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<article article-type="review-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" xml:lang="en" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">
	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abcimg</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq Bras Cardiol: Imagem cardiovasc</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20240132i</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Review Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>My Approach to HFpEF Considering Ventricular-Arterial Coupling and Ventricular Interdependence</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2901-9480</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Braga</surname>
						<given-names>João Carlos Moron Saes</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>acquisition of data</role>
					<role>analysis and interpretation of the data and writing of the manuscript</role>
					<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5153-8420</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Assef</surname>
						<given-names>Jorge Eduardo</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8760-2052</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Guimarães</surname>
						<given-names>Fabio Villaça</given-names>
						<suffix>Filho</suffix>
					</name>
					<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9580-4703</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Silva</surname>
						<given-names>Raphael Aparecido Barreto da</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Faculdade de Medicina de Marília</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Marília</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina de Marília, Marília, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Instituto do Coração de Marília</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Marília</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Instituto do Coração de Marília, Marília, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3">
				<label>3</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01">
					<label>Mailing Address:</label> João Carlos Moron Saes Braga • Faculdade de Medicina de Marília. Avenida Monte Carmelo, 800. Postal code: 17519-030. Marília, SP – Brazil E-mail: <email>joaocbraga2002@yahoo.com.br</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<label>Potential Conflict of Interest:</label>
					<p> No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by">
					<label>Editor responsible for the review:</label>
					<p> Marcelo Tavares</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>27</day>
				<month>03</month>
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<month>01</month>
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>38</volume>
			<issue>1</issue>
			<elocation-id>e20240132</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>7</day>
					<month>12</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>10</day>
					<month>12</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>17</day>
					<month>01</month>
					<year>2025</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">
					<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>Abstract</title>
				<p>Heart failure (HF) is a serious public health issue that impacts the mortality and morbidity of the global population. The prevalence of heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) is clearly increasing, associated with population aging, obesity, sedentary lifestyle, and cardiometabolic diseases. It is one of the most urgent diagnostic and therapeutic challenges nowadays. Additionally, the obesity phenotype of HFpEF may be associated with HF and occurs as a result of several mechanisms that are deleterious to cardiac function, including the direct action of epicardial adipose tissue (EAT), causing direct restraint of the pericardium and ventricular interdependence, with significant hemodynamic repercussions, decline in functional capacity, and a worse prognosis. The estimation of ventricular-arterial coupling (VAC) in a non-invasive manner by echocardiography allows a better understanding of the interaction between the heart and the arterial system by monitoring hemodynamic changes, which can guide medical therapy and have an impact on prognosis. Although these tools and parameters are promising, new technologies, such as artificial intelligence and machine learning, must be used to enable the applicability of VAC in clinical practice. Further studies are key to standardizing new methods and values in this context.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<kwd>Obesity Phenotipe</kwd>
				<kwd>Ventricular-Arterial Coupling</kwd>
				<kwd>Ventricular Interdependence</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="16"/>
				<table-count count="2"/>
				<equation-count count="2"/>
				<ref-count count="42"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<p>
					<fig id="f01">
						<label>Central Illustration</label>
						<caption>
							<title>: My Approach to HFpEF Considering Ventricular-Arterial Coupling and Ventricular Interdependence</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-1-e20240132-gf01.tif"/>
						<attrib>Development and progression of HFpEF with obesity phenotype. The implications for ventricular interdependence and VAC are highlighted. Source: Adapted from <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Borlaug et al., 2023</xref>.<sup>13</sup></attrib>
					</fig>
				</p>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introduction</title>
			<p>Heart failure (HF) is a serious public health issue that affects millions of individuals worldwide and has a considerable impact on mortality and quality of life. Although epidemiological data indicate that the global incidence of HF tends to decrease, the prevalence of heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) continues to grow, being associated with population aging, obesity, sedentary lifestyle, and cardiometabolic diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
			<p>The pathophysiology of HFpEF is associated with the primary morbidities that cause cardiac and vascular aggression from a chronic pro-inflammatory state. More specifically, this cardiac structural and functional impairment results from a complex interaction between metabolic abnormalities, damage to microcirculation, changes in the functioning of cellular organelles, autonomic dysfunction, exacerbation of the activity of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), and maladaptive immune responses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
			<p>The diagnosis of HFpEF is challenging in most cases and is usually obtained in the advanced stages of the disease, which limits the therapeutic results. In summary, HFpEF can be diagnosed in the presence of clinical evidence of HF, left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) ≥ 50%, and evidence of elevated filling pressures and/or cardiac structural alteration. Therefore, a thorough clinical evaluation, echocardiographic examination, and natriuretic peptide levels remain fundamental diagnostic resources.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Thus, HFpEF is one of the most pressing diagnostic and therapeutic challenges nowadays, considering its increasing prevalence, underdiagnosis, poor prognosis, limited therapeutic options, and considerable impact on healthcare systems.</p>
			<sec>
				<title>HFpEF with obesity phenotype</title>
				<p>HFpEF is characterized by the coexistence of multiple cardiac and non-cardiac diseases. In this way, distinct clinical phenotypes can be identified and determined by different risk factors, comorbidities, left ventricular (LV) remodeling, hemodynamic pattern, and organ dysfunction (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Obesity, in addition to being unequivocally associated with systemic arterial hypertension (SAH), diabetes mellitus (DM), and insulin resistance, has been identified as the primary cause of HF, mediated by several elements that are deleterious to cardiac function due to altered cardiometabolism and direct restraint of the pericardium (epicardial fat), as well as systemic effects on the lung, skeletal muscle, kidney, and liver because of systemic inflammation, neurohormonal activation, autonomic dysregulation, and altered hemodynamic load (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t1">
						<label>Table 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Structural and functional changes in HFpEF</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th align="left">Cardiac Abnormality</th>
									<th>Frequency, %</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td>Alteration of LV geometry, concentric hypertrophy, or remodeling</td>
									<td align="center"><bold>60</bold></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Alteration of LV diastolic function (altered relaxation, increased stiffness)</td>
									<td align="center"><bold>80-90</bold></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td rowspan="3">Myocardial fibrosis</td>
									<td><bold>Mild 66</bold></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td><bold>Moderate 17</bold></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td><bold>Major 10</bold></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Microvascular myocardial dysfunction and/or reduced microvessel density</td>
									<td align="center"><bold>80</bold></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Increased LV stiffness</td>
									<td align="center"><bold>70</bold></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Left atrial enlargement and/or systolic and diastolic dysfunction</td>
									<td align="center"><bold>70</bold></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Increased epicardial fat</td>
									<td align="center"><bold>40-50 (patients with obesity)</bold></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Pericardial constriction with altered LV filling</td>
									<td align="center"><bold>30</bold></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Atrial fibrillation</td>
									<td align="center"><bold>40-50</bold></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Epicardial coronary artery disease</td>
									<td align="center"><bold>50-65</bold></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td><bold>Pulmonary</bold></td>
									<td> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Post-capillary pulmonary hypertension or combined pre- and post-capillary pulmonary hypertension (group 2)</td>
									<td align="center"><bold>80</bold></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Pulmonary arterial, venous, and small vessel remodeling</td>
									<td> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td rowspan="2">Restrictive pulmonary physiology</td>
									<td align="center"><bold>Mild 40-50</bold></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center"><bold>Moderate 10</bold></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td><bold>Right heart</bold></td>
									<td> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>RV diastolic dysfunction</td>
									<td align="center"><bold>50</bold></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>RV enlargement and systolic dysfunction</td>
									<td align="center"><bold>30</bold></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Right atrial enlargement and/or right ventricular systolic/diastolic dysfunction</td>
									<td align="center"><bold>50</bold></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td><bold>Vascular</bold></td>
									<td> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Increased arterial stiffness</td>
									<td align="center"><bold>70</bold></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Alteration of systemic microvascular function</td>
									<td align="center"><bold>70</bold></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Reduced systemic venous compliance and capacitance</td>
									<td align="center"><bold>70</bold></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td><bold>Systemic</bold></td>
									<td> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Obesity</td>
									<td align="center"><bold>60-70</bold></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Dysglycemia/insulin resistance</td>
									<td align="center"><bold>60-70</bold></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Neurohumoral activation</td>
									<td align="center"><bold>30</bold></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Reduction of skeletal muscle and replacement with fat</td>
									<td align="center"><bold>60</bold></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Increased visceral fat</td>
									<td align="center"><bold>70</bold></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td><bold>Renal</bold></td>
									<td> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Reduced glomerular filtration rate</td>
									<td align="center"><bold>60</bold></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Reduced sodium excretion</td>
									<td align="center"><bold>70</bold></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td><bold>Hepatic</bold></td>
									<td> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease</td>
									<td align="center"><bold>40-50</bold></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Congestive liver disease</td>
									<td align="center"><bold>10</bold></td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN1">
								<p>Table adapted from Redfield et al., 2023.<sup>7</sup> LV: left ventricle; RV: right ventricle.</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>Recent studies on obesity have given greater attention to the location of fat than to the amount of fat itself since subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT), visceral adipose tissue (VAT), and epicardial adipose tissue (EAT) contribute differently to the overall cardiovascular risk (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figure 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> EAT may favor the onset of HFpEF due to pro-inflammatory paracrine effects, lipid infiltration, and pericardial restraint (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figure 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f02">
						<label>Figure 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Different locations where fat can be deposited and the pathological potential of EAT. Source: Adapted from <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Dronkers et al., 2024</xref>.12 EAT: epicardial adipose tissue; VAT: visceral adipose tissue; SAT: subcutaneous adipose tissue; HFpEF: heart failure with preserved ejection fraction.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-1-e20240132-gf02.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>It is worth emphasizing that, in HFpEF, arterial hypertension and other comorbidities coexist and lead to a scenario of chronic afterload elevation as a consequence of increased arterial stiffness and impaired vasodilation (dysregulation of the NO-sGC-cGMP-PKG pathway - nitric oxide, soluble guanylate cyclase, cyclic guanosine monophosphate, and protein kinase G), associated with an increase in blood volume and the appearance of early reflected pulse waves in the aorta (AO) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figure 2</xref>). The stiffer (less compliant) artery causes a pulse wave that propagates at a higher speed, causing the corresponding reflex wave to return to the ascending AO earlier, still at the end of systole, with the aortic valve open. This results in an increase in systolic blood pressure (SBP), a reduction in diastolic blood pressure, and a reduction in coronary perfusion, i.e., a vicious cycle of progressive afterload increase and myocardial dysfunction (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figure 2</xref>). Ventricular-arterial coupling (VAC) has been used to assess the efficiency of the ventricular-arterial interaction process, and it also appears to represent an accurate marker of early LV dysfunction and potential therapeutic guidance in HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f03">
						<label>Figure 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– A: Pathophysiological mechanism that leads to LV dysfunction. B: Increased aortic stiffness and the emergence of early reflected waves that reach the heart at the end of systole, promoting increased pulse pressure, increased SBP, increased afterload, reduced diastolic blood pressure, and reduced coronary perfusion. Source: Adapted from <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Ikonomidis et al., 2019</xref>.16 LV: left ventricle; SNS: sympathetic nervous system; SBP: systolic blood pressure; RAP: right atrial pressure.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-1-e20240132-gf03.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>VAC</title>
				<p>VAC assesses the relationship between two anatomically and functionally connected structures: the heart and the arteries. To investigate this interaction, a unit common to both systems is used: elastance, which measures changes in pressure for each unitary change in volume - unit: mmHg/ml. Originally, the elastance and VAC data came from the interpretation of the pressure-volume diagram of the cardiac cycle, derived from an invasive hemodynamic study (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figure 3</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f04">
						<label>Figure 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– A classic Pressure-Volume diagram in the cardiac cycle demonstrating the Pressure-Volume relationship curves at the end of diastole and the Pressure-Volume relationship at the end of systole, determining Ea, Ees, and LV-AO VAC. Source: Adapted from Gamarra A et al., 2024.17 Ea: arterial elastance; Ees: end-systolic elastance; LV: left ventricle; AO: aorta; VAC: ventricular-arterial coupling.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-1-e20240132-gf04.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Arterial elastance (Ea) is defined as the ratio between ventricular end-systolic pressure and Stroke volume (ESP/Stroke volume), being influenced by vascular resistance, pulsatile load, and heart rate. It is characterized as an index of arterial load for the left ventricle. End-systolic elastance (Ees), usually known as ventricular elastance, is an index of LV contractility, independent of the load, and reflects the slope of the pressure-volume relationship curve at the end of systole (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figure 3</xref>), being the ratio between ventricular end-systolic pressure and ventricular end-systolic volume (ESP/ESV). The Ea/Ees ratio (ESP/Stroke volume)/(ESP/ESV) can be simplified as ESV/Stroke volume (removing ESP from the equation).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
				<p>VAC is defined as the ratio of Ea/Ees and investigates the contractile capacity of the heart and its ability to adapt to load impositions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Previous studies have shown that the ideal VAC value, derived from the Ea/Ees ratio, should vary between 0.5 and 1, reflecting the state in which the LV systolic work is ideal (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figure 4</xref>). An Ea/Ees ratio &gt; 1 suggests ventricular-arterial decoupling (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figure 4</xref>). Such ventricular-arterial incompatibility is frequently seen in HFpEF, being attributed to diastolic dysfunction induced by increased afterload and subendocardial ischemia, and may be associated with a worse prognosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f05">
						<label>Figure 4</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Assessment of energy efficiency in blood transfer from the ventricular to the arterial system by calculating VAC. Source: Adapted from Chirinos et al., 2013.18 Ea: arterial elastance; Ees: end-systolic elastance; VE: left ventricle; VA: ventricular-arterial</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-1-e20240132-gf05.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Left VAC</title>
				<p>The gold standard echocardiographic method for assessing LV-AO VAC is the so-called <italic>single beat method</italic>, developed by Chen et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06">Figure 5</xref>). Simple non-invasive parameters that can be easily collected should be obtained: systolic and diastolic blood pressure, ejection volume, ejection fraction, pre-ejection period, and total ejection period. As the formulas are relatively complex, it is recommended to use an easy-to-use application (iElastance<sup>©</sup> - Apple iOS application)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f07">Figure 6</xref>), which yields fast and reliable results.</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f06">
						<label>Figure 5</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– (A) Two-dimensional echocardiographic image in parasternal view, long axis, zooming in on the LV outflow tract diameter measurement. (B) VTI image of the Doppler spectrum of the LV outflow tract flow, which is obtained by tracing the fullest line of the spectrum to calculate the stroke volume. (C)/(D) Two-dimensional echocardiographic image in apical 4-chamber (D) and 2-chamber (C) views to obtain the LVEF value (Simpson method). (E) Apical 5-chamber view of the Doppler spectrum of the LV outflow tract flow and mitral inflow to obtain pre-ejection time (green) and total ejection time (orange). Ea: arterial elastance; SBP: systolic blood pressure; LVOT: left ventricular outflow tract; EDV: end-diastolic volume; ESV: end-systolic volume; VTI: velocity-time integral; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-1-e20240132-gf06.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f07">
						<label>Figure 6</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– (1) Image reproduced from the mobile application showing how easy it is to use. It is only necessary to fill in the fields with the data obtained, as shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figure 5</xref>. (2) Practical example of filling in the fields. (3) Immediate result for Ea, Ees: end-systolic elastance, and VAC. Source: Bertini P. iElastance- Apple iOS App. Available at: https://apps.apple.com/br/app/ielastance/id556528864.24</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-1-e20240132-gf07.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>The proposed normal value for Ea is 2.2 (±0.8) mmHg/ml, and for Ees is 2.3 (±1.0) mmHg/ml.</p>
				<disp-formula id="e1">
					<mml:math>
						<mml:mi>E</mml:mi>
						<mml:mi>a</mml:mi>
						<mml:mo>=</mml:mo>
						<mml:mo>(</mml:mo>
						<mml:mi>S</mml:mi>
						<mml:mi>B</mml:mi>
						<mml:mi>P</mml:mi>
						<mml:mo>×</mml:mo>
						<mml:mn>0.9</mml:mn>
						<mml:mo>)</mml:mo>
						<mml:mrow>
							<mml:mo>/</mml:mo>
						</mml:mrow>
						<mml:mtext> Stroke Volume </mml:mtext>
					</mml:math>
				</disp-formula>
				<p>
					<inline-formula>
						<mml:math>
							<mml:mtext> Ees </mml:mtext>
							<mml:mo>=</mml:mo>
							<mml:mo>[</mml:mo>
							<mml:mi>D</mml:mi>
							<mml:mi>B</mml:mi>
							<mml:mi>P</mml:mi>
							<mml:mo>−</mml:mo>
							<mml:mo>(</mml:mo>
							<mml:mi>E</mml:mi>
							<mml:mo>(</mml:mo>
							<mml:mtext> nor </mml:mtext>
							<mml:mo>)</mml:mo>
							<mml:mo>(</mml:mo>
							<mml:mi>e</mml:mi>
							<mml:mi>s</mml:mi>
							<mml:mi>t</mml:mi>
							<mml:mo>)</mml:mo>
							<mml:mo>×</mml:mo>
							<mml:mi>S</mml:mi>
							<mml:mi>B</mml:mi>
							<mml:mi>P</mml:mi>
							<mml:mo>×</mml:mo>
							<mml:mn>0.9</mml:mn>
							<mml:mo>)</mml:mo>
							<mml:mo>]</mml:mo>
							<mml:mrow>
								<mml:mo>/</mml:mo>
							</mml:mrow>
							<mml:mi>E</mml:mi>
							<mml:mo>(</mml:mo>
							<mml:mtext> nor </mml:mtext>
							<mml:mo>)</mml:mo>
							<mml:mo>(</mml:mo>
							<mml:mtext> est </mml:mtext>
							<mml:mo>)</mml:mo>
							<mml:mo>×</mml:mo>
							<mml:mtext> Stroke Volume </mml:mtext>
						</mml:math>
					</inline-formula> where <italic>DBP</italic> and <italic>SBP</italic> are the diastolic and systolic cuff blood pressures, measured through the upper arm; <italic>E(nor)(est)</italic> is the normalized ventricular elastance, estimated at the beginning of ejection; and <italic>Stroke volume</italic> is derived from the product of the VTI (velocity-time integral) of the Doppler spectrum of the LV outflow tract flow by the measured LV outflow tract diameter.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Using the dedicated application avoids complex and time-consuming calculations. The user simply fills in the fields with the requested data: SBP (mmHg), diastolic blood pressure (mmHg), LV ejection fraction (%), stroke volume (ml), pre-ejection time (ms), and total ejection time (ms) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06">Figure 5</xref>). The result is immediate with the values of: Ea, Ees, and VAC (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f07">Figure 6</xref>).</p>
				<p>Several methodologies have emerged to assess LV-AO VAC using echocardiography. The measurement of pulse wave velocity (PWV) appears to comprehensively represent arterial load (arterial stiffness, aortic impedance, and early reflected waves) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figure 2</xref>), associated with the measurement of the global longitudinal strain (GLS) of the LV as a marker of myocardial performance. Therefore, the use of the PWV/GLS ratio may be more appropriate in several scenarios to characterize VAC since it incorporates “gold standard” methods to assess arterial load (PWV) and LV contractility (GLS), with prognostic value.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The use of 3D echocardiography to measure ventricular volumes, the use of myocardial work to analyze myocardial performance and the increasing incorporation of artificial intelligence and machine learning to calculate ventricular elastance (Ees) represent technical evolution and contribute to greater applicability of VAC in clinical practice in the future.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Studies will be necessary to standardize methods and values in this context.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Right VAC</title>
				<p>The TAPSE/PASP ratio (tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion/pulmonary artery systolic pressure) expresses the relationship between RV contractility and its afterload. It has been shown to have a good correlation with invasive methods deemed the “gold standard” for measuring RV (right ventricle)-PA (pulmonary artery) coupling. Consequently, the TAPSE/PASP ratio has been incorporated into the main guidelines for the assessment of RV and pulmonary hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
				<p>TAPSE is measured by M-mode echocardiography (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f08">Figure 7A</xref>) and assesses RV contractile function. To estimate RV afterload (PASP), the maximum velocity of the tricuspid regurgitation jet is determined by analyzing the continuous Doppler spectral curve and adding the right atrial pressure (RAP), which is estimated by observing the inferior vena cava. As a result, the RVSP (right ventricular systolic pressure) is obtained, which is calculated using the modified Bernoulli equation: 4 x peak velocity (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f08">Figure 7B</xref>). In the absence of right ventricular outflow tract obstruction or pulmonary stenosis, RVSP is equal to the PASP.</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f08">
						<label>Figure 7</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– (A) Tricuspid annular displacement measured by M mode echocardiography - TAPSE. (B) Continuous Doppler spectral curve, demonstrating tricuspid regurgitation flow, allowing the systolic pressure in the pulmonary artery to be estimated. The TAPSE/PASP ratio estimates the value of RV-PA VAC. TAPSE: tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion; PASP: pulmonary artery systolic pressure; RV: right ventricle; PA: pulmonary artery.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-1-e20240132-gf08.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>In HFpEF with obesity phenotype, right ventricular dysfunction results from several mechanisms acting on preload, afterload, and contractility of the right ventricle. Increased pulmonary pressure (combined pre- and post-capillary) is frequently present, as is right ventricular dilation, primary ventricular sarcomere dysfunction, pericardial constriction, and ventricular interdependence, which further aggravate biventricular filling and pulmonary hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
				<p>RV dysfunction is an independent predictor of mortality and hospitalization risk in HFpEF. Therefore, it should always be investigated. A TAPSE/PASP ratio &lt; 0.48 mm/mmHg was associated with higher all-cause mortality and higher hospitalization for HF in a population with HF with preserved and reduced LVEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> Another study has demonstrated that, in the subgroup of patients with HFpEF and pre-capillary pulmonary hypertension, a TAPSE/PASP ratio &lt; 0.36 mm/mmHg was associated with poor clinical outcomes, but suggested that these individuals could respond more favorably to interventions targeting RV afterload.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
				<p>It is important to highlight that the RV-GSL/PASP ratio has also been used as an appropriate methodology to assess RV-PA coupling and has proven to be an accurate instrument for assessing patients in different scenarios.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>VAC X HFpEF</title>
				<p>In the context of HFpEF, the calculation of the LVEF does not characterize broader aspects of the ventricular-arterial connection, particularly those related to afterload (Ea) or contractility (Ees), which are highly relevant for therapeutic management in patients with clinical symptoms of HF and preserved LVEF. In this scenario, Ees may be normal, while Ea may be increased, resulting in Ea/Ees &gt; 1.0 (VA decoupling). However, Ea/Ees can often occur with a normal result (between 0.5 and 1.0), despite Ea and Ees being elevated. Therefore, it is crucial to identify the value of the elastances individually<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06">Figures 5</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f07">6</xref>). Some interventions have shown potential impact on elastances, in addition to improving VAC: antihypertensive drugs,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> angiotensin receptor-neprilysin inhibitors (ARNIs),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitors,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> GLP-1 analogs,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> and interleukin IL-1<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> and IL-12 inhibitors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The use of VAC to assess the population with HFpEF has proven to be an accurate tool for stratifying those individuals at greater risk. In a recent study involving patients with LVEF &gt; 40%, it was shown that the subgroup of patients, despite having higher LVEF, had a greater degree of LV hypertrophy, higher LV filling pressures, and a higher rate of LV-AO decoupling with a worse prognosis. On top of that, the subgroup that showed RV-PA decoupling, verified by the TAPSE/PASP ratio, also demonstrated a worse prognosis, regardless of LVEF values, E/e’ ratio, and presence of atrial fibrillation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Pericardial restraint (HFpEF) X ventricular interdependence</title>
				<p>Obese patients with HFpEF have peculiar pathophysiological characteristics, including hypervolemia, RV-PA decoupling, biventricular hypertrophy, right ventricular dysfunction, pre- and post-pulmonary capillary hypertension, elevated filling pressures in left chambers, and increased EAT<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f09">Figure 8</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f09">
						<label>Figure 8</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– A proposed hemodynamic mechanism for HFpEF with obesity phenotype. LV: left ventricle; RV: right ventricle; O2: oxygen; LVEDP: left ventricular end-diastolic pressure; RVEDV: right ventricular end-diastolic volume.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-1-e20240132-gf09.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Due to its proximity to the myocardium, excess EAT can promote local inflammatory and mechanical constrictive effects on the cardiac muscle. Pericardial restraint associated with hypervolemia can increase pericardial pressure, promote competition for filling between the RV and LV, cause flattening of the ventricular septum, highlight ventricular interdependence, and lead to RV distension, reduced LV preload, increased LV end-diastolic pressure, and reduced cardiac output (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f09">Figure 8</xref>). On echocardiography, it is possible to quantify, using the parasternal short-axis plane, the LV eccentricity index, which becomes higher (LV eccentricity index &gt; 1) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figure 9</xref>) as greater pericardial constriction and higher intracardiac pressures are observed, including right atrial, pulmonary arterial, and RV end-diastolic pressures, which are concomitant with a significant reduction in functional physical capacity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f10">
						<label>Figure 9</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Illustration showing an increase in the LV eccentricity index due to ventricular interdependence, as proposed for HFpEF with obesity phenotype. Source: modified Borlaug et al., 2019.39</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-1-e20240132-gf10.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Ventricular interdependence has been a therapeutic target of several current studies. Studies performing transcatheter interventions to reduce tricuspid regurgitation in patients with HFpEF have been designed to improve ventricular interdependence and increase LV filling.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> Similarly, a pilot study has demonstrated the potential for surgical pericardiotomy in patients with HFpEF and restraint EAT.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Final considerations</title>
			<p>The magnitude of the global public health issue of HFpEF, in which obesity has a prevalence of approximately 70% (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>), has motivated, in recent years, a more specific investigation of the phenotype of subpopulations for better diagnostic, therapeutic, and prognostic results. Particular attention has been given to excess EAT in this population, which, associated with volume overload, can lead to pericardial restraint with ventricular interdependence, contributing to a more significant increase in left chamber filling pressures, worsening of pulmonary pressure, reduction in cardiac output, low physical capacity, and a worse prognosis. This hemodynamic condition can be identified by echocardiogram (LV eccentricity index &gt; 1).</p>
			<p>Non-invasive analysis of VAC by echocardiography appears to be a promising tool to assess hemodynamics in a more individualized manner and customize the treatment of patients with HFpEF. The single-beat echocardiographic method, coupled with a dedicated application, is becoming increasingly feasible. Besides, physicians are gaining more experience with this technology, having a better understanding of the complex interaction between the heart and the vessels. Yet, efforts to develop new methods must continue, both through advanced imaging techniques and new software solutions, artificial intelligence, and machine learning. It is clear that the earlier an accurate diagnosis, etiological definition, and severity estimation are made, and preventive and therapeutic efforts are implemented, the greater the benefits in terms of disease progression and the associated outcomes.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
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		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<label>Study Association:</label>
				<p> This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<label>Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate:</label>
				<p> This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
				<label>Sources of Funding:</label>
				<p> There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRpt" xml:lang="pt">
		<front-stub>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20240132</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Como Eu Faço a Avaliação da ICFEp Considerando o Acoplamento Ventrículo-Arterial e a Interdependência Ventricular</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2901-9480</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Braga</surname>
						<given-names>João Carlos Moron Saes</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>análise e interpretação dos dados e redação do manuscrito</role>
					<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2002"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5153-8420</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Assef</surname>
						<given-names>Jorge Eduardo</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3002"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8760-2052</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Guimarães</surname>
						<given-names>Fabio Villaça</given-names>
						<suffix>Filho</suffix>
					</name>
					<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2002"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9580-4703</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Silva</surname>
						<given-names>Raphael Aparecido Barreto da</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2002"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1002">
				<label>1</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina de Marília, Marília, SP – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2002">
				<label>2</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Instituto do Coração de Marília, Marília, SP – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3002">
				<label>3</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01002">
					<label>Correspondência:</label> João Carlos Moron Saes Braga • Faculdade de Medicina de Marília. Avenida Monte Carmelo, 800. CEP: 17519-030. Marília, SP – Brasil E-mail: joaocbraga2002@yahoo.com.br </corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<label>Potencial Conflito de Interesse:</label>
					<p> Declaro não haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by">
					<label>Editor responsável pela revisão:</label>
					<p>Marcelo Tavares</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<abstract>
				<title>Abstract</title>
				<p>A insuficiência cardíaca (IC) é um grave problema de saúde pública, com impacto na mortalidade e na morbidade populacional global. A prevalência da insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção preservada (ICFEp) revela-se em evidente crescimento, associada a fatores como envelhecimento da população, obesidade, sedentarismo e doenças cardiometabólicas, caracterizando-se como um dos desafios diagnósticos e terapêuticos mais urgentes da atualidade. Além disso, a ICFEp fenótipo obesidade pode estar relacionada à IC, ocorrendo como resultado de diversos mecanismos deletérios à função cardíaca, incluindo a ação direta do tecido adiposo epicárdico (TAE), provocando restrição direta do pericárdio e interdependência ventricular, com intensa repercussão hemodinâmica, declínio da capacidade funcional e pior prognóstico. A estimativa do acoplamento ventrículo-arterial (AVA) de modo não invasivo por meio da ecocardiografia permite compreender melhor a interação entre o coração e o sistema arterial por meio do monitoramento das alterações hemodinâmicas, podendo guiar a terapia médica, com impacto no prognóstico. Embora essas ferramentas e parâmetros sejam promissores, faz-se necessária a incorporação cada vez maior de novas tecnologias, como a inteligência artificial e o <italic>machine learning</italic>, de forma a viabilizar a aplicabilidade do AVA na prática clínica. Estudos futuros são fundamentais para a normatização de novos métodos e valores nesse contexto.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<kwd>Fenótipo Obesidade</kwd>
				<kwd>Acoplamento Ventrículo-Arterial</kwd>
				<kwd>Interdependência</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<p>
					<fig id="f01002">
						<label>Figura Central</label>
						<caption>
							<title>: Como Eu Faço a Avaliação da ICFEp Considerando o Acoplamento Ventrículo-Arterial e a Interdependência Ventricular</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-1-e20240132-gf01-pt.tif"/>
						<attrib>Desenvolvimento e progressão da ICFEp fenótipo obesidade. Destaque para as implicações na interdependência ventricular e no AVA. Fonte: Adaptada de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Borlaug et al., 2023</xref>.<sup>13</sup> VD: ventrículo direito; ICFEp: insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção preservada.</attrib>
					</fig>
				</p>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introdução</title>
				<p>A insuficiência cardíaca (IC) é um grave problema de saúde pública que afeta milhões de indivíduos mundialmente e apresenta impacto considerável na mortalidade e na qualidade de vida. Embora dados epidemiológicos indiquem que a incidência global de IC tende a diminuir, a prevalência da insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção preservada (ICFEp) continua crescendo, estando associada a fatores como envelhecimento da população, obesidade, sedentarismo e doenças cardiometabólicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A fisiopatologia da ICFEp está relacionada às morbidades primárias geradoras de agressão cardíaca e vascular a partir de um estado pró-inflamatório crônico. Mais especificamente, tal comprometimento estrutural e funcional do coração é resultado de uma complexa interação entre anormalidades metabólicas, prejuízos à microcirculação, modificações no funcionamento das organelas celulares, disfunção autonômica, exacerbação da atividade do sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona (SRAA) e respostas imunes mal adaptativas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
				<p>O diagnóstico da ICFEp é desafiador na maioria dos casos e acaba sendo realizado em fases avançadas da doença, o que limita os resultados terapêuticos. Em síntese, a ICFEp pode ser diagnosticada na presença de evidências clínicas de IC, fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo (FEVE) ≥ 50% e evidências de elevação das pressões de enchimento e/ou alteração estrutural cardíaca. Deste modo, a avaliação clínica minuciosa, o exame ecocardiográfico e a dosagem de peptídeos natriuréticos mantêm-se como recursos diagnósticos fundamentais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Consequentemente, a ICFEp se configura como um dos desafios diagnósticos e terapêuticos mais imperativos da atualidade, considerando a prevalência crescente, o subdiagnóstico, o mau prognóstico, opções terapêuticas limitadas e o impacto considerável sobre os sistemas de saúde.</p>
				<sec>
					<title>ICFEp fenótipo obesidade</title>
					<p>A ICFEp caracteriza-se pela coexistência de múltiplas doenças cardíacas e não cardíacas, de modo que fenótipos clínicos distintos podem ser identificados e determinados por diferentes fatores de risco, comorbidades, remodelamento do ventrículo esquerdo (VE), padrão hemodinâmico e disfunção orgânica (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1002">Tabela 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup>A obesidade, além de sua associação inequívoca com a hipertensão arterial sistêmica (HAS), o diabetes mellitus (DM) e a resistência insulínica, tem sido apontada como causa primária da IC, mediada por vários elementos deletérios à função cardíaca por alteração do cardiometabolismo e restrição direta do pericárdio (gordura epicárdica), bem como efeitos sistêmicos sobre o pulmão, o músculo esquelético, o rim e o fígado, em decorrência de inflamação sistêmica, ativação neuro-hormonal, desregulação autonômica e carga hemodinâmica alterada (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1002">Tabela 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t1002">
							<label>Tabela 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Alterações estruturais e funcionais na ICFEp</title>
							</caption>
							<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
								<colgroup>
									<col/>
									<col/>
								</colgroup>
								<thead>
									<tr>
										<th align="left">Anormalidade cardíaca</th>
										<th>Frequência, %</th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td>Alteração da geometria do VE, hipertrofia concêntrica ou remodelamento</td>
										<td align="center"><bold>60</bold></td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Alteração da função diastólica do VE (alteração do relaxamento, aumento da rigidez)</td>
										<td align="center"><bold>80-90</bold></td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td rowspan="3">Fibrose miocárdica</td>
										<td><bold>Discreta 66</bold></td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td><bold>Moderada 17</bold></td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td><bold>Importante 10</bold></td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Disfunção miocárdica microvascular e/ou redução da densidade dos microvasos</td>
										<td align="center"><bold>80</bold></td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Aumento da rigidez do VE</td>
										<td align="center"><bold>70</bold></td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Aumento atrial esquerdo e/ou disfunções sistólica e diastólica</td>
										<td align="center"><bold>70</bold></td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Aumento da gordura epicárdica</td>
										<td align="center"><bold>40-50 (pacientes com obesidade)</bold></td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Restrição pericárdica com alteração do enchimento do VE</td>
										<td align="center"><bold>30</bold></td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Fibrilação atrial</td>
										<td align="center"><bold>40-50</bold></td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Doença das artérias coronárias epicárdicas</td>
										<td align="center"><bold>50-65</bold></td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td><bold>Pulmonar</bold></td>
										<td> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Hipertensão pulmonar pós-capilar ou combinação pré e pós-capilar pulmonar (grupo 2)</td>
										<td align="center"><bold>80</bold></td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Remodelamento arterial pulmonar, venoso e de pequenos vasos</td>
										<td> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td rowspan="2">Fisiologia pulmonar restritiva</td>
										<td align="center"><bold>Discreta 40-50</bold></td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="center"><bold>Moderada 10</bold></td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td><bold>Coração direito</bold></td>
										<td> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Disfunção diastólica do VD</td>
										<td align="center"><bold>50</bold></td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Aumento do VD e disfunção sistólica</td>
										<td align="center"><bold>30</bold></td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Aumento do átrio direito e/ou disfunção sistólica/diastólica do ventrículo direito</td>
										<td align="center"><bold>50</bold></td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td><bold>Vascular</bold></td>
										<td> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Aumento da rigidez arterial</td>
										<td align="center"><bold>70</bold></td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Alteração da função microvascular sistêmica</td>
										<td align="center"><bold>70</bold></td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Redução da complacência e da capacitância venosa sistêmica</td>
										<td align="center"><bold>70</bold></td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td><bold>Sistêmica</bold></td>
										<td> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Obesidade</td>
										<td align="center"><bold>60-70</bold></td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Disglicemia/resistência insulínica</td>
										<td align="center"><bold>60-70</bold></td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Ativação neuro-humoral</td>
										<td align="center"><bold>30</bold></td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Redução da musculatura esquelética e substituição por gordura</td>
										<td align="center"><bold>60</bold></td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Aumento da gordura visceral</td>
										<td align="center"><bold>70</bold></td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td><bold>Renal</bold></td>
										<td> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Redução da taxa de filtração glomerular</td>
										<td align="center"><bold>60</bold></td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Redução da excreção de sódio</td>
										<td align="center"><bold>70</bold></td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td><bold>Hepática</bold></td>
										<td> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Doença hepática gordurosa não alcoólica</td>
										<td align="center"><bold>40-50</bold></td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Hepatopatia congestiva</td>
										<td align="center"><bold>10</bold></td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
							<table-wrap-foot>
								<fn fn-type="other" id="TFN1002">
									<p>Tabela adaptada de Redfield et al., 2023<sup>.7</sup> VE: ventrículo esquerdo; VD: ventrículo direito.</p>
								</fn>
							</table-wrap-foot>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
					<p>Estudos recentes relacionados à obesidade têm dado maior atenção à localização da gordura do que à quantidade de gordura propriamente dita, visto que o tecido adiposo subcutâneo (TAS), o tecido adiposo visceral (TAV) e o tecido adiposo epicárdico (TAE) contribuem de forma distinta para o risco cardiovascular global (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02002">Figura 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> O TAE pode favorecer o surgimento da ICFEp em função de efeitos parácrinos pró-inflamatórios, infiltração lipídica e restrição pericárdica (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02002">Figura 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f02002">
							<label>Figura 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Diferentes locais onde a gordura pode ser depositada e o potencial patológico do TAE. Fonte: Adaptada de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Dronkers et al., 2024</xref>.12 TAE: tecido adiposo epicárdico; TAV: tecido adiposo visceral; TAS: tecido adiposo subcutâneo; ICFEp: insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção preservada.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-1-e20240132-gf02-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>É importante ressaltar que, na ICFEp, a hipertensão arterial e outras comorbidades coexistem e produzem um cenário de elevação crônica da pós-carga em consequência do aumento da rigidez arterial e do comprometimento da vasodilatação (desregulação da via NO-sGC-GMPc-PKG - óxido nítrico, guanilato ciclase solúvel, monofosfato cíclico de guanosina e proteína cinase G), associado ao incremento da volemia e ao surgimento das ondas de pulso refletidas precoces na aorta (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03002">Figura 2</xref>). A artéria mais rígida (menos complacente) provoca uma onda de pulso que se propaga com maior velocidade, fazendo com que a onda refletida correspondente retorne à aorta ascendente mais precocemente, ainda no final da sístole, com a valva aórtica aberta, fato que resulta em elevação da pressão arterial sistólica (PAS), redução da pressão arterial diastólica e redução da perfusão coronária, ou seja, um ciclo vicioso de aumento progressivo da pós-carga e disfunção miocárdica (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03002">Figura 2</xref>). O acoplamento ventrículo-arterial (AVA) tem sido aplicado na avaliação da eficiência desse processo de interação ventrículo-arterial e parece representar um marcador acurado de disfunção precoce do VE e potencial guia terapêutico na ICFEp.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f03002">
							<label>Figura 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– A: Mecanismo fisiopatológico que acarreta disfunção do VE. B: O aumento da rigidez da aorta e o surgimento de ondas refletidas precoces que alcançam o coração no final da sístole, promovendo elevação da pressão de pulso, elevação da PAS, aumento da pós-carga, redução da pressão arterial diastólica e redução da perfusão coronária. Fonte: Adaptada de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Ikonomidis et al., 2019</xref>.16 VE: ventrículo esquerdo; SNS: sistema nervoso simpático; PAS: pressão arterial sistólica; PAD: pressão arterial diastólica.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-1-e20240132-gf03-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>AVA</title>
					<p>O AVA avalia a relação entre duas estruturas conectadas anatômica e funcionalmente: o coração e as artérias. Para investigar essa interação, utiliza-se uma unidade comum aos dois sistemas: elastância, que mede as mudanças na pressão para cada mudança unitária no volume - unidade: mmHg/ml. Originalmente, os dados de elastância e do AVA procediam da interpretação do gráfico Pressão x Volume do ciclo cardíaco, oriundos de estudo hemodinâmico invasivo (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04002">Figura 3</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f04002">
							<label>Figura 3</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Gráfico de Pressão x Volume clássico no ciclo cardíaco, demonstrando as curvas da relação Pressão x Volume no final da diástole e da relação Pressão x Volume no final da sístole, determinando a Ea, a Ees e o AVA (VE-AO). Fonte: Adaptada de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Gamarra et al., 2024</xref>.17 Ea: elastância arterial; Ees: elastância sistólica final; VE: ventrículo esquerdo; AO: aorta.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-1-e20240132-gf04-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>A elastância arterial (<italic>Ea</italic>) é definida como a razão entre a pressão sistólica final ventricular e o volume ejetado (PSF/volume ejetado), sendo influenciada por resistência vascular, carga pulsátil e frequência cardíaca, e configura-se como um índice de carga arterial para o VE. Já a elastância sistólica final (<italic>Ees</italic>), usualmente denominada <italic>elastância ventricular</italic>, é um índice da contratilidade do VE, independente de carga, e reflete a inclinação da curva da relação Pressão x Volume no final da sístole (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04002">Figura 3</xref>), sendo a razão entre a pressão sistólica final ventricular e o volume sistólico final ventricular (PSF/VSF). A relação <italic>Ea/Ees</italic> (PSF/volume ejetado)/(PSF/VSF) pode ser simplificada como VSF/volume ejetado (removendo PSF da equação).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
					<p>O AVA é definido como a razão de <italic>Ea</italic> sobre <italic>Ees</italic> e investiga a capacidade contrátil do coração e sua capacidade de adaptação às imposições de carga.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup>Estudos prévios demonstraram que o valor ideal do AVA, derivado da razão <italic>Ea/Ees</italic>, deve variar entre 0,5 e 1, refletindo o estado em que o trabalho sistólico do VE é ideal (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05002">Figura 4</xref>). Uma relação <italic>Ea</italic>/<italic>Ees</italic> &gt; 1 sugere desacoplamento ventrículo-arterial (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05002">Figura 4</xref>). Tal incompatibilidade ventrículo-arterial é frequentemente observada na ICFEp, sendo atribuída à disfunção diastólica induzida por aumento da pós-carga e isquemia subendocárdica, e pode estar associada a um pior prognóstico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f05002">
							<label>Figura 4</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Avaliação da eficiência energética na transferência de sangue do sistema ventricular para o arterial pelo cálculo do AVA. Fonte: Adaptada de Chirinos et al., 2013.18 Ea: elastância arterial; Ees: elastância sistólica final; VE: ventrículo esquerdo; VA: ventrículo-arterial.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-1-e20240132-gf05-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>AVA esquerdo</title>
					<p>O método ecocardiográfico padrão-ouro para a avaliação do AVA VE-AO (aorta) é o chamado <italic>método single beat</italic>, desenvolvido por Chen et al. (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06002">Figura 5</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Devem-se obter parâmetros simples não invasivos que podem ser coletados facilmente: pressões arteriais sistólica e diastólica, volume ejetado, fração de ejeção, período de pré-ejeção e período ejetivo total. Como as fórmulas são relativamente complexas, recomenda-se o uso de um aplicativo de fácil manuseio (iElastance ©-aplicativo Apple iOS)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f07002">Figura 6</xref>), com resultado rápido e confiável.</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f06002">
							<label>Figura 5</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– (A) Imagem ecocardiográfica bidimensional em corte paraesternal, eixo longo, evidenciando em zoom a medida de diâmetro da via de saída do VE. (B) Imagem da VTI do espectro Doppler do fluxo da via de saída do VE, que é obtido tracejando-se a linha mais cheia do espectro para se calcular o volume ejetado. (C)/(D) Imagem ecocardiográfica bidimensional em corte apical 4 câmaras (D) e 2 câmaras (C) para se obter o valor da FEVE (método de Simpson). (E) Imagem em corte apical 5 câmaras do espectro Doppler do fluxo da via de saída do VE e do fluxo mitral, para se obter o tempo de pré-ejeção (verde) e o tempo de ejeção total (laranja). Ea: elastância arterial; PAS: pressão arterial sistólica; VSVE: via de saída do ventrículo esquerdo; VDF: volume diastólico final; VSF: volume sistólico final; VTI: integral velocidade-tempo; FEVE: fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-1-e20240132-gf06-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f07002">
							<label>Figura 6</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– (1) Imagem reproduzida do aplicativo de celular evidenciando sua fácil utilização; é necessário apenas preencher os campos com os dados obtidos, conforme <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05002">Figura 5</xref>. (2) Exemplo prático de preenchimento dos campos. (3) Resultado imediato para Ea, Ees e AVA. Fonte: Bertini P. iElastance – Aplicativo Apple iOS. Disponível em: https://apps.apple.com/br/app/ielastance/id556528864.24 Systolic pressure: PAS; Diastolic pressure: pressão arterial diastólica; Ejection fraction: fração de ejeção; Stroke volume: volume ejetado; Pre-ejection time: tempo de pré-ejeção; Total ejection time: tempo de ejeção total.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-1-e20240132-gf07-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>O valor normal proposto para <italic>Ea</italic> = 2,2 (±0.8) mmHg/ml e para <italic>Ees</italic> = 2,3 (±1.0) mmHg/ml.</p>
					<disp-formula id="e1002">
						<mml:math>
							<mml:mi>E</mml:mi>
							<mml:mi>a</mml:mi>
							<mml:mo>=</mml:mo>
							<mml:mo>(</mml:mo>
							<mml:mi>P</mml:mi>
							<mml:mi>A</mml:mi>
							<mml:mi>S</mml:mi>
							<mml:mo>×</mml:mo>
							<mml:mn>0</mml:mn>
							<mml:mo>,</mml:mo>
							<mml:mn>9</mml:mn>
							<mml:mo>)</mml:mo>
							<mml:mrow>
								<mml:mo>/</mml:mo>
							</mml:mrow>
							<mml:mtext> volume ejetado. </mml:mtext>
						</mml:math>
					</disp-formula>
					<p>
						<inline-formula>
							<mml:math>
								<mml:mtext> Ees </mml:mtext>
								<mml:mo>=</mml:mo>
								<mml:mo>[</mml:mo>
								<mml:mi>P</mml:mi>
								<mml:mi>A</mml:mi>
								<mml:mi>D</mml:mi>
								<mml:mo>−</mml:mo>
								<mml:mo>(</mml:mo>
								<mml:mi>E</mml:mi>
								<mml:mo>(</mml:mo>
								<mml:mtext> nor </mml:mtext>
								<mml:mo>)</mml:mo>
								<mml:mo>(</mml:mo>
								<mml:mrow>
									<mml:mi>est</mml:mi>
								</mml:mrow>
								<mml:mo>)</mml:mo>
								<mml:mo>×</mml:mo>
								<mml:mrow>
									<mml:mi>PAS</mml:mi>
								</mml:mrow>
								<mml:mo>×</mml:mo>
								<mml:mn>0</mml:mn>
								<mml:mo>,</mml:mo>
								<mml:mn>9</mml:mn>
								<mml:mo>)</mml:mo>
								<mml:mo>]</mml:mo>
								<mml:mrow>
									<mml:mo>/</mml:mo>
								</mml:mrow>
								<mml:mi>E</mml:mi>
								<mml:mo>(</mml:mo>
								<mml:mtext> nor </mml:mtext>
								<mml:mo>)</mml:mo>
								<mml:mo>(</mml:mo>
								<mml:mrow>
									<mml:mi>est</mml:mi>
								</mml:mrow>
								<mml:mo>)</mml:mo>
								<mml:mo>×</mml:mo>
								<mml:mtext> Volume Ejetado </mml:mtext>
							</mml:math>
						</inline-formula>, onde <italic>PAD</italic> (pressão atrial direita) e <italic>PAS</italic> são, respectivamente, as pressões arteriais diastólica e sistólica do manguito, aferidas no braço, <italic>E(nor)(est)</italic> é a elastância ventricular normalizada, estimada no início da ejeção, e <italic>Volume Ejetado</italic> é o resultado do produto da Integral Velocidade-Tempo (VTI) do espectro Doppler do fluxo da via de saída do VE pela medida de diâmetro da via de saída do VE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> O uso do aplicativo dedicado para tal fim evita que sejam realizados cálculos complexos e demorados, bastando preencher os campos com os respectivos dados solicitados: PAS (mmHg), pressão arterial diastólica (mmHg), fração de ejeção do VE (%), volume ejetado (ml), tempo de pré-ejeção (ms) e tempo total de ejeção (ms) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06002">Figura 5</xref>). O resultado é imediato com os valores de: <italic>Ea</italic>, <italic>Ees</italic> e AVA (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f07002">Figura 6</xref>).</p>
					<p>Inúmeras metodologias têm surgido de forma a possibilitar a avaliação do AVA VE-AO por meio da ecocardiografia. A medida de Velocidade de Onda de Pulso (VOP) parece representar, de maneira abrangente, a carga arterial (rigidez arterial, impedância aórtica e ondas refletidas precoces) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03002">Figura 2</xref>), associada à medida do <italic>strain</italic> longitudinal global (SLG) do VE como marcador de performance miocárdica. Logo, o uso da razão VOP/SLG pode ser mais apropriado em vários cenários para caracterizar o AVA, uma vez que incorpora métodos padrão-ouro na avaliação da carga arterial (VOP) e da contratilidade do VE (SLG), com valor prognóstico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A utilização da ecocardiografia 3D para a mensuração dos volumes ventriculares, o uso do trabalho miocárdico para a análise de performance miocárdica e a incorporação cada vez maior de inteligência artificial e <italic>machine learning</italic> para o cálculo da elastância ventricular (<italic>Ees</italic>) representam uma evolução técnica e contribuem para uma maior aplicabilidade futura do AVA na prática clínica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Nesse contexto, serão necessários estudos para a normatização de métodos e de valores.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>AVA direito</title>
					<p>A relação TAPSE/PSAP (excursão sistólica do plano anular tricúspide/pressão sistólica da artéria pulmonar) expressa a relação entre a contratilidade do VD e sua pós-carga, demonstrando boa correlação com métodos invasivos considerados padrão-ouro para medir o acoplamento ventrículo direito-artéria pulmonar (VD-AP). Consequentemente, a relação TAPSE/PSAP tem sido incorporada nas principais diretrizes para avaliação do VD e da hipertensão pulmonar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A TAPSE é mensurada por meio de ecocardiografia em modo M (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f08002">Figura 7A</xref>) e avalia a função contrátil do VD. Para se estimar a pós-carga do VD (PSAP), determina-se a velocidade máxima do jato de regurgitação tricúspide a partir da análise da curva espectral do Doppler contínuo e adiciona-se a PAD, estimada por meio de observação da veia cava inferior. Obtém-se, assim, a PSVD (pressão sistólica ventricular direita), calculada por meio da equação de Bernoulli modificada: 4 x velocidade de pico<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f08002">Figura 7B</xref>). Na ausência de obstrução do trato de saída do ventrículo direito ou estenose pulmonar, a PSVD é igual à PSAP.</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f08002">
							<label>Figura 7</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– (A) Mensuração do deslocamento do anel tricúspide pelo modo M - TAPSE. (B) Curva espectral do Doppler contínuo, demonstrando o fluxo de regurgitação tricúspide; pode-se estimar a pressão sistólica em artéria pulmonar. A relação TAPSE/PSAP estima o valor do AVA (VD-AP). TAPSE: tricuspid anular plane systolic excursion; PSAP: pressão sistólica em artéria pulmonar; VD: ventrículo direito; AP: artéria pulmonar.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-1-e20240132-gf08-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>Na ICFEp fenótipo obesidade, a disfunção ventricular direita decorre de diversos mecanismos atuantes na pré-carga, na pós-carga e na contratilidade do ventrículo direito. É frequente ainda a presença de pressão pulmonar aumentada (pré e pós-capilar combinada), dilatação ventricular direita, disfunção primária do sarcômero ventricular, restrição pericárdica e interdependência ventricular, que agravam ainda mais o enchimento biventricular e a hipertensão pulmonar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A disfunção do VD é um preditor independente de risco de mortalidade e hospitalização na ICFEp, portanto, deve ser sempre investigada. Uma relação TAPSE/PSAP &lt; 0,48 mm/mmHg foi associada a uma maior mortalidade por todas as causas e a uma maior hospitalização por IC em população com IC com FEVE preservada e reduzida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> Outro estudo demonstrou que, no subgrupo de pacientes com ICFEp e hipertensão pulmonar pré-capilar, uma relação TAPSE/PSAP &lt; 0,36mm/mmHg foi associada a piores desfechos clínicos, mas sugeriu que esses indivíduos poderiam responder de forma mais favorável às intervenções direcionadas à pós-carga do VD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
					<p>É relevante destacar que a relação do <italic>strain</italic> global longitudinal do VD (SGL-VD)/PSAP também tem sido empregada como metodologia apropriada para avaliar o acoplamento VD-AP e tem se revelado um instrumento acurado para a avaliação dos pacientes em diferentes cenários.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>AVA x ICFEp</title>
					<p>No contexto da ICFEp, o cálculo da FEVE não caracteriza aspectos mais amplos da conexão ventrículo-arterial, particularmente aqueles relacionados à pós-carga (<italic>Ea</italic>) ou à contratilidade (<italic>Ees</italic>), que são altamente relevantes para a conduta terapêutica em pacientes com quadro clínico de IC e FEVE preservada. Nesse cenário, a <italic>Ees</italic> pode estar normal, enquanto a <italic>Ea</italic> pode apresentar aumento, resultando em <italic>Ea</italic>/<italic>Ees</italic> &gt; 1.0 (desacoplamento VA). No entanto, a <italic>Ea</italic> e a <italic>Ees</italic> podem frequentemente apresentar resultado normal (entre 0,5 e 1.0), apesar de tanto a <italic>Ea</italic> quanto a <italic>Ees</italic> estarem elevadas. Dessa forma, é essencial identificar o valor das elastâncias individualmente<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup>(<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06002">Figuras 5</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06002">6</xref>). Algumas intervenções têm demonstrado potencial para atuar nas elastâncias e melhorar o AVA, como drogas anti-hipertensivas,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> INRA (inibidor da neprilisina e do receptor da angiotensina),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> inibidores do cotransportador de sódio-glicose-2 (SGLT2),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> análogos de GLP-1<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> e inibidores de interleucinas IL-1<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> e IL-12.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A utilização do AVA para a avaliação da população com ICFEp tem se mostrado uma ferramenta acurada para a estratificação daqueles indivíduos sob maior risco. Em um estudo recente envolvendo pacientes com FEVE &gt; 40%, evidenciou-se que o subgrupo de pacientes, a despeito de apresentar FEVE mais elevada, demonstrou maior grau de hipertrofia ventricular esquerda, maiores pressões de enchimento do VE e maior taxa de desacoplamento VE-AO, com pior prognóstico. Além disso, o subgrupo que apresentou desacoplamento VD-AP, verificado pela relação TAPSE/PSAP, também demonstrou evoluir com pior prognóstico, independentemente dos valores da FEVE, relação E/e’ e presença de fibrilação atrial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Restrição pericárdica (ICFEp) X interdependência ventricular</title>
					<p>Pacientes obesos com ICFEp apresentam características patofisiológicas peculiares, incluindo hipervolemia, desacoplamento VD-AP, hipertrofia biventricular, disfunção ventricular direita, hipertensão pré e pós-capilar pulmonar, pressões de enchimento elevadas em câmaras esquerdas e aumento do TAE<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f09002">Figura 8</xref>).</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f09002">
							<label>Figura 8</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Mecanismo hemodinâmico proposto para a ICFEp fenótipo obesidade. VE: ventrículo esquerdo; VD: ventrículo direito; O2: oxigênio; PDFVE: pressão diastólica final do ventrículo esquerdo; VDFVD: volume diastólico final do ventrículo direito; ICFEp: insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção preservada.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-1-e20240132-gf09-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>Devido à proximidade com o miocárdio, o excesso de TAE pode promover efeitos locais inflamatórios e mecânicos restritivos ao músculo cardíaco. A restrição pericárdica associada à hipervolemia pode elevar a pressão pericárdica, promover uma disputa por enchimento entre o VD e o VE, ocasionar um achatamento do septo ventricular, destacar a interdependência ventricular e acarretar distensão do VD, redução da pré-carga do VE, aumento da pressão diastólica final do VE e redução do débito cardíaco (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f09002">Figura 8</xref>). No ecocardiograma, é possível quantificar, utilizando o plano paraesternal de eixo curto, o índice de excentricidade do VE, que se torna mais elevado (índice de excentricidade do VE &gt; 1) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10002">Figura 9</xref>) à medida que se constatam maior restrição pericárdica e maiores pressões intracardíacas, incluindo pressões atrial direita, arterial pulmonar e diastólica final do VD, concomitantes com uma redução significativa na capacidade física funcional.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f10002">
							<label>Figura 9</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Ilustração evidenciando aumento do índice de excentricidade do VE devido a interdependência ventricular, proposto para a ICFEp fenótipo obesidade. Fonte: modificada de Borlaug et al., 2019.39 VE: ventrículo esquerdo; VD: ventrículo direito; AP: anteroposterior; SL: septolateral.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-1-e20240132-gf10-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>A interdependência ventricular tem sido alvo terapêutico de inúmeros estudos da atualidade. Estudos que efetuam intervenções transcateter para a redução da regurgitação tricúspide em pacientes com ICFEp têm sido elaborados com o intuito de melhorar a interdependência ventricular e aumentar o enchimento do VE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> De maneira análoga, um estudo-piloto demonstrou o potencial para a pericardiotomia cirúrgica em pacientes com ICFEp e TAE restritivo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Considerações finais</title>
				<p>A magnitude do problema de saúde pública global da ICFEp, no qual a obesidade tem uma prevalência de aproximadamente 70% (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1002">Tabela 1</xref>), motivou nos últimos anos uma investigação mais específica de fenotipagem de subpopulações, com o objetivo de aprimorar os resultados diagnósticos, terapêuticos e de prognóstico. Atenção destacada tem sido dada ao excesso de TAE nessa população, o qual, quando associado à sobrecarga de volume, pode acarretar restrição pericárdica com interdependência ventricular, contribuindo para uma elevação mais significativa das pressões de enchimento das câmaras esquerdas, piora da pressão pulmonar, redução do débito cardíaco, baixa capacidade física e pior prognóstico. Essa condição hemodinâmica pode ser identificada pelo ecocardiograma (índice de excentricidade do VE &gt; 1).</p>
				<p>A análise não invasiva do AVA pela ecocardiografia parece ser uma ferramenta promissora para avaliar a hemodinâmica de forma mais individualizada e personalizar o tratamento de pacientes com ICFEp. O método ecocardiográfico de <italic>single beat</italic>, combinado ao uso de um aplicativo dedicado, está se tornando cada vez mais factível e os médicos estão ganhando mais experiência com essa tecnologia, ampliando-se, assim, o conhecimento sobre a interação complexa entre o coração e os vasos. Contudo, os esforços para o desenvolvimento de novos métodos devem continuar, seja por meio de técnicas avançadas de imagem, seja através da criação de novos softwares, inteligência artificial e <italic>machine learning.</italic> Assim, resta claro que, quanto mais precoces forem o diagnóstico preciso, a definição etiológica e a estimativa da gravidade, somados à implementação de esforços preventivos e terapêuticos, maior será o ganho com relação à progressão da doença e aos desfechos correlatos.</p>
			</sec>
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			<fn-group>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<label>Vinculação Acadêmica:</label>
					<p> Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<label>Aprovação Ética e Consentimento Informado:</label>
					<p> Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
			<fn-group>
				<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
					<label>Fontes de Financiamento:</label>
					<p> O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
		</back>
	</sub-article>
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