifact formation. On the other hand, the stepped appearance and the position at a doubled distance reinforce the presence of a reverberation artifact inside the LAA. The echocardiographer should be aware of the presence of a prominent coumadin ridge, which can also be misdiagnosed as a thrombus.</p>
					<p>The pectineal muscles, in turn, are confined to the body of the LAA. Their mobility follows LAA movement, and they have identical echogenicity to that of the LAA wall. They are not related to the presence of SC.</p>
					<p>SC, also known as smoke, is a swirling mist of varying density that reflects the low blood flow velocity (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04001">Figure 4</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> It can be classified into four groups (1 to 4) by intensity, location, and presence of a vortex (movement) as proposed by Fatkin et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Table 1</xref>). However, SC quantification in clinical practice is difficult and depends on image quality, gain settings, and operator experience.</p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t1001">
							<label>Table 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Classification of spontaneous contrast as proposed by Fatkin et al.</title>
							</caption>
							<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
								<colgroup>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
								</colgroup>
								<thead>
									<tr>
										<th>Grade</th>
										<th>SEC</th>
										<th>Description</th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td align="center">0</td>
										<td>None</td>
										<td>Absence of echogenicity</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="center">1+</td>
										<td>Mild</td>
										<td>Minimal echogenicity located in the LAA or sparsely distributed in the LA main cavity that may be only transiently detectable during the cardiac cycle</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="center">2+</td>
										<td>Mild to moderate</td>
										<td>Swirling pattern denser than 1+ but similarly distributed, detectable without increased gain settings</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="center">3+</td>
										<td>Moderate</td>
										<td>Moderate and dense swirl in the LAA usually associated with lower intensity in the main cavity; may fluctuate in intensity but is constantly detectable throughout the cardiac cycle</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="center">4+</td>
										<td>Intense</td>
										<td>Intense echogenicity and very slow swirl patterns in the LAA, often with similar density in the main cavity</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Sludge</td>
										<td>Intense</td>
										<td>Prethrombotic state can be defined as gelatinous echogenicity without a well-defined mass; present throughout the cardiac cycle</td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
							<table-wrap-foot>
								<fn id="TFN1001">
									<p><italic>SEC, spontaneous echogenic contrast.</italic></p>
								</fn>
							</table-wrap-foot>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
					<p>SC is reportedly noted in up to 60% of patients with AF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> Aspirin and warfarin therapy does not appear to affect the presence of SC in the LA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> Although patients with dense SC visualized in the LAA have a stroke rate of 18.2% per year if not treated with warfarin and a risk of stroke of 4.5% per year despite dose-adjusted warfarin, the presence of an LAA thrombus triples the overall rate of stroke.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Sludge, a dynamic fluid of gelatinous echogenicity with no well-defined mass, is present throughout the cardiac cycle.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> It is often difficult to differentiate between sludge and thrombus. Sludge represents a stage after SC prior to thrombus formation that may have prognostic significance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Other imaging methods for assessing LAA</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Transthoracic echocardiography</title>
					<p>Transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) has a limited capacity to identify or exclude thrombi in the LA and LAA, with a reported sensitivity of 40–60%, mainly due to poor visualization of the LAA, where most atrial thrombi are located (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06001">Figure 6</xref>). In this sense, the use of harmonic images and the administration of ultrasound contrast agents can increase its ability to detect intracavitary thrombi.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f06001">
							<label>Figure 6</label>
							<caption>
								<title>TTE showing the LAA in apical four-chamber (A) and two-chamber view (B).</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-35-02-eabc301-gf06-en.tif"/>
							<attrib>LV: left ventricle; RV: right ventricle; LA: left atrium; RA: right atrium; LAA: left atrial appendage.</attrib>
						</fig>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Contrast echocardiography</title>
					<p>Since the late 1990s, ultrasound contrast agents have been administered to improve the visualization of endocardial borders, including an improved LAA assessment. Recent studies of LA and LAA enhanced interrogation techniques reported statistically significant improvements in dimensional measurements and emptying characteristics. In cases of suboptimal LAA images, contrast agents help improve LAA visualization, eliminate artifacts, and reveal body filling defects.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Contrast agents improve the delineation of cardiac chamber endocardial borders, but their use has not been implemented in clinical routine to detect or exclude thrombi. Several reasons explain this circumstance, such as the use of predictive markers of thrombus formation such as pulsed Doppler of LAA blood flow and SC assessments; the low prevalence of thrombus in the LAA (5–13% in patients with AF but without therapeutic anticoagulation); and the even lower risk of an embolic event. In addition, the use of ultrasound contrast increases the time required to perform the test as well as its cost.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup></p>
					<p>The ability of the contrast agent to completely opacify the LAA even in the presence of artifacts during native imaging minimizes the false identification of thrombi and allows the delineation of atrial thrombi, reducing the amount of inconclusive TEE and improving the echocardiographer’s degree of interpretive confidence. However, in cases in which non-contrast images are diagnostic and in the absence of SC evidence, the use of contrast fails to improve diagnostic confidence.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Three-dimensional echocardiography</title>
					<p>The development of 3D TEE improves the ability to assess the LAA, allowing a selective perspective of its anatomy and better discrimination between artifacts, masses, and thrombi (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f07001">Figure 7</xref>). The 3D method allows a more comprehensive assessment of multiple LAA lobes, which can be located in different planes, as well as a more accurate estimate of its geometry, size, and function with better distinction between pectineal muscles and thrombi.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f07001">
							<label>Figure 7</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Three-dimensional TEE showing the LAA in several projections and allowing contractile function assessment.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-35-02-eabc301-gf07-en.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>Data remain limited regarding the sensitivity and specificity of 3D TEE for thrombus detection in the LAA. However, with recent advances in percutaneous device therapy for LAA closure, 3D TEE has become important for planning and guiding interventions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Intracardiac echocardiography</title>
					<p>Intracardiac echocardiography (ICE) is an alternative imaging method when TEE is unavailable or inconclusive. ICE can provide multiple views and detailed LAA images to enable the reliable diagnosis of the presence of thrombus.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Although it is less sensitive than TEE for thrombus detection, it can be a complementary method, especially when TEE findings require further assessment. However, as an invasive procedure, its use in daily practice is limited, being primarily reserved for the cardiac catheterization laboratory during planned interventional procedures.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Computed tomography</title>
					<p>Computed tomography (CT) can identify LAA thrombi with good sensitivity and moderate specificity. Recent studies have concluded that LA and LAA thrombus analysis with isolated multislice CT is probably sufficient and non-inferior to TEE in patients with paroxysmal AF and normal systolic function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> However, CT is not currently recommended for identifying thrombi in the LA and LAA (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f08001">Figure 8</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f08001">
							<label>Figure 8</label>
							<caption>
								<title>CT angiography image showing a thrombus in the LAA and LA.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-35-02-eabc301-gf08-en.tif"/>
							<attrib>Images provided by cardiologist Victor Pimentel de Matos.</attrib>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>CT generates 3D volumetric data of the heart, which can be reconstructed across different cardiac planes and phases to provide an accurate assessment of LAA anatomy with high spatial and temporal resolution and quantitative assessment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> However, CT is not highly specific for the presence of a thrombus and, therefore, the high rate of false-positive results, together with the use of radiation and iodine-based contrast media, are the main limitations for its widespread use.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging</title>
					<p>Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMRI) is the main imaging method for evaluating cardiac masses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Several imaging techniques provide relevant information about the histological components and vascularization of the masses that, together with clinical data, can help distinguish between benign and malignant neoplastic masses, non-neoplastic masses (thrombi and cysts), or other structures.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Intracavitary thrombus is the most common non-neoplastic mass, and its appearance on CMRI depends on the time of their formation. In more acute cases, in which the thrombus has a large amount of oxyhemoglobin, the thrombi tend to appear with increased signaling on T1- and T2-weighted sequences. Subacute cases present hypersignaling on T1 and low signal intensity on T2 due to the paramagnetic effects of methemoglobin. In chronic cases, the thrombus is water-depleted and cellular debris is replaced by fibrous tissue, thus leading to low signaling on T1 and T2.</p>
					<p>The paramagnetic contrast agent has an important role in aiding tissue differentiation between thrombi and tumors. First-pass perfusion imaging allows a clear distinction between the thrombus and the adjacent myocardium since the thrombus is an avascular structure and classically does not absorb the contrast medium. In addition, late gadolinium enhancement can quantify atrial fibrosis, which is independently associated with the presence of thrombus in the LAA and SC and may be an additional risk stratification method.</p>
					<p>However, CMRI has been evaluated in a limited number of studies, and its sensitivity and specificity for identifying LAA thrombus are similar to those of CT with high agreement with those of TEE. Thus, despite the evident advantages of CMRI, limitations remain to its widespread use in clinical practice, and it is not the recommended imaging modality for assessing thrombi in the LA or LAA.</p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Conclusions</title>
				<p>The LAA, a complex structure with variable anatomy, constitutes the most common site of thrombus formation in the context of non-valvular AF. LAA function plays an important role in blood flow stasis and the risk of thrombus formation with subsequent thromboembolic events. TEE is the imaging modality of choice in LAA assessments, with high accuracy for detecting thrombi. Current and emerging transcatheter therapies, especially the implantation of LAA occlusion and exclusion devices, have further highlighted the importance of understanding LAA anatomy and function in clinical practice.</p>
			</sec>
		</body>
	</sub-article>
</article>