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<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.1 20151215//EN" "https://jats.nlm.nih.gov/publishing/1.1/JATS-journalpublishing1.dtd">
<article article-type="review-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" xml:lang="en" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">
	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abcimg</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq Bras Cardiol: Imagem cardiovasc</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20250004i</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Review Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Pericardial Agenesis: When Should This Diagnosis Be Considered?</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0009-8671-8980</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Almeida</surname>
						<given-names>Bruna Barbosa Chagas de</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research and acquisition of data</role>
					<role>writing of the manuscript and critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3945-8858</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Jácome</surname>
						<given-names>Bruna Zanforlin</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research and acquisition of data</role>
					<role>writing of the manuscript and critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0008-7868-1623</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Lourenço</surname>
						<given-names>Bernardo Nascimento</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research and acquisition of data</role>
					<role>writing of the manuscript and critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0007-5845-7598</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Seixas</surname>
						<given-names>Alessandro Zakhia de</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>writing of the manuscript and critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7455-4351</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Silveira</surname>
						<given-names>Juliana Serafim da</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>writing of the manuscript and critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0477-480X</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Gripp</surname>
						<given-names>Eliza de Almeida</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research and acquisition of data</role>
					<role>analysis and interpretation of the data and statistical analysis</role>
					<role>writing of the manuscript and critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Niterói</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Pró-cardiaco</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil </country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Pró-cardiaco, Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brazil </institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01">
					<label>Mailing Address:</label> Eliza de Almeida Gripp • Hospital Pró-Cardíaco. Rua General Polidoro, 192. Postal code: 22280-020. Botafogo, Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brazil E-mail: <email>elizagripp@yahoo.com.br</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by">
					<label>Editor responsible for the review:</label>
					<p>Marcelo Tavares</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<label>Potential Conflict of Interest:</label>
					<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>27</day>
				<month>03</month>
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<month>03</month>
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>38</volume>
			<issue>1</issue>
			<elocation-id>e20250004</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>29</day>
					<month>01</month>
					<year>2025</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>30</day>
					<month>01</month>
					<year>2025</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>3</day>
					<month>02</month>
					<year>2025</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">
					<license-p>Este é um artigo de acesso aberto distribuído sob os termos da licença de atribuição pelo Creative Commons</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>Abstract</title>
				<p>Pericardial agenesis (PA) is a rare condition characterized by the partial or complete absence of the pericardium. The consequences associated with this condition can be quite serious. Therefore, understanding the peculiarities of this disease is essential for accurate diagnosis and treatment.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<kwd>Pericardium</kwd>
				<kwd>Pericarditis</kwd>
				<kwd>X-Ray Computed Tomography</kwd>
				<kwd>Magnetic Resonance Imaging</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="14"/>
				<table-count count="4"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="30"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<p>
					<fig id="f01">
						<label>Central Illustration</label>
						<caption>
							<title>: Pericardial Agenesis: When Should This Diagnosis Be Considered?</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-1-e20250004-gf01.tif"/>
						<attrib>The importance of multimodality in the diagnosis of PA. Ao: aorta; PA: pericardial agenesis; LV: left ventricle; RV: right ventricle; LA: left atrium.</attrib>
					</fig>
				</p>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introduction</title>
			<p>PA prevalence is estimated at approximately 0.002% to 0.004% in the general population, often diagnosed incidentally.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Studies indicate that this condition occurs more frequently in males, with a 3:1 ratio between males and females, and may be associated with other congenital anomalies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Although there is no specific gene directly responsible for the PA, this disease is associated with several genetic anomalies and structural congenital malformations,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> which suggests a possible genetic predisposition.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
			<p>The consequences associated with this diagnosis can be serious and include ventricular herniation (which occurs in partial agenesis) and sudden death. To know the peculiarities of such disease is crucial, as the symptoms are nonspecific. Imaging tests such as chest X-ray, Doppler echocardiogram, computed tomography (CT), and cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMRI) play a key role in confirming the diagnosis (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Central Illustration</xref>).</p>
			<sec>
				<title>Embryogenesis</title>
				<p>The pericardium is formed by the visceral and the parietal layers. It acts as a barrier against infections, maintaining the heart in a stable position and limiting cardiac volume.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> It is innervated by the phrenic nerve, whose nociceptors are involved in pericardial pain transmission reflexes, and secretes prostaglandins and similar substances that modulate coronary tone and neural traffic.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In the first week of fetal development, cavities are formed, which permeate the mesodermal tissue, which will later unite to form three primitive cavities: pericardium, peritoneum, and pleura.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
				<p>During the fourth week of gestation, a fragment of the mesoderm (transverse septum) separates the primitive pericardium from the peritoneum.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> This separation completes between the fourth and fifth weeks when the right and left pleuropericardial membranes fuse, driven by the growth of the Ducts of Cuvier (common cardinal veins).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> The pleuropericardial membrane later forms the fibrous pericardium. Failure in the closure of these membranes results in partial or total PA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
				<p>One of the theories to explain AP is that the developing heart would stretch the pericardium. If the pleuropericardial membranes do not fuse before the heart enlarges, a pericardial defect is generated.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Another theory proposes that a traction-induced tear may develop in the pleuropericardial membrane, resulting in pericardial defect.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> To illustrate this situation, Kaneko et al. describe a case of pericardial absence associated with the division of the phrenic nerve with its two bundles passing ventrally and dorsally to the defect.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A third hypothesis suggests that pericardial membrane development fails due to premature atrophy of the cardinal veins (duct of Cuvier), which supply the pleuropericardial folds.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> This theory explains the rarity of right-sided pericardial defects, as the right cardinal vein remains as the superior vena cava.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> A percentage of pericardial defects may be attributed to each of these mechanisms.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Classification</title>
				<p>PA is a rare anomaly that can be classified as total or partial based on the extent of pericardial absence. This condition results from failures in embryonic development, specifically during fusion of the pleuropericardial primordia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Its classification is based primarily on the extent of the pericardium absence, in addition to its clinical and anatomical implications (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> The main categories are:</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t1">
						<label>Table 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Prevalence, complications, and symptoms by category of PA.<bold>8, 10-15</bold></title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
									<th>Partial on the right or left</th>
									<th>Complete bilateral</th>
									<th>Complete on the right</th>
									<th>Complete on the left</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td>Prevalence</td>
									<td align="center">3–4%</td>
									<td align="center">9%</td>
									<td align="center">17%</td>
									<td align="center">70%</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Complications</td>
									<td align="center">Frequent</td>
									<td align="center">Rare</td>
									<td align="center">Rare</td>
									<td align="center">Rare</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Symptoms</td>
									<td align="center">Chest pain, dyspnea, arrhythmias</td>
									<td align="center">Asymptomatic in most cases</td>
									<td align="center">Asymptomatic or with mild symptoms</td>
									<td align="center">Generally asymptomatic</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Published cases</td>
									<td align="center">Balaji A et al.<sup>12</sup></td>
									<td align="center">Pedrotti P et al.<sup>13</sup></td>
									<td align="center">Minocha GK et al.<sup>14</sup></td>
									<td align="center">Kaneko Y et al.<sup>8</sup></td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p><bold>Total agenesis:</bold></p>
				<list list-type="bullet">
					<list-item>
						<p>Complete absence of the pericardium.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>The heart may have an abnormal position in the thorax (levoposition) and greater mobility.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>It is usually asymptomatic, but may be associated with a left side displacement of the heart and an increased risk of cardiac torsion.</p>
					</list-item>
				</list>
				<p><bold>Partial agenesis:</bold></p>
				<list list-type="bullet">
					<list-item>
						<p>Usually involves the absence of the left or right portion of the pericardium, with the first one being more common.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>It may cause herniation or strangulation of cardiac structures, leading to more serious complications.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>It is more associated with symptoms, such as chest pain or arrhythmias, due to compression or herniation of cardiac structures through the pericardial defect.</p>
					</list-item>
				</list>
				<p><bold>Circumscribed or localized defects:</bold></p>
				<list list-type="bullet">
					<list-item>
						<p>A subtype of partial agenesis affecting specific areas, such as the pericardium over the left atrium or the great vessels. Small defects in the pericardium, which may allow protrusion of structures such as the atrium or ventricle.</p>
					</list-item>
				</list>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Clinical Presentation</title>
				<p>The clinical presentation of PA is often heterogeneous, ranging from nonspecific symptoms to fatal complications. Although it is commonly asymptomatic, precordial pain may occur and is the most common symptom, followed by palpitations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Other symptoms attributed to PA, such as dyspnea, trepopnea (dyspnea related to the side on which one lies, which is a characteristic feature of partial defects), arrhythmias (sick sinus syndrome and syncope are probably due to increased vagal tone or intermittent atrial herniation, which resolves with atropine or changing to lateral decubitus), and dizziness, are signs and symptoms normally attributed to increased cardiac mobility, anomalous heart positioning and herniation of cardiac tissue.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Moreover, increased cardiac mobility may produce a displaced and vigorous apical impulse, leading to the impression of cardiomegaly.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Patients with complete defects may present with precordial pain due to pleuropericardial adhesions, absence of the pericardial cushion, and torsion of the great vessels.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The most severe documented manifestation is sudden death, caused by strangulation of the heart through an incomplete pericardium, as observed in patients with partial defects.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Strangulation typically leads to regional myocardial ischemia, resulting in precordial pain and electrocardiographic changes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Cardiac displacement may cause severe tricuspid regurgitation due to the stretching of the anterior wall of the right ventricle (RV).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Although rare, PA should be considered in the differential diagnosis of patients with atypical cardiovascular symptoms that are unusual for their age, particularly when echocardiographic images are acquired from nonstandard locations. Early identification is essential to avoid more serious complications and direct appropriate clinical management. Differential diagnoses of PA include post-surgical or post-traumatic defects, the latter after blunt thoracic trauma, which may result in pericardial rupture, herniation, and torsion of the cardiac cavities.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Diagnosis: The role of multimodality</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Chest X-ray</title>
					<p>Chest X-ray may be altered in large pericardial defects, where the cardiac silhouette is displaced excessively to the left in the posteroanterior projection, and posteriorly in relation to the mediastinum. There is a loss of the right border of the heart, which overlaps the spine. Radiolucency and increased distance between the aorta and pulmonary artery, as well as between the lower heart border and diaphragm, occur due to lung tissue insinuation into these areas. The “Snoopy Sign” refers to leftward cardiac displacement, elongation of the left heart border with a rounded apex resembling Snoopy’s nose, and prominence and convexity of the left atrial appendage resembling Snoopy’s ear (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figure 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f02">
							<label>Figure 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– The “Snoopy sign” on chest radiography is composed of multiple abnormalities, namely: excessive levoposition with elongation of the LV edge, radiolucency separating the aorta and pulmonary artery (thick arrow), radiolucency separating the LV and diaphragm (thin arrows), and loss of the right edge of the heart (arrowheads).</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-1-e20250004-gf02.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Doppler echocardiogram</title>
					<p>The Doppler echocardiogram is a widely-available non-invasive, low-cost exam and the first-line choice in the diagnostic suspicion not only for AP, but also for the evaluation of pericardial diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
					<p>The first indication suggesting agenesis during examination relates to image acquisition in nonstandard positions due to abnormal cardiac positioning (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figures 2A and 2B</xref>). In the long parasternal plane, the apex deviates posteriorly, revealing a large segment of the RV, creating an impression of cavity enlargement<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> (Figures and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f08">Videos 1</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f09">2</xref>). The acquisition of the apical 4-chamber plane will occur beyond or in the posterior midclavicular line, different from the commonly located in the 5<sup>th</sup> intercostal space, in the mid-midclavicular line. (Figure and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Video 3</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11">4</xref>).</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f03">
							<label>Figure 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– A) This image illustrates the positioning of the transducer on the patient, where the apical 4-chamber plane would normally be located. B) In partial PA, note the significant displacement through the inserted line (blue), from the site to the new location of the apical 4-chamber plane.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-1-e20250004-gf03.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<media id="f08" mime-subtype="mp4" mimetype="video" xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-1-e20250004-m01.mp4">
						<label>Video 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Visualization of the completely distorted longitudinal parasternal plane, with the apex deviated posteriorly. Link: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2025/3801/2025-0004_video_1.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2025/3801/2025-0004_video_1.mp4</ext-link>
							</title>
						</caption>
					</media>
					<media id="f09" mime-subtype="mp4" mimetype="video" xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-1-e20250004-m02.mp4">
						<label>Video 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– The flow through the LV outflow tract confirms the position of the ascending aorta, LV and LA in a patient with partial PA. Link: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2025/3801/2025-0004_video_2.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2025/3801/2025-0004_video_2.mp4</ext-link>
							</title>
						</caption>
					</media>
					<media id="f10" mime-subtype="mp4" mimetype="video" xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-1-e20250004-m03.mp4">
						<label>Video 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Case of partial PA showing the impression of enlarged right cavities due to the deviation caused by partial left agenesis. Link: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2025/3801/2025-0004_video_3.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2025/3801/2025-0004_video_3.mp4</ext-link>
							</title>
						</caption>
					</media>
					<media id="f11" mime-subtype="mp4" mimetype="video" xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-1-e20250004-m04.mp4">
						<label>Video 4</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Case of partial PA showing the teardrop-like appearance of the heart. Link: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2025/3801/2025-0004_video_4.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2025/3801/2025-0004_video_4.mp4</ext-link>
							</title>
						</caption>
					</media>
					<p>
						<fig id="f04">
							<label>Figure 3</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– A) Visualization of the completely distorted longitudinal parasternal plane, with the apex deviated posteriorly (videos attached). B) The flow through the LV outflow tract confirms the position of the ascending aorta, LV and LA in a patient with partial PA. Ao: aorta; LV: left ventricle; RV: right ventricle; LA: left atrium.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-1-e20250004-gf04.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f05">
							<label>Figure 4</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– A) Case of partial PA showing the impression of enlarged right cavities due to the deviation caused by partial left agenesis (video attached). B) Case of partial PA showing the teardrop-like appearance of the heart (video attached). LV: left ventricle; RV: right ventricle; RA: right atrium; LA: left atrium.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-1-e20250004-gf05.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>In cases of left partial PA, 63% of patients present an apparent RV enlargement due to leftward cardiac displacement.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> This finding can lead to a misdiagnosis of interatrial communication or arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy. Additional findings relating to PA include exaggerated cardiac motion and paradoxical ventricular septum movement due to increased inferior wall motion. A teardrop-shaped heart results from atrial elongation, ventricular widening, and inferior wall bulging.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Right-sided agenesis may lead to RV and right atrium (RA) enlargement, along with severe tricuspid regurgitation due to chordal traction. Stress Doppler echocardiography may demonstrate a pendulum-like movement of the heart. Another significant spectral Doppler finding is reduced systolic flow and a lower systolic-diastolic ratio in the pulmonary vein as a result of the absence of negative intrapericardial pressure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
					<p>However, this method depends on the quality of the acoustic window, especially in obese patients or those with lung disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>CT</title>
					<p>CT imaging, with its high resolution and volumetric acquisition, provides excellent contrast between the pericardium’s dense thin line and the low-density epicardial and mediastinal fat, making it highly effective for pericardial delineation. However, some pericardial segments in the left silhouette of the heart may be poorly delimited, even when present.</p>
					<p>On CT, PA can be confirmed by the partial or complete absence of the thin dense line corresponding to the pericardium around the heart. There is excessive levoposition of the heart, which touches the rib cage. There may be an absence of hypodense fatty tissue between the myocardium and the costal arches. There is insinuated lung tissue between the aorta and the pulmonary arterial trunk, a site commonly covered by pericardium and containing fatty tissue that obliterates this space. Occasionally, there is bulging of the left atrial appendage through the defect (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06">Figure 5</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f06">
							<label>Figure 5</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– A) The non-contrast CT in the axial plane demonstrates the normal anatomy of the pericardium (thin arrows) outlining the fatty tissue (✽) between the aorta and the pulmonary trunk. (B-F) Non-contrast CT images in two patients with partial left pericardial agenesis, respectively, ♂, 41 years (B/C), and ♀, 58 years (D-F). The absence of pericardial covering is observed over almost the entire extent, visible only along the right atrial border (arrowheads in B, D, and E). There is excessive leftward positioning of the heart and posterior deviation of the apex touching the chest wall (thin arrows in B and E). D) Projection of the right atrial appendage (❖). (C/F) Lung interposition between the aorta and the pulmonary trunk (thick arrows). AP: pericardial agenesis<italic>.</italic></title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-1-e20250004-gf06.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>CMRI</title>
					<p>CMRI is currently the gold standard for pericardial assessment thanks to its superior spatial resolution and inherent tissue characterization. T1- and T2-weighted “black blood” morphological acquisitions and cine steady-state-free-precession (SSFP) functional acquisitions are useful for delimiting the hypointense linear image corresponding to the pericardium, between the mediastinal and epicardial fat with hyperintense signal. However, similar to CT, some segments of the pericardium adjacent to the left ventricle (LV) may be difficult to individualize by the method. The absence of pericardial visualization, combined with excessive leftward cardiac displacement, hypermobility (particularly of the posterior LV wall), and lung interposition between the aorta and pulmonary trunk, are CMRI diagnostic criteria for PA (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f07">Figure 6</xref>). The presence of focal indentations in the ventricular walls suggests the presence of partial PA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f07">
							<label>Figure 6</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Black-blood T2-weighted CMR images in the axial plane (A,B) and cine SSFP (C) in a patient with left partial PA. A) Interposition of lung tissue between the aorta and pulmonary artery (thick arrow). (B,C) The pericardium is partially visible as a thin hypointense line along the right atrial border (arrowheads in B and C). It is observed excessive levoposition of the heart and posterior deviation of the apex, touching the rib cage (thin arrows in B and C). PA: pericardial agenesis; LV: left ventricle; RV: right ventricle; RA: right atrium; LA: left atrium: Ao: Aorta.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-1-e20250004-gf07.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Treatment</title>
			<p>Watchful waiting is the preferred approach for most patients with PA, as the majority remain asymptomatic.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Surgical treatment relies on small, uncontrolled observational studies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Surgical intervention (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref>) is recommended for symptomatic patients with high-risk complicated partial defects or refractory symptoms, such as pain caused by abnormal cardiac motion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Left partial defects presenting with compression, herniation, or strangulation of major vessels or coronary arteries also warrant surgical consideration.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t2">
					<label>Table 2</label>
					<caption>
						<title>– Relationship between surgical intervention, possible indications and complications.<bold>7,15</bold></title>
					</caption>
					<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
						<colgroup>
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
						</colgroup>
						<thead>
							<tr>
								<th align="left">Surgical interventions</th>
								<th>Possible indications</th>
								<th>Potential complications</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody>
							<tr>
								<td>Pericardioplasty</td>
								<td align="center">Major congenital defects</td>
								<td align="center">Failure to correct the defect</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Pericardiectomy with pericardioplasty</td>
								<td align="center">Risk of strangulation</td>
								<td align="center">Formation of pericardial adhesions</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Left atrial appendage resection/ligation</td>
								<td align="center">Left atrial appendage herniation</td>
								<td align="center">Damage to adjacent structures</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Right atrial appendage correction</td>
								<td align="center">Right atrial appendage herniation</td>
								<td align="center">Right atrial appendage rupture</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Video-assisted thoracic surgery (VATS)</td>
								<td align="center">Pneumopericardium/pneumothorax</td>
								<td align="center">Perforation of thoracic structures</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
			<p>Recently, the detection of high-risk anatomic features by multimodal cardiovascular imaging, including (1) LV myocardial fold or hinge point on echocardiography, CMR, or CT; (2) coronary compression on CT; (3) inducible ischemia on stress perfusion imaging – Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT), Positron Emission Tomography (PET) or CMR – and (4) evidence of left atrial appendage herniation have been proposed for risk stratification.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Detection of these red flags can be used to tailor surgical planning.</p>
			<p>Specific surgical options for pericardial defects vary, with pericardioplasty being the most common procedure. As an alternative to pericardial reconstruction, pericardiectomy with pericardioplasty, to enlarge the defect and prevent strangulation, has also been described.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
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					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Brulotte</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Roy</surname>
							<given-names>L</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Larose</surname>
							<given-names>E</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Congenital Absence of the Pericardium Presenting as Acute Myocardial Necrosis</article-title>
					<source>Can J Cardiol</source>
					<year>2007</year>
					<volume>23</volume>
					<issue>11</issue>
					<fpage>909</fpage>
					<lpage>912</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/s0828-282x(07)70851-6</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
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							<surname>Marzullo</surname>
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						</name>
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							<surname>Capestro</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
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							<surname>Cosimo</surname>
							<given-names>R</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Fogante</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Aprile</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Balardi</surname>
							<given-names>L</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Congenital Absence of Pericardium: The Swinging Heart</article-title>
					<source>J Imaging</source>
					<year>2024</year>
					<volume>10</volume>
					<issue>8</issue>
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				</element-citation>
			</ref>
		</ref-list>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<label>Study Association:</label>
				<p> This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<label>Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate:</label>
				<p> This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
				<label>Sources of Funding:</label>
				<p> There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRpt" xml:lang="pt">
		<front-stub>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20250004</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Agenesia de Pericárdio: Quando Pensar Neste Diagnóstico?</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0009-8671-8980</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Almeida</surname>
						<given-names>Bruna Barbosa Chagas de</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa e obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>redação do manuscrito e revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3945-8858</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Jácome</surname>
						<given-names>Bruna Zanforlin</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa e obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>redação do manuscrito e revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0008-7868-1623</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Lourenço</surname>
						<given-names>Bernardo Nascimento</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa e obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>redação do manuscrito e revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0007-5845-7598</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Seixas</surname>
						<given-names>Alessandro Zakhia de</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>redação do manuscrito e revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2002"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7455-4351</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Silveira</surname>
						<given-names>Juliana Serafim da</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>redação do manuscrito e revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2002"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0477-480X</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Gripp</surname>
						<given-names>Eliza de Almeida</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa e obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>análise e interpretação dos dados e análise estatística</role>
					<role>redação do manuscrito e revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2002"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1002">
				<label>1</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil </country>
				<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ – Brasil </institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2002">
				<label>2</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Pró-cardiaco, Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01002">
					<label>Correspondência:</label> Eliza de Almeida Gripp • Hospital Pró-Cardíaco. Rua General Polidoro, 192. CEP: 22280-020. Botafogo, Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brasil E-mail: elizagripp@yahoo.com.br </corresp>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by">
					<label>Editor responsável pela revisão:</label>
					<p>Marcelo Tavares</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<label>Potencial Conflito de Interesse:</label>
					<p>Declaro não haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumo</title>
				<p>A agenesia do pericárdio (AP) é uma condição rara caracterizada pela ausência parcial ou completa do pericárdio. As consequências associadas a esse diagnóstico podem ser graves. Consequentemente, é fundamental conhecer as peculiaridades dessa doença para o seu correto diagnóstico e tratamento.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<kwd>Pericárdio</kwd>
				<kwd>Pericardite</kwd>
				<kwd>Tomografia Computadorizada por Raios X</kwd>
				<kwd>Imageamento por Ressonância Magnética</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<p>
					<fig id="f01002">
						<label>Figura Central</label>
						<caption>
							<title>: Agenesia de Pericárdio: Quando Pensar Neste Diagnóstico?</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-1-e20250004-gf01-pt.tif"/>
						<attrib>A importância da multimodalidade no diagnóstico da agenesia do pericárdico. Ao: aorta; AP: agenesia do pericárdio; VD: ventrículo direito; VE: ventrículo esquerdo; AE: átrio esquerdo.</attrib>
					</fig>
				</p>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introdução</title>
				<p>A prevalência da AP é estimada em aproximadamente 0,002% a 0,004% na população geral, com frequência diagnosticada incidentalmente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Estudos indicam que a condição ocorre mais frequentemente em indivíduos do sexo masculino, com uma razão de 3:1 entre indivíduos dos sexos masculino e feminino, e pode estar associada a outras anomalias congênitas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Embora não exista um gene específico diretamente responsável pela AP, a doença está associada a diversas anomalias genéticas e malformações congênitas estruturais,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>o que sugere uma possível predisposição genética.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
				<p>As consequências associadas a esse diagnóstico podem ser graves, incluindo herniação ventricular (ocorre na agenesia parcial) e morte súbita. Conhecer as peculiaridades dessa doença é fundamental, pois os sintomas são inespecíficos. Exames de imagem, como a radiografia de tórax, ecodopplercardiograma, tomografia computadorizada (TC) e a ressonância magnética cardíaca (RMC), serão importantes para a confirmação do diagnóstico (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01002">Figura Central</xref>).</p>
				<sec>
					<title>Embriogênese</title>
					<p>O pericárdio é formado por duas lâminas, a visceral e a parietal. Suas funções incluem atuar como barreira contra infecções, manter o coração em uma posição estável e limitar o volume cardíaco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup>O pericárdio é inervado pelo nervo frênico, cujos nociceptores estão envolvidos nos reflexos de transmissão da dor pericárdica, secreta prostaglandinas e substâncias semelhantes que modulam o tônus coronariano e o tráfego neural.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Na primeira semana de desenvolvimento fetal, são formadas cavidades que permeiam o tecido mesodermal, as quais, posteriormente, se unirão formando três cavidades primitivas: o pericárdio, o peritônio e a pleura.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Na 4<sup>a</sup> semana de gestação, um fragmento da mesoderma (septo transverso) separa o pericárdio primitivo do peritônio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> A separação é finalizada durante a 4<sup>a</sup> para a 5<sup>a</sup> semana, quando ocorre a fusão das membranas pleuropericárdicas direita e esquerda, oriundas do crescimento dos Ductos de Cuvier (veias cardinais comuns).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Posteriormente, a membrana pleuropericárdica origina o pericárdio fibroso e a falha no processo de fechamento das membranas pleuropericárdicas resultará na agenesia parcial ou total do pericárdio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Uma das teorias que buscam explicar a gênese da AP afirma que o coração em desenvolvimento distenderia o pericárdio. Se as membranas pleuropericárdicas não se fundem antes de o coração aumentar, o defeito pericárdico é gerado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Outra teoria propõe que uma rotura induzida por tração pode se desenvolver na membrana pleuropericárdica, resultando um defeito pericárdico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> A ilustrar tal fato, Kaneko et al descrevem um caso de ausência pericárdica associada à divisão do nervo frênico com seus dois feixes passando ventral e dorsalmente ao defeito.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Uma terceira hipótese atribui a falha de desenvolvimento da membrana pericárdica à atrofia prematura das veias cardinais (ducto de Cuvier) que irrigam as dobras pleuropericárdicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Essa teoria explica a raridade do defeito pericárdico direito, pois a veia cardinal direita permanece como a veia cava superior.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Potencialmente, uma certa porcentagem de defeitos pericárdicos é atribuível a cada um dos mecanismos supracitados.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Classificação</title>
					<p>A AP é uma anomalia rara que pode ser classificada como total ou parcial, a depender da extensão da ausência do pericárdio. Essa condição resulta de falhas no desenvolvimento embrionário, especificamente na fusão dos primórdios pleuropericárdicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> A sua classificação é baseada principalmente na extensão da ausência do pericárdio, além de suas implicações clínicas e anatômicas (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1002">Tabela 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> As principais categorias são:</p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t1002">
							<label>Tabela 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Prevalência, complicações e sintomas por categoria de agenesia pericárdica.<bold>8,10-15</bold></title>
							</caption>
							<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
								<colgroup>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
								</colgroup>
								<thead>
									<tr>
										<th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
										<th>Parcial à direita ou à esquerda</th>
										<th>Completa bilateral</th>
										<th>Completa à direita</th>
										<th>Completa à esquerda</th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td>Prevalência</td>
										<td align="center">3–4%</td>
										<td align="center">9%</td>
										<td align="center">17%</td>
										<td align="center">70%</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Complicações</td>
										<td align="center">Frequentes</td>
										<td align="center">Raras</td>
										<td align="center">Raras</td>
										<td align="center">Raras</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Sintomas</td>
										<td align="center">Dor torácica, dispneia, arritmias</td>
										<td align="center">Assintomática na maioria dos casos</td>
										<td align="center">Assintomática ou com sintomas leves</td>
										<td align="center">Geralmente assintomática</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Casos publicados</td>
										<td align="center">Balaji A, et al.<sup>12</sup></td>
										<td align="center">Pedrotti P, et al.<sup>13</sup></td>
										<td align="center">Minocha GK, et al.<sup>14</sup></td>
										<td align="center">Kaneko Y, et al.<sup>8</sup></td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
					<p><bold>1. Agenesia total:</bold></p>
					<list list-type="bullet">
						<list-item>
							<p>Ausência completa do pericárdio.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>O coração pode ter uma posição anormal no tórax (levoposição) e maior mobilidade.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Geralmente é assintomática, mas pode estar associada a um deslocamento do coração para o lado esquerdo e a um aumento do risco de torção cardíaca.</p>
						</list-item>
					</list>
					<p><bold>2. Agenesia parcial:</bold></p>
					<list list-type="bullet">
						<list-item>
							<p>Geralmente envolve a ausência da porção esquerda ou direita do pericárdio.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>A ausência da parte esquerda é mais comum.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Pode causar herniação ou estrangulamento de estruturas cardíacas, levando a complicações mais graves.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Está mais associada a sintomas, como dor torácica ou arritmias, devido à compressão ou à herniação das estruturas cardíacas através do defeito pericárdico.</p>
						</list-item>
					</list>
					<p><bold>3. Defeitos circunscritos ou localizados:</bold></p>
					<list list-type="bullet">
						<list-item>
							<p>Um subtipo da agenesia parcial que afeta áreas específicas, como o pericárdio sobre o átrio esquerdo ou os grandes vasos. Pequenos defeitos no pericárdio, que podem permitir a protrusão de estruturas como o átrio ou o ventrículo.</p>
						</list-item>
					</list>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Apresentação clínica</title>
					<p>A apresentação clínica da AP é heterogênea, variando desde sintomas inespecíficos até complicações fatais. Embora seja comumente assintomática, pode ocorrer precordialgia, sendo o sintoma mais comum seguido de palpitações.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Outros sintomas atribuídos à AP, como dispneia, trepopneia (dispneia relacionada com o lado em que se deita, aspecto característico dos defeitos parciais), arritmias (doença do nó sinusal e síncope são provavelmente atribuídos ao tônus vagal aumentado ou à herniação intermitente atrial, que se resolve com atropina ou mudança para decúbito lateral) e tonturas, são sinais e sintomas normalmente atribuídos ao aumento da mobilidade cardíaca, à posição anômala que o coração assume e à herniação de tecido cardíaco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Além disso, o aumento da mobilidade cardíaca pode produzir um impulso apical deslocado e vigoroso, levando à impressão de cardiomegalia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Pacientes com defeitos completos podem apresentar dor precordial em função de adesões pleuropericárdicas, ausência do coxim pericárdico e torção dos grandes vasos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A manifestação mais grave documentada é a morte súbita, resultante de estrangulamento do coração pelo pericárdio incompleto, documentado em pacientes com defeitos parciais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> O estrangulamento, em geral, provoca isquemia miocárdica regional, gerando precordialgia e alterações no traçado eletrocardiográfico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> O deslocamento cardíaco pode causar insuficiência tricúspide grave devido ao estiramento da parede anterior do ventrículo direito (VD).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Embora rara, a AP deve ser considerada no diagnóstico diferencial de pacientes com sintomas cardiovasculares atípicos para a idade, inclusive por meio da aquisição de imagens ecocardiográficas em localizações diferentes das comumente usadas. A identificação precoce é essencial para evitar complicações graves e direcionar a condução clínica adequada. Os diagnósticos diferenciais da AP abrangem defeitos pós-cirúrgicos ou pós-traumáticos, este último após trauma torácico fechado, que podem resultar em rotura pericárdica, herniação e torção das cavidades cardíacas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Diagnóstico: O papel da multimodalidade</title>
					<sec>
						<title>Radiografia de tórax</title>
						<p>O raio-X de tórax pode estar alterado em grandes defeitos pericárdicos, onde a silhueta cardíaca é deslocada excessivamente para a esquerda na projeção póstero-anterior e posteriormente em relação ao mediastino. Há perda da borda direita do coração, que passa a se sobrepor à coluna vertebral. Observam-se radiotransparência e distanciamento entre a aorta e a artéria pulmonar, bem como entre a borda inferior do coração e o diafragma, por insinuação de tecido pulmonar nessas topografias. O “Sinal do Snoopy” se refere ao deslocamento cardíaco para a esquerda, com alongamento da borda esquerda do coração com aspecto arredondado da ponta (nariz do Snoopy), proeminência e convexidade do apêndice atrial esquerdo (orelha do Snoopy) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02002">Figura 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
						<p>
							<fig id="f02002">
								<label>Figura 1</label>
								<caption>
									<title>– O “sinal do Snoopy” na radiografia de tórax é composto de múltiplas anormalidades, a saber: levoposição excessiva com alongamento da borda do VE, radioluscência separando a aorta e a artéria pulmonar (seta grossa), radioluscência separando o VE e o diafragma (setas finas) e perda da borda direita do coração (pontas de seta).</title>
								</caption>
								<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-1-e20250004-gf02-pt.tif"/>
							</fig>
						</p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Ecodopplercardiograma</title>
						<p>O ecodopplercardiograma é um exame disponível não invasivo e de baixo custo, sendo a opção de primeira linha na suspeita diagnóstica não somente para a AP, como também para avaliação das doenças do pericárdio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
						<p>O primeiro dado ao exame a sugerir a hipótese diagnóstica de agenesia está relacionado à aquisição das imagens em posições não clássicas, devido à posição cardíaca não usual (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03002">Figuras 2A e 2B</xref>). No plano paraesternal longo, o apex estará desviado posteriormente, revelando um grande segmento do VD, o que gera a impressão de aumento dessa cavidade<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> (Figura e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f08002">Vídeo 1</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f09002">2</xref>). A aquisição do plano apical 4 câmaras ocorrerá além ou na linha hemiclavicular posterior, diferente do comumente localizado no 5<sup>o</sup> espaço intercostal, na linha hemiclavicular média (Figura e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f100002">Vídeo 3</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11002">4</xref>).</p>
						<p>
							<fig id="f03002">
								<label>Figura 2</label>
								<caption>
									<title>– A) Esta imagem ilustra o posicionamento do transdutor na paciente onde normalmente estaria localizado o plano apical 4 câmaras. B) Na agenesia parcial do pericárdio, observe o importante deslocamento através da linha inserida (azul) do local para a nova localização do plano apical 4 câmaras.</title>
								</caption>
								<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-1-e20250004-gf03-pt.tif"/>
							</fig>
						</p>
						<media id="f08002" mime-subtype="mp4" mimetype="video" xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-1-e20250004-m01-pt.mp4">
							<label>Vídeo 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Visualização do plano paraesternal longitudinal totalmente distorcido, com o apex desviado posteriormente. Link: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2025/3801/2025-0004_video_1.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2025/3801/2025-0004_video_1.mp4</ext-link>
								</title>
							</caption>
						</media>
						<media id="f09002" mime-subtype="mp4" mimetype="video" xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-1-e20250004-m02-pt.mp4">
							<label>Vídeo 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– O fluxo através da via de saída do VE ratifica a posição da aorta ascendente, do VE e do AE em paciente com agenesia parcial de pericárdio. Link: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2025/3801/2025-0004_video_2.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2025/3801/2025-0004_video_2.mp4</ext-link>
								</title>
							</caption>
						</media>
						<media id="f100002" mime-subtype="mp4" mimetype="video" xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-1-e20250004-m03-pt.mp4">
							<label>Vídeo 3</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Caso de agenesia parcial do pericárdio, evidenciando a impressão das cavidades direitas aumentadas em função do desvio causado pela agenesia parcial esquerda. Link: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2025/3801/2025-0004_video_3.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2025/3801/2025-0004_video_3.mp4</ext-link>
								</title>
							</caption>
						</media>
						<media id="f11002" mime-subtype="mp4" mimetype="video" xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-1-e20250004-m04-pt.mp4">
							<label>Vídeo 4</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Caso de agenesia parcial do pericárdio, demonstrando o aspecto de lágrima do coração. Link: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2025/3801/2025-0004_video_4.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2025/3801/2025-0004_video_4.mp4</ext-link>
								</title>
							</caption>
						</media>
						<p>
							<fig id="f04002">
								<label>Figura 3</label>
								<caption>
									<title>– A) Visualização do plano paraesternal longitudinal totalmente distorcido, com o apex desviado posteriormente (vídeos anexos). B) O fluxo através da via de saída do VE ratifica a posição da aorta ascendente, do VE e do AE em paciente com agenesia parcial de pericárdio. Ao: aorta; VD: ventrículo direito; VE: ventrículo esquerdo; AE: átrio esquerdo.</title>
								</caption>
								<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-1-e20250004-gf04-pt.tif"/>
							</fig>
						</p>
						<p>
							<fig id="f05002">
								<label>Figura 4</label>
								<caption>
									<title>– A) Caso de agenesia parcial do pericárdio, evidenciando a impressão das cavidades direitas aumentadas em função do desvio causado pela agenesia parcial esquerda (vídeo anexo). B) Caso de agenesia parcial do pericárdio, demonstrando o aspecto de lágrima do coração (vídeo anexo). VD: ventrículo direito; AD: átrio direito; VE: ventrículo esquerdo; AE: átrio esquerdo.</title>
								</caption>
								<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-1-e20250004-gf05-pt.tif"/>
							</fig>
						</p>
						<p>No caso da agenesia parcial esquerda de pericárdio, observa-se um aparente aumento do VD em 63% dos casos por consequência do deslocamento do coração para a esquerda.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Esse achado induz erroneamente ao diagnóstico de comunicação interatrial ou de miocardiopatia arritmogênica. Outros achados relativos à AP abrangem o movimento anormal do coração e o movimento paradoxal do septo ventricular em função do movimento desmedido da parede inferior. O aspecto de lágrima (“teardrop”) do coração é resultante do alongamento dos átrios, do alargamento dos ventrículos e do movimento de abaulamento da parede inferior.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup>Defeitos da agenesia à direita podem levar ao aumento do VD e do átrio direito (AD), bem como à insuficiência tricúspide severa em função da tração das cordoalhas. O ecodopplercardiograma de estresse pode evidenciar um movimento de pêndulo do coração. Outros achados dignos de nota revelados pelo Doppler espectral são a redução do fluxo sistólico e a diminuição da razão sistodiastólica na veia pulmonar em decorrência da ausência da pressão intrapericárdica negativa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
						<p>Entretanto, esse método depende da qualidade da janela acústica, principalmente em pacientes obesos ou com doença pulmonar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>TC</title>
						<p>A alta resolução e a aquisição volumétrica das imagens da TC fornecem excelente contraste entre a fina linha densa do pericárdio e os componentes de gordura epicárdica e mediastinal de baixa densidade, tornando o método bastante útil para a delimitação do pericárdio. Contudo, alguns segmentos de pericárdio na silhueta esquerda do coração podem ser mal delimitados, mesmo quando presentes.</p>
						<p>Na TC, a agenesia de pericárdio pode ser confirmada pela ausência, parcial ou completa, da fina linha densa que corresponde ao pericárdio ao redor do coração. Há levoposição excessiva do coração, que toca a caixa torácica. Pode haver ausência de tecido gorduroso hipodenso entre o miocárdio e os arcos costais. Observa-se tecido pulmonar insinuado entre a aorta e o tronco arterial pulmonar, local comumente coberto pelo pericárdio e que contém tecido gorduroso que oblitera esse espaço. Ocasionalmente, há abaulamento do apêndice atrial esquerdo através do defeito (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06002">Figura 5</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
						<p>
							<fig id="f06002">
								<label>Figura 5</label>
								<caption>
									<title>– A) A TC sem contraste no plano axial demonstra a anatomia normal do pericárdio (setas finas) delimitando o tecido gorduroso (✽) entre a aorta e o tronco pulmonar. (B-F) Imagens de TC sem contraste em dois pacientes com agenesia de pericárdio parcial esquerda, respectivamente, ♂, 41 anos (B/C), e ♀, 58 anos (D-F). Observa-se ausência de revestimento pericárdico em quase toda a extensão, visível apenas ao longo da borda atrial direita (cabeças de setas em B,D e E). Há levoposição excessiva do coração e desvio posterior do ápice tocando a caixa torácica. (setas finas em B e E). D) Projeção do apêndice atrial direito (❖). (C/F) Interposição de pulmão entre a aorta e o tronco pulmonar (setas grossas). AP: agenesia do pericárdio.</title>
								</caption>
								<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-1-e20250004-gf06-pt.tif"/>
							</fig>
						</p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>RMC</title>
						<p>A RMC é atualmente o método padrão-ouro para a avaliação do pericárdio graças à excelente resolução espacial e caracterização tecidual inerentes ao método. Aquisições morfológicas do tipo <italic>black blood</italic>, ponderadas em T1 e T2, e as aquisições funcionais do tipo cine <italic>steady-state-free-precession</italic> (SSFP) são úteis para a delimitação da imagem linear hipointensa correspondendo ao pericárdio, entre as gorduras mediastinal e epicárdica com sinal hiperintenso. Entretanto, tal como ocorre na TC, alguns segmentos do pericárdio junto ao ventrículo esquerdo (VE) podem ser de difícil individualização pelo método. A ausência de visualização do pericárdio, juntamente com o deslocamento excessivo do coração para a esquerda, a hipermobilidade cardíaca (notadamente ao longo da parede posterior do VE) e a interposição do pulmão entre a aorta e o tronco pulmonar são critérios diagnósticos para a AP pela RMC (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f07002">Figura 6</xref>). A presença de indentações focais nas paredes ventriculares sugere a presença de agenesia parcial do pericárdio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
						<p>
							<fig id="f07002">
								<label>Figura 6</label>
								<caption>
									<title>– Imagens de RMC no plano axial do tipo black blood, ponderadas em T2 (A,B), e cine SSFP (C) em paciente com agenesia de pericárdio parcial esquerda. A) Interposição de tecido pulmonar entre a aorta e a artéria pulmonar (seta grossa). (B,C) O pericárdio é parcialmente visível, como uma fina linha hipointensa ao longo da borda atrial direita (cabeças de setas em B e C). Há levoposição excessiva do coração e desvio posterior do ápice tocando a caixa torácica (setas finas em B e C ). AP: agenesia do pericárdio; VD: ventrículo direito; AD: átrio direito; VE: ventrículo esquerdo; AE: átrio esquerdo; Ao: aorta.</title>
								</caption>
								<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-1-e20250004-gf07-pt.tif"/>
							</fig>
						</p>
					</sec>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Tratamento</title>
				<p>O consenso recomenda a adoção de conduta expectante para grande parte dos pacientes que apresentam AP, uma vez que a maioria desses indivíduos são assintomáticos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> É importante ressaltar que o tratamento cirúrgico baseia-se em pequenos estudos observacionais e sem controle.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Recomenda-se intervenção cirúrgica (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2002">Tabela 2</xref>) para pacientes sintomáticos que apresentam defeitos parciais complicados com características de alto risco, ou com sintomas refratários (por exemplo, dor causada por movimento cardíaco anormal).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Os defeitos parciais esquerdos que apresentam compressão, herniação ou estrangulamento de grandes vasos ou coronárias também merecem intervenção cirúrgica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t2002">
						<label>Tabela 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Relação entre a intervenção cirúrgica, possíveis indicações e complicações.<bold>7,15</bold></title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th align="left">Intervenções cirúrgicas </th>
									<th>Possíveis indicações</th>
									<th>Possíveis Complicações</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td>Pericardioplastia</td>
									<td align="center">Defeitos congênitos amplos</td>
									<td align="center">Falha na correção do defeito.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Pericardiectomia com pericardioplastia</td>
									<td align="center">Risco de estrangulamento</td>
									<td align="center">Formação de aderências pericárdicas.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Resseção/ligadura do apêndice atrial esquerdo</td>
									<td align="center">Herniação do apêndice esquerdo</td>
									<td align="center">Lesão das estruturas adjacentes.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Correção do apêndice atrial direito</td>
									<td align="center">Herniação do apêndice direito</td>
									<td align="center">Rotura do apêndice direito.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Cirurgia torácica guiada por vídeo</td>
									<td align="center">Pneumopericárdio/pneumotórax</td>
									<td align="center">Perfuração de estruturas torácicas.</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>Recentemente, a detecção de características anatômicas de alto risco por imagens cardiovasculares multimodais, incluindo (1) prega miocárdica do VE ou ponto de articulação na ecocardiografia, na RMC ou na TC; (2) compressão coronária na TC; (3) isquemia induzível na imagem de perfusão de estresse – Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT), Positron Emission Tomography (PET) ou RMC – e (4) evidência de hérnia do apêndice atrial esquerdo, foram propostas para a estratificação de risco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> A detecção desses sinais de alerta pode ser usada para personalizar o planejamento cirúrgico.</p>
				<p>As opções cirúrgicas específicas para tratamento desses defeitos pericárdicos são variadas, mas a pericardioplastia é a intervenção mais comum. Como alternativa à reconstrução pericárdica, também foi descrita a pericardiectomia com pericardioplastia, de forma a ampliar o defeito e prevenir o estrangulamento.</p>
			</sec>
		</body>
		<back>
			<fn-group>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<label>Vinculação Acadêmica:</label>
					<p> Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<label>Aprovação Ética e Consentimento Informado:</label>
					<p> Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
			<fn-group>
				<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
					<label>Fontes de Financiamento:</label>
					<p> O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
		</back>
	</sub-article>
</article>