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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abcimg</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq Bras Cardiol: Imagem cardiovasc.</abbrev-journal-title></journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name></publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20250028i</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abcimg.20250028i</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Review Article</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>My Approach to Estimate Pulmonary Pressures: Practical Aspects</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0000-4977-4056</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Silva</surname><given-names>Halsted Alarcão Gomes Pereira da</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>writing of the manuscript and critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Gomes</surname><given-names>Helder Moura</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>writing of the manuscript and critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Metropolitano Dom José Maria Pires</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">João Pessoa</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">PB</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital Metropolitano Dom José Maria Pires, João Pessoa, PB – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><label>Mailing Address:</label> <bold>Halsted Alarcão Gomes Pereira da Silva</bold> • Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia. Rua Dr. Dante Pazzanese, 500. Postal code: <postal-code>04012-909</postal-code>. São Paulo, SP – Brazil E-mail: <email>halstedufg@hotmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><label>Potential Conflict of Interest</label>
<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><label>Editor responsible for the review:</label><p>Marcelo Tavares</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>30</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2025</year></pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2025</year></pub-date>
<volume>38</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<elocation-id>e20250028</elocation-id>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>28</day>
<month>04</month>
<year>2025</year>
</date>
<date date-type="rev-recd">
<day>06</day>
<month>05</month>
<year>2025</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>08</day>
<month>05</month>
<year>2025</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is a global disease and is increasingly present in echocardiography laboratories, given the progressive rise in its prevalence with population aging. Previously diagnosed only through invasive methods, echocardiographic assessment of pulmonary pressures has become fundamental in screening and monitoring patients with PH. This topic was revisited by the American Society of Echocardiography in a new guideline published in March 2025, reinforcing the importance of echocardiography in clinical stratification, considering recent updates in the definition of PH. Among the main assessment parameters, systolic pulmonary artery pressure, mean pulmonary artery pressure (mPAP), pulmonary vascular resistance (PVR), and pulmonary capillary pressure (PCP) are described, along with a series of precautions for the correct estimation and interpretation of these values. The classification of PH levels has also been revised in a new framework. As an accessible and reproducible method, the assessment of pulmonary pressures through echocardiography stands out as an essential tool in the evaluation and follow-up of PH.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords</title>
<kwd>Pulmonary Hypertension</kwd>
<kwd>Echocardiography</kwd>
<kwd>Doppler Ultrasonography</kwd>
<kwd>Pulmonary Wedge Pressure</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="16"/>
<table-count count="10"/>
<equation-count count="2"/>
<ref-count count="14"/>
</counts>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<fig id="f1">
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-02-e20250028-gf01.tif"/>
<p>IVC: inferior vena cava; VTI RVOT: velocity-time integral right ventricular outflow tract; TR: Tricuspid regurgitation; PASP: Pulmonary artery systolic pressure</p>
</fig>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introduction</title>
<p>Pulmonary hypertension (PH) has an estimated prevalence of about 1% of the global population, with a gradual increase with aging due to its direct relationship with cardiac and pulmonary diseases. It has prognostic implications due to its severe hemodynamic consequences and serves as a fundamental parameter for clinical decision-making and therapeutic guidance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>The assessment of pulmonary pressures has been a constant pursuit for a better hemodynamic understanding of diseases affecting both acquired and congenital heart conditions. Initially, this type of evaluation was performed exclusively through invasive hemodynamic methods, predominantly using pulmonary artery catheters such as the Swan-Ganz and right heart catheterization.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
<p>The incorporation of the color Doppler method and the ability to correlate intracavitary flow velocities with hemodynamic gradients, with reasonable agreement with invasive parameters, has enabled the rapid evolution of echocardiography in this field. As a non-invasive, reproducible, and replicable method, performed at the bedside and with relatively low cost, echocardiography presents a significant advantage as an initial assessment tool.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<sec>
<title>Definition of PH</title>
<p>The currently accepted definition of PH was proposed during the 6th World Symposium on PH in 2018, where 124 experts gathered and reviewed it.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
<p>Previous definition of PH</p>
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item><label>–</label><p>Mean pulmonary artery pressure (mPAP): ≥ 25 mmHg</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>Pulmonary vascular resistance (PVR): ≥ 3 Wood Units (WU) – Precapillary hypertension</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>Pulmonary capillary pressure (PCP): ≤ 15 mmHg – Precapillary hypertension</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>Proposed (current) definition:</p>
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item><label>–</label><p>mPAP: &gt; 20 mmHg</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>PVR: &gt; 2 Wood Units (WU) – Precapillary hypertension</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>PCP: ≤ 15 mmHg – Precapillary hypertension</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>This change was based on data from healthy individuals, in which resting mPAP was identified as approximately 14.0±3.3 mmHg. Considering a variation of two standard deviations as still within normal limits, a mPAP value &gt;20 mmHg would be the threshold for abnormal pulmonary artery pressure (above the 97.5th percentile).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
<p>Based on these values, the echocardiographic parameters described below were studied in relation to invasive assessment, not with the aim of replacing this examination, but rather as an initial screening proposal, since performing right heart catheterization at a population level is impractical and not cost-effective.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>The concept of communicating vessels</title>
<p>The echocardiographic assessment of pulmonary pressures is based on the concept of communicating vessels. This concept establishes that a fluid with the same specific mass and at the same height would have the same pressure at any point in the system. Based on this, echocardiography can identify the pulmonary artery systolic pressure (PASP) by calculating the right ventricular systolic pressure (RVSP).</p>
<p>To calculate RVSP, the systolic gradient between the right ventricle (RV) and the right atrium (RA) must first be evaluated using the maximum velocity of tricuspid regurgitation (TR), applying the modified Bernoulli equation, which derives the gradient based on velocity. By adding the estimated right atrial pressure (RAP) to this pressure estimate, RVSP is obtained, which, in a system without flow obstruction, will be similar to PASP.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Mean RAP</title>
<p>For this estimation, we first examine how to assess the mean RAP. Throughout its evolution, transthoracic echocardiography has identified various metrics to estimate RAP with reasonable accuracy. Despite several limitations in its analysis, the most commonly used parameter for this inference is the measurement of the inferior vena cava (IVC) diameter during an expiratory pause and its respiratory variability, as shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 1</xref>.</p>
<fig id="f2">
<label>Figure 1</label>
<caption><p>Flowchart for the assessment of mean RAP proposed by the American Society of Echocardiography in its latest guideline (ASE 2025);<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> IVC: inferior vena cava; RAP: right atrial pressure; RV: right ventricle.</p></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-02-e20250028-gf02.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Depending on the initial measurement of the IVC and its variation with respiratory phasicity, RAP can be estimated as follows:</p>
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item><label>–</label><p>RAP &lt; 3 mmHg</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>RAP: 3 mmHg (0 - 5 mmHg)</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>RAP: 8 mmHg (5 - 10 mmHg)</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>RAP: 15 mmHg (10 - 20 mmHg)</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>RAP: 20 mmHg</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>The IVC can be measured in most patients using the subcostal window, making it easily reproducible during hospitalization or outpatient follow-up. As we will see below, this index is not always representative of RAP in certain scenarios, which should be interpreted with caution.</p>
<p>Precautions in the acquisition and interpretation of the IVC:</p>
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item><label>–</label><p>Acquire the IVC image longitudinally with a central axis cut throughout the respiratory cycle (the measurement of the transverse axis can help avoid errors).</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>Be cautious when evaluating patients with chronic hypervolemia (heart failure and advanced chronic kidney disease)</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>Be cautious when evaluating athletes (IVC distended due to excellent preload).</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>In cases of diagnostic uncertainty or indeterminate cases, secondary indices for estimating RAP can be considered, such as a tricuspid E/e&apos; ratio &gt; 6, predominance of diastolic flow in the hepatic veins*, and identification of a restrictive diastolic filling pattern in the right chambers.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
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</disp-formula>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>PASP</title>
<p>Still regarding the concept of communicating vessels without flow obstruction, it can be inferred that RVSP will be equivalent to PASP, which is the hemodynamic parameter that is actually being investigated.</p>
<p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 2</xref> illustrates a case of a significant increase in pulmonary pressures and how the final PASP value is calculated.</p>
<fig id="f3">
<label>Figure 2</label>
<caption><title>Estimation of PASP, measured at 59 mmHg in this patient.</title> <p>A) TR assessed with continuous-wave Doppler. B) Estimation of RAP by evaluating the diameter of the IVC and collapsibility with the respiratory cycle in M-mode. IVC: inferior vena cava; PASP: Pulmonary arterial systolic pressure; RAP: right atrial pressure.</p></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-02-e20250028-gf03.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Precautions in the acquisition and interpretation of PASP:</p>
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item><label>–</label><p>When measuring the maximum velocity of TR (RV–RA gradient), proper Doppler angle alignment (&lt; 20°) should be maintained to avoid possible underestimation due to measurement error.</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>Excessive gain should be avoided when acquiring the spectral Doppler image to prevent overestimation of the actual transvalvular gradient, as shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 3</xref>.</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>To ensure accuracy and account for respiratory variation, RVSP should ideally be calculated from the average of three consecutive beats in echocardiographic windows with the highest velocities and best spectral Doppler envelopes.</p></list-item>
</list>
<fig id="f4">
<label>Figure 3</label>
<caption><p>TR on continuous-wave Doppler with excessive gain (left, with a maximum velocity of 3.9 m/s) and with appropriate gain (right, with a maximum velocity of 3.5 m/s).</p></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-02-e20250028-gf04.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Other parameters for estimating PASP have been described using the acceleration time (AcT) of systolic flow in the right ventricular outflow tract (RVOT). As a region of low pressure and high compliance, the pulmonary bed generates a flow pattern with low velocities and a long AcT during the systolic period.</p>
<p>A progressive increase in pulmonary pressures, particularly in its precapillary component, will result in a progressively shorter AcT, associated with an earlier-than-usual systolic peak (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 4</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f5">
<label>Figure 4</label>
<caption><title>Assessment of AcT considering the sample volume at the level of the pulmonary valve;</title> <p>A) Shortened AcT (81ms) associated with mid-systolic notch in the tracing, confirming the finding of PH; B) Normal AcT (113ms).</p></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-02-e20250028-gf05.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Based on this important hemodynamic concept, correlation studies between these two variables were conducted, allowing for the identification and validation of the formulas presented in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>.</p>
<table-wrap id="t1">
<label>Table 1</label>
<caption><title>Main Clinically Validated Formulas for Estimating Pulmonary Artery Systolic Pressure (PASP)</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="33%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Parameter</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Formula</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Condition</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">PASP</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">4 x maximum velocity of TR + RAP <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" />
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">PASP</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">134 – (0,9 X AcT) <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" />
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">PASP</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" />
<td align="left" valign="middle">RVOT AcT &gt; 105 ms (without PH*)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup><break/> * Considered normal, based on epidemiological studies involving healthy populations.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">PASP</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" />
<td align="left" valign="middle">RVOT AcT &lt; 80 ms (probable HP)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN1"><p>PASP: pulmonary artery systolic pressure; TR: tricuspid regurgitation; RAP: right atrial pressure; AcT: acceleration time; PH: pulmonary hypertension; RVOT: right ventricular outflow tract.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>Precautions in the acquisition and interpretation of AcT</p>
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item><label>–</label><p>Window: Parasternal short-axis at the level of the great vessels, directed toward the pulmonary valve.</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>Sample volume position: Acquired using pulsed Doppler in the RVOT, with the sample volume positioned just below the pulmonary valve at the end of expiration.</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>Measurement: From the beginning of pulmonary flow to the peak velocity.</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>The greatest validation of pulmonary ATc has been conducted in cases of precapillary PH.</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>ATc in the RVOT may be less reliable in patients with low or high heart rates (&lt;60 and &gt;100 beats/min).</p></list-item>
</list>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>mPAP</title>
<p>Considered the reference measure for defining PH and severity stratification, the determination of mPAP is very important for clinical cardiologists. Over the past decades, several studies have validated this non-invasive estimate, culminating in the recommendation of the American guideline for the echocardiographic evaluation of the right heart in adults in 2010. This document provided a detailed description of the formulas for calculating both mPAP and pulmonary artery diastolic pressure (PADP), which were replicated in the 2025 guideline.</p>
<p>Based on current knowledge, mPAP values greater than 20 mmHg are considered pathological and should be reported in the echocardiographic report.</p>
<p>The step-by-step process for calculating mPAP after acquiring PASP and PADP is illustrated in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 5</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref>.</p>
<fig id="f6">
<label>Figure 5</label>
<caption><p>Estimation of mPAP and pulmonary artery diastolic pressure (PADP) using the initial and final velocities of pulmonary insufficiency (PI): A) PI on continuous-wave Doppler; mPAP is obtained by summing RAP with the peak gradient of PI calculated using the Bernoulli equation. PADP is obtained by calculating the gradient considering the end-diastolic velocity of PI added to RAP; B) Estimation of RAP by evaluating the IVC and its respiratory collapsibility; C) TR; D) Application of formulas for calculating mPAP and PADP; PASP: pulmonary artery systolic pressure; IVC: inferior vena cava.</p></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-02-e20250028-gf06.tif"/>
</fig>
<table-wrap id="t2">
<label>Table 2</label>
<caption><title>Main clinically validated formulas used for mPAP estimation</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="50%">
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Parameter</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Formula</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Condition</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">mPAP</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><mml:math display="block"><mml:mrow><mml:mfrac><mml:mn>1</mml:mn><mml:mn>3</mml:mn></mml:mfrac><mml:mo stretchy="false">(</mml:mo><mml:mi>P</mml:mi><mml:mi>S</mml:mi><mml:mi>A</mml:mi><mml:mi>P</mml:mi><mml:mo stretchy="false">)</mml:mo><mml:mo>+</mml:mo><mml:mfrac><mml:mn>2</mml:mn><mml:mn>3</mml:mn></mml:mfrac><mml:mi>P</mml:mi><mml:mi>A</mml:mi><mml:mi>D</mml:mi><mml:mi>P</mml:mi></mml:mrow></mml:math></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" />
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">mPAP</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">79 – 0.45x(AcT)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">AcT ≥ 120ms (HR 60 – 100bpm)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">mPAP</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">90 – 0.62x(AcT)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">AcT &lt; 120ms (HR 60 – 100bpm)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">mPAP</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">0.61x(PASP) + 2<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" />
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">mPAP</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">VTI da IT + RAP11</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" />
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN2"><p>mPAP: mean pulmonary artery pressure; AcT: acceleration time of the right ventricular outflow tract; HR: heart rate; TR: tricuspid regurgitation; VTI: velocity-time integral; RAP: right atrial pressure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>Precautions in acquisition and interpretation</p>
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item><label>–</label><p>The calculation of mPAP involves other variables, so its estimation should be performed using the best possible technique.</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>mPAP uses Pulmonary Insufficiency (PI) as an analysis parameter for its calculation. The initial velocity of the PI jet, added to RAP, allows for the determination of mPAP.</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>PADP uses the final velocity of the PI jet, added to RAP, to determine the PADP value.</p></list-item>
</list>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>PVR</title>
<p>Concept describing the measurement of resistance that the pulmonary vascular system offers to blood flow from the RV. This parameter provides an important discriminatory factor, allowing stratification between the precapillary and postcapillary components of PH.</p>
<p>The identification of this measurement in a non-invasive manner originates from the classic work of Abbas et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> The study was published in the Journal of the American College of Cardiology (JACC) in 2003, and their formula was later validated in a new publication in 2013 in the Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography (JASE).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
<p>For the calculation of PVR, two basic evaluation parameters are required (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figure 6</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f7">
<label>Figure 6</label>
<caption><title>Calculation of PVR using velocity-time integral (VTI) of the RVOT’</title> <p>(A); maximum velocity of TR (B); application of the formula (C).</p></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-02-e20250028-gf07.tif"/>
</fig>
<fig id="f8">
<label>Figure 7</label>
<caption><title>Calculation of PCP using Nagueh&apos;s formula;</title> <p>A) E and A waves of mitral inflow on pulsed Doppler; B) e&apos; wave of the mitral annulus on tissue Doppler; C) Nagueh&apos;s formula with the estimation of a significant increase in PCP.</p></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-02-e20250028-gf08.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>The formulas used for PVR calculation are described in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 3</xref>.</p>
<table-wrap id="t3">
<label>Table 3</label>
<caption><title>Main clinically validated formulas used for PVR estimation</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="33%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Parameter</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Formula</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Condition</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">PVR</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><mml:math display="block"><mml:mrow><mml:mfrac><mml:mrow><mml:mi>T</mml:mi><mml:mi>R</mml:mi><mml:mi>m</mml:mi><mml:mi>a</mml:mi><mml:mi>x</mml:mi><mml:mi>i</mml:mi><mml:mi>m</mml:mi><mml:mi>u</mml:mi><mml:mi>m</mml:mi><mml:mi>v</mml:mi><mml:mi>e</mml:mi><mml:mi>l</mml:mi><mml:mi>o</mml:mi><mml:mi>c</mml:mi><mml:mi>i</mml:mi><mml:mi>t</mml:mi><mml:mi>y</mml:mi><mml:mo stretchy="false">(</mml:mo><mml:mi>m</mml:mi><mml:mo>/</mml:mo><mml:mi>s</mml:mi><mml:mo stretchy="false">)</mml:mo></mml:mrow><mml:mrow><mml:mi>R</mml:mi><mml:mi>V</mml:mi><mml:mi>O</mml:mi><mml:mi>T</mml:mi><mml:mi>V</mml:mi><mml:mi>T</mml:mi><mml:mi>I</mml:mi><mml:mo stretchy="false">(</mml:mo><mml:mi>c</mml:mi><mml:mi>m</mml:mi><mml:mo stretchy="false">)</mml:mo></mml:mrow></mml:mfrac><mml:mo>×</mml:mo><mml:mn>10</mml:mn><mml:mo>+</mml:mo><mml:msup><mml:mrow><mml:mn>0.16</mml:mn></mml:mrow><mml:mrow><mml:mo stretchy="false">(</mml:mo><mml:mn>12</mml:mn><mml:mo stretchy="false">)</mml:mo></mml:mrow></mml:msup></mml:mrow></mml:math></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">RVP &gt; 2.0 Woods is considered abnormal</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">PVR</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><mml:math display="block"><mml:mrow><mml:mfrac><mml:mrow><mml:mi>R</mml:mi><mml:mi>V</mml:mi><mml:mi>S</mml:mi><mml:mi>P</mml:mi><mml:mo>−</mml:mo><mml:mi>P</mml:mi><mml:mi>C</mml:mi><mml:mi>P</mml:mi></mml:mrow><mml:mrow><mml:mi>C</mml:mi><mml:mi>O</mml:mi></mml:mrow></mml:mfrac></mml:mrow></mml:math></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">RVSP, RVDP and CO values may be obtained from echocardiographic data</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN3"><p>PVR: Pulmonary Vascular Resistance; TR: Tricuspid Regurgitation; VTI: Velocity-Time Integral; RVOT: Right Ventricular Outflow Tract; RVSP: Right Ventricular Systolic Pressure; PCP: Pulmonary Capillary Pressure; CO: Cardiac Output.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>PCP</title>
<p>The combined assessment of pulmonary pressures, PVR, and PCP allows for the classification of PH into one of the five categories described below, according to the latest PH classification (ESC 2022):</p>
<list list-type="order">
<list-item><p>Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension (PAH)</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>PH associated with left ventricular disease</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>PH associated with lung disease</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>PH associated with obstructive lung disease</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>PH with unclear or multifactorial mechanisms (etiology)</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>Thus, the evaluation of PCP will determine whether capillary pressures – and consequently, left atrial pressure – are elevated or not, enabling an initial stratification between groups with and without left heart involvement (postcapillary and precapillary hypertension).</p>
<p>The main formulas for this calculation are described below (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 4</xref>), with Nagueh&apos;s formula being the most widely used. In their original study, the findings of Nagueh et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> were strongly correlated with left ventricular filling pressures and, therefore, with PCP.</p>
<table-wrap id="t4">
<label>Table 4</label>
<caption><title>Main clinically validated formulas used for PCP estimation</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="33%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Parameter</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Formula</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Condition</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">PCP</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">1,24 X E/e’ ratio + 1,9 <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">– Normality values: &lt; 12 – 15 mmHg<break/> E/e’ &gt; 15 was correlated with PCP &gt; 15 mmHg<break/> Original study:<break/> Sensitivity: 89% - Specificity: 91% - Accuracy: 0.92</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">PCP</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">PCP = 5,7 X E/VP + 4,6 <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Study with 45 patients (LVEF: 40% ± 15%)</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN4"><p>PCP: pulmonary capillary pressure; LVEF: left ventricle ejection fraction; CO: cardiac output; PVR: Pulmonary vascular resistance.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>Precautions in acquisition and interpretation:</p>
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item><label>–</label><p>The evaluation of E/e&apos; variables is routinely performed in the assessment of diastolic function and therefore does not add extra time to the examination.</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>Since they use the Doppler method, these variables are influenced by the insonation angle.</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>In patients with significant mitral valve disease, the A wave may be increased due to the valvulopathy, limiting the analysis of PCP.</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>PCP assessment is impaired in the presence of arrhythmias.</p></list-item>
</list>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Summary of main warnings and pitfalls</title>
<list list-type="order">
<list-item><p>Measure the densest primary edge of the continuous-wave Doppler signal (&quot;chin&quot;) and not the faint spectra (&quot;beard&quot;), optimizing gain and brightness across multiple imaging planes.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Ultrasound contrast agents, saline blood contrast, and agitated saline solution can be used to enhance the Doppler signal, improving diagnostic accuracy.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Position the ultrasound beam parallel to the direction of blood flow, ideally at an angle &lt;20° to minimize any errors in velocity measurement.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>If there is significant TR, the shape of the continuous-wave Doppler signal can help guide the accuracy of right ventricular systolic pressure (RVSP) estimates. A triangular continuous-wave Doppler contour will underestimate RVSP, while accuracy improves with a parabolic Doppler contour.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Do not consider velocity after a pause or premature contraction (extrasystole).</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Consider the average velocity over five to seven beats in patients with arrhythmia.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Measure the IVC while visualizing its walls throughout the entire respiratory cycle, avoiding possible false collapsibility due to sampling error.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Physiological aging and an increase in body surface area can elevate pulmonary artery systolic pressure (PASP) without necessarily indicating pathology.</p></list-item>
</list>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="discussion">
<title>Clinical interpretation</title>
<p>Although there are several echocardiographic methods to calculate PMAP, the standard reporting of RVSP is generally preferred for several reasons. First, RVSP is measured directly from the peak velocity of the TR jet, making it a more direct and reliable estimate. In contrast, methods such as AcT of RVOT and the estimation of mPAP and PADP rely on indirect calculations and assumptions, which can introduce measurement errors.</p>
<p>The correct quantification and stratification of pulmonary pressures will allow their classification as mild, moderate, and severe. This classification was revisited in the guideline for echocardiographic assessment of the right heart in adults and special considerations in PH by the American Society of Echocardiography (ASE), grading the abnormality of the values presented in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">Table 5</xref>.</p>
<table-wrap id="t5">
<label>Table 5</label>
<caption><title>Classification of pulmonary pressure levels according to the 2025 American Society of Echocardiography guidelines</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="20%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Variable</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Normality</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle" colspan="3">Abnormality grade</th>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="center" valign="middle">Discrete</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Moderate</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Important</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">TR velocity</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt; 2.8m/s</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">2.8 −3.1m/s</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">3.2 - 3.5m/s</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">≥3.6m/s</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">PASP</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">≤34mmHg</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">35 – 49 mmHg</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">50 −69 mmHg</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">≥70mmHg</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">RAP</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">0 - 4(Mean 3 mmHg)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">5 a 9(Médio 8 mmHg)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">10 a 14 mmHg</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">≥15mmHg</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">AcT</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&gt;105ms</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">80 – 105ms</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">61-79ms</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">≤ 60ms</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN5"><p>PVR: pulmonary vascular resistance; TR: tricuspid regurgitation; PASP: pulmonary artery systolic pressure; RAP: right atrial pressure; AcT: acceleration time<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>Due to the significant limitation in correctly identifying pulmonary vascular resistance (PVR), PH can be assessed by considering only the maximum velocity of TR to avoid inference errors, a parameter that had already been corroborated by the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) in its 2022 PH guidelines.</p>
<p>The definitive assessment of mPAP for diagnosis, classification, and initiation of pharmacological therapy for PH requires direct hemodynamic measurement via invasive right heart catheterization.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusion</title>
<p>The evaluation of pulmonary pressures has been a cornerstone in identifying adult patients and patients with congenital diseases who have a worse clinical prognosis. The identification of pulmonary pressure levels is still based on invasive quantification through hemodynamic assessment, which remains the gold standard method. Doppler echocardiography emerges as an excellent alternative for the initial stratification of these patients, adding other parameters such as ventricular function and valve assessment.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1"><label>Sources of Funding</label>
<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2"><label>Study Association</label>
<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3"><label>Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate</label>
<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn4"><label>Use of Artificial Intelligence</label>
<p>The authors did not use any artificial intelligence tools in the development of this work.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
<sec sec-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-in-article">
<label>Availability of Research Data</label>
<p>The underlying content of the research text is contained within the manuscript.</p>
</sec>
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<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S1" xml:lang="pt">
<front-stub>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20250028</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Como Eu Faço a Estimativa das Pressões Pulmonares: Aspectos Práticos</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0000-4977-4056</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Silva</surname><given-names>Halsted Alarcão Gomes Pereira da</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>redação do manuscrito e revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Gomes</surname><given-names>Helder Moura</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>redação do manuscrito e revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff4">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">João Pessoa</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">PB</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital Metropolitano Dom José Maria Pires, João Pessoa, PB – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c2"><label>Correspondência:</label> <bold>Halsted Alarcão Gomes Pereira da Silva</bold> • Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia. Rua Dr. Dante Pazzanese, 500. CEP: <postal-code>04012-909</postal-code>. São Paulo, SP – Brasil E-mail: <email>halstedufg@hotmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><label>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</label>
<p>Declaro não haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><label>Editor responsável pela revisão:</label><p>Marcelo Tavares</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<abstract>
<title>Resumo</title>
<p>A hipertensão pulmonar (HP) é uma doença de alcance global e cada dia mais presente nos laboratórios de ecocardiografia, dado o progressivo aumento de sua prevalência com o envelhecimento populacional. Antes com diagnóstico restrito aos métodos invasivos, a avaliação ecocardiográfica das pressões pulmonares assumiu papel fundamental no rastreio e acompanhamento dos pacientes com HP. Este tema foi revisitado pela Sociedade Americana de Ecocardiografia em um novo <italic>guideline</italic> publicado em março de 2025, reforçando a importância da ecocardiografia na estratificação clínica, considerando as recentes atualizações na definição de HP. Entre os principais parâmetros de avaliação, são descritas a pressão sistólica da artéria pulmonar (PSAP), a pressão média da artéria pulmonar (PMAP), a resistência vascular pulmonar (RVP) e a pressão capilar pulmonar (PCP), assim como uma série de cuidados para a correta estimativa e interpretação desses valores. A graduação dos níveis de HP também foi retomada em uma nova classificação. Por ser um método acessível e reprodutível, a avaliação das pressões pulmonares por meio da ecocardiografia se apresenta como ferramenta essencial na avaliação e seguimento da HP.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
<title>Palavras-chave</title>
<kwd>Hipertensão Pulmonar</kwd>
<kwd>Ecocardiografia</kwd>
<kwd>Ultrassonografia Doppler</kwd>
<kwd>Pressão Propulsora Pulmonar</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<fig id="f9">
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-02-e20250028-pt-gf01.tif"/>
</fig>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introdução</title>
<p>A Hipertensão Pulmonar (HP) tem prevalência estimada de cerca de 1% da população mundial, com um incremento gradativo com o envelhecimento devido à relação direta com doenças cardíacas e pulmonares. Apresenta implicação prognóstica devido a suas graves consequências hemodinâmicas e é parâmetro fundamental para decisão clínica e de aconselhamento terapêutico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>A avaliação das pressões pulmonares tem sido uma busca constante para o melhor entendimento hemodinâmico das doenças que acometem tanto pacientes com cardiopatias adquiridas como cardiopatias congênitas. Inicialmente, esse tipo de avaliação era realizada exclusivamente por métodos hemodinâmicos invasivos, com o predomínio de uso de cateter de artéria pulmonar como o Swan-Ganz e cateterismo cardíaco direito.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
<p>A incorporação do método de Doppler colorido e a capacidade de correlacionar as velocidades de fluxo intracavitários com gradientes hemodinâmicos com uma razoável concordância com os parâmetros invasivos, permitiu a rápida evolução da ecocardiografia nesse cenário. Por ser um método não invasivo, reprodutível e replicável, realizado à beira do leito e de relativo baixo custo, a ecocardiografia apresenta uma grande vantagem como método de avaliação inicial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<sec>
<title>Definição de HP</title>
<p>A definição de HP atualmente aceita foi proposta durante o 6° simpósio mundial de HP em 2018, onde 124 experts se reuniram e a revisaram.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
<p>Definição prévia de HP</p>
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item><label>–</label><p>Pressão média da artéria pulmonar (PMAP): ≥ 25 mmHg</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>Resistência Vascular Pulmonar (RVP): ≥ 3 Unidade Wood (UW) – Hipertensão pré-capilar</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>Pressão Capilar Pulmonar (PCP): ≤ 15 mmHg – Hipertensão pré-capilar</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>Definição proposta (atual):</p>
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item><label>–</label><p>PMAP: &gt; 20 mmHg</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>RVP: &gt; 2 UW – Hipertensão pré-capilar</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>PCP: ≤ 15 mmHg – Hipertensão pré-capilar</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>Essa alteração foi baseada em dados de indivíduos normais, em que foi identificado que a PMAP em repouso é de aproximadamente 14,0±3,3 mmHg. Utilizou-se a variação de dois desvios padrões como ainda dentro dos limites de normalidade, deste modo o PMAP &gt;20 mmHg seria o limiar para pressão arterial pulmonar anormal (acima do percentil 97,5).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
<p>Considerando esses valores, os parâmetros ecocardiográficos descritos a seguir foram estudados sempre em correlação com a avaliação invasiva, não com o objetivo de substituir esse exame, mas sim como uma proposta de rastreamento inicial, já que a realização de cateterismo cardíaco direito a nível populacional é inviável e não custo-efetiva.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Conceito de vasos comunicantes</title>
<p>A avaliação ecocardiográfica das pressões pulmonares se baseia no conceito de vasos comunicantes. Este conceito estabelece que um fluido de mesma massa específica e na mesma altura teria a mesma pressão em qualquer ponto do sistema. Ao se considerar este princípio físico, a ecocardiografia é capaz de identificar a Pressão Sistólica da Artéria Pulmonar (PSAP) pelo cálculo da Pressão Sistólica do Ventrículo Direito (PSVD).</p>
<p>Para o cálculo da PSVD, devemos avaliar inicialmente o gradiente sistólico entre o Ventrículo Direito (VD) e o Átrio Direito (AD) a partir da velocidade máxima da Insuficiência Tricúspide (IT), utilizando a equação de Bernoulli modificada, que irá derivar gradiente utilizando a velocidade. Adicionando a este valor a estimativa da Pressão média do Átrio Direito (PAD), será obtida a PSVD que, em um sistema sem obstrução ao fluxo, será similar à PSAP.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Pressão média do átrio direito</title>
<p>Dando início a esta aferição, primeiramente veremos como avaliar a pressão média do átrio direito. O ecocardiograma transtorácico ao longo de sua evolução identificou várias métricas para estimar com razoável acurácia a PAD. Apesar das diversas limitações em sua análise, o parâmetro mais utilizado para essa inferência é a medida do diâmetro da Veia Cava Inferior (VCI) durante uma pausa expiratória e sua variabilidade respiratória conforme apresentado na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figura 1</xref>.</p>
<fig id="f10">
<label>Figura 1</label>
<caption><p>Organograma de avaliação da pressão média do átrio direito proposto pela Sociedade Americana de Ecocardiografia em seu mais recente guideline (ASE 2025);<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> VCI: veia cava inferior; PAD: pressão média do átrio direito; VD: ventrículo direito.</p></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-02-e20250028-pt-gf02.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>A depender da medida inicial da VCI e de sua variação com a fasicidade respiratória, a PAD pode ser estimada nos seguintes valores:</p>
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item><label>–</label><p>PAD &lt; 3 mmHg</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>PAD: 3 mmHg (0 - 5 mmHg)</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>PAD: 8 mmHg (5 - 10 mmHg)</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>PAD: 15 mmHg (10 - 20 mmHg)</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>PAD: 20 mmHg</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>A VCI pode ser medida na maioria dos pacientes a partir da janela subcostal, sendo facilmente reprodutível durante a internação ou segmento ambulatorial. Como veremos a seguir, esse índice nem sempre é representativo da PAD em alguns cenários, que devem ser interpretados com cautela.</p>
<p>Cuidados na aquisição e interpretação da VCI</p>
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item><label>–</label><p>Adquirir a imagem da VCI longitudinalmente com um corte no eixo central durante todo o ciclo respiratório (a medida no eixo transverso pode ajudar a evitar erro de aferição).</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>Cuidado na avaliação de pacientes com hipervolemia crônica (insuficiência cardíaca e doença renal crônica avançada)</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>Cautela na avaliação de pacientes atletas (VCI distendidas por uma excelente pré-carga)</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>Em caso de dúvida diagnóstica ou casos indeterminados, a utilização de índices secundários para estimar a PAD podem ser considerados, como uma relação E/e’ tricúspide &gt; 6, predomínio do fluxo diastólico nas veias hepáticas*, assim como a identificação de um padrão de enchimento diastólico restritivo em câmaras direitas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
<disp-formula id="eq2">
<mml:math display="block"><mml:menclose notation="box"><mml:mrow><mml:mtable><mml:mtr><mml:mtd><mml:mrow><mml:mo>∗</mml:mo><mml:mtext mathvariant="bold-italic">FES</mml:mtext><mml:mo>=</mml:mo><mml:mfrac><mml:mrow><mml:mtext mathvariant="bold-italic">VTI da onda</mml:mtext><mml:mtext> </mml:mtext><mml:mtext mathvariant="bold-italic">S</mml:mtext></mml:mrow><mml:mrow><mml:mtext mathvariant="bold-italic">VTI da onda S</mml:mtext><mml:mo>+</mml:mo><mml:mtext mathvariant="bold-italic">VTI da onda D</mml:mtext></mml:mrow></mml:mfrac><mml:mo mathvariant="bold">×</mml:mo><mml:mn mathvariant="bold">1</mml:mn><mml:mn mathvariant="bold">0</mml:mn><mml:mn mathvariant="bold">0</mml:mn></mml:mrow></mml:mtd></mml:mtr><mml:mtr><mml:mtd><mml:mtable columnalign="left"><mml:mtr><mml:mtd><mml:mtext>(</mml:mtext><mml:mtext mathvariant="bold-italic">Valor</mml:mtext><mml:mo mathvariant="bold">&lt;</mml:mo><mml:mtext mathvariant="bold-italic">55</mml:mtext><mml:mtext>% </mml:mtext><mml:mtext mathvariant="bold-italic">é</mml:mtext><mml:mtext> </mml:mtext><mml:mtext mathvariant="bold-italic">sensível e específico para</mml:mtext></mml:mtd></mml:mtr><mml:mtr><mml:mtd><mml:mtext>           </mml:mtext><mml:mtext mathvariant="bold-italic">aumento das pressões no AD</mml:mtext><mml:mtext>)</mml:mtext></mml:mtd></mml:mtr></mml:mtable></mml:mtd></mml:mtr><mml:mtr><mml:mtd><mml:mtable columnalign="left"><mml:mtr><mml:mtd><mml:mtext>                  </mml:mtext><mml:mi>F</mml:mi><mml:mi>ó</mml:mi><mml:mi>r</mml:mi><mml:mi>m</mml:mi><mml:mi>u</mml:mi><mml:mi>l</mml:mi><mml:mi>a</mml:mi><mml:mi>d</mml:mi><mml:mi>a</mml:mi><mml:mi>F</mml:mi><mml:mi>r</mml:mi><mml:mi>a</mml:mi><mml:mi>ç</mml:mi><mml:mi>ã</mml:mi><mml:mi>o</mml:mi><mml:mi>d</mml:mi><mml:mi>e</mml:mi><mml:mi>E</mml:mi><mml:mi>n</mml:mi><mml:mi>c</mml:mi><mml:mi>h</mml:mi><mml:mi>i</mml:mi><mml:mi>m</mml:mi><mml:mi>e</mml:mi><mml:mi>n</mml:mi><mml:mi>t</mml:mi><mml:mi>o</mml:mi><mml:mi>S</mml:mi><mml:mi>i</mml:mi><mml:mi>s</mml:mi><mml:mi>t</mml:mi><mml:mi>ó</mml:mi><mml:mi>l</mml:mi><mml:mi>i</mml:mi><mml:mi>c</mml:mi><mml:mi>o</mml:mi><mml:mtext> (</mml:mtext><mml:mi>F</mml:mi><mml:mi>E</mml:mi><mml:mi>S</mml:mi><mml:mtext>);</mml:mtext></mml:mtd></mml:mtr><mml:mtr><mml:mtd><mml:mtext>            </mml:mtext><mml:mi>V</mml:mi><mml:mi>T</mml:mi><mml:mi>I</mml:mi><mml:mtext>: </mml:mtext><mml:mi>i</mml:mi><mml:mi>n</mml:mi><mml:mi>t</mml:mi><mml:mi>e</mml:mi><mml:mi>g</mml:mi><mml:mi>r</mml:mi><mml:mi>a</mml:mi><mml:mi>l</mml:mi><mml:mi>v</mml:mi><mml:mi>e</mml:mi><mml:mi>l</mml:mi><mml:mi>o</mml:mi><mml:mi>c</mml:mi><mml:mi>i</mml:mi><mml:mi>d</mml:mi><mml:mi>a</mml:mi><mml:mi>d</mml:mi><mml:mi>e</mml:mi><mml:mo>-</mml:mo><mml:mi>t</mml:mi><mml:mi>e</mml:mi><mml:mi>m</mml:mi><mml:mi>p</mml:mi><mml:mi>o</mml:mi><mml:mtext>; </mml:mtext><mml:mi>S</mml:mi><mml:mtext>: </mml:mtext><mml:mi>S</mml:mi><mml:mi>i</mml:mi><mml:mi>s</mml:mi><mml:mi>t</mml:mi><mml:mi>ó</mml:mi><mml:mi>l</mml:mi><mml:mi>i</mml:mi><mml:mi>c</mml:mi><mml:mi>a</mml:mi><mml:mtext>; </mml:mtext><mml:mi>D</mml:mi><mml:mtext>: </mml:mtext><mml:mi>D</mml:mi><mml:mi>i</mml:mi><mml:mi>a</mml:mi><mml:mi>s</mml:mi><mml:mi>t</mml:mi><mml:mi>ó</mml:mi><mml:mi>l</mml:mi><mml:mi>i</mml:mi><mml:mi>c</mml:mi><mml:mi>a</mml:mi><mml:mtext></mml:mtext></mml:mtd></mml:mtr><mml:mtr><mml:mtd><mml:mtext>                                           </mml:mtext><mml:mi>A</mml:mi><mml:mi>D</mml:mi><mml:mtext>: </mml:mtext><mml:mi>Á</mml:mi><mml:mi>t</mml:mi><mml:mi>r</mml:mi><mml:mi>i</mml:mi><mml:mi>o</mml:mi><mml:mi>D</mml:mi><mml:mi>i</mml:mi><mml:mi>r</mml:mi><mml:mi>e</mml:mi><mml:mi>i</mml:mi><mml:mi>t</mml:mi><mml:mi>o</mml:mi></mml:mtd></mml:mtr></mml:mtable></mml:mtd></mml:mtr></mml:mtable></mml:mrow></mml:menclose></mml:math>
</disp-formula>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>PSAP</title>
<p>Retornando ao conceito de vasos comunicantes sem obstrução ao fluxo, pode-se inferir que a PSVD será equivalente a PSAP, o parâmetro hemodinâmico que realmente está sendo pesquisado.</p>
<p>A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11">Figura 2</xref> demonstra um caso de aumento evidente das pressões pulmonares e como é realizado o cálculo do valor final da PSAP.</p>
<fig id="f11">
<label>Figura 2</label>
<caption><title>Estimativa da PSAP que nesse paciente foi aferida em 59 mmHg.</title> <p>A) Insuficiência Tricúspide (IT) ao Doppler contínuo. B) Estimativa da PAD avaliando o diâmetro da VCI e colapsibilidade com ciclo respiratório no modo M.</p></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-02-e20250028-pt-gf03.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Cuidados na aquisição e interpretação da PSAP</p>
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item><label>–</label><p>Durante a medida da velocidade máxima da IT (Gradiente VD – AD), deve-se respeitar o correto alinhamento do ângulo Doppler (&lt; 20°), evitando uma possível subestimativa por erro de aferição.</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>Deve-se ter cuidado com o ganho excessivo ao se adquirir a imagem do Doppler espectral, evitando superestimar o gradiente transvalvar real, como apresentado na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f12">Figura 3</xref>.</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>Para garantir acurácia e considerar a variação respiratória, a PSVD deve ser calculada idealmente a partir da média de três batimentos consecutivos nas janelas ecocardiográficas com as máximas velocidades e melhores envelopes de Doppler espectral.</p></list-item>
</list>
<fig id="f12">
<label>Figura 3</label>
<caption><title>Insuficiência tricúspide ao Doppler contínuo com ganho excessivo (esquerda, com velocidade máxima de 3,9 m/s) e com ganho adequado (direita, com velocidade máxima de 3,5 m/s).</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-02-e20250028-pt-gf04.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Outros parâmetros de estimativas da PSAP foram descritos utilizando o tempo de aceleração (TAc) do fluxo sistólico na Via de Saída do VD (VSVD). Por ser uma região de baixas pressões e alta complacência, o leito pulmonar irá gerar um padrão de fluxo de baixas velocidades e longo TAc durante o período sistólico.</p>
<p>Um aumento progressivo das pressões pulmonares, principalmente em seu componente pré-capilar, acarretará um TAc cada vez mais curto associado a um pico sistólico mais precoce que o habitual (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f13">Figura 4</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f13">
<label>Figura 4</label>
<caption><title>Avaliação do TAc considerando o volume amostra ao nível da valva pulmonar;</title> <p>A) TAc encurtado (81ms) associado ao entalhe mesossistólico no traçado, dado que corrobora o achado de HP; B) TAc normal (113ms).</p></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-02-e20250028-pt-gf05.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>A partir desse conceito hemodinâmico tão importante, foram realizados trabalhos de correlação entre essas duas variáveis, que permitiram a identificação e validação das fórmulas apresentadas na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">Tabela 1</xref>.</p>
<table-wrap id="t6">
<label>Tabela 1</label>
<caption><title>Principais fórmulas com validação clínica na estimativa da Pressão Sistólica da Artéria Pulmonar (PSAP)</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="33%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Parâmetro</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Fórmula</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Condição</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">PSAP</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">4 x Velocidade máxima do IT + PAD <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" />
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">PSAP</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">134 – (0,9 X TAc) <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" />
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">PSAP</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" />
<td align="left" valign="middle">TAc VSVD &gt; 105 ms (sem HP*)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup><break/> * Considerada normal, com base em estudos epidemiológicos em populações saudáveis.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">PSAP</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" />
<td align="left" valign="middle">TAc VSVD &lt; 80 ms (HP provável)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN6"><p>IT: Insuficiência tricúspide; PSAP: Pressão Sistólica da Artéria Pulmonar; TAc: Tempo de aceleração do fluxo pulmonar; HP: Hipertensão Pulmonar; VSVD: Via de Saída do Ventrículo Direito<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>Cuidados na aquisição e interpretação do TAc</p>
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item><label>–</label><p>Janela: paraesternal eixo curto ao nível dos vasos da base, com direcionamento para a valva pulmonar</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>Posição do volume amostra: adquirido por Doppler pulsátil na VSVD com o volume amostra em posição logo abaixo da valva pulmonar, ao final da expiração.</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>Medida: do início do fluxo pulmonar até o pico de velocidade.</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>A maior validação do TAc pulmonar foi realizada nos casos de HP pré-capilar</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>O TAc da VSVD pode ser menos confiável em pacientes com frequência cardíaca baixa ou alta (&lt;60 e&gt;100 batimentos/min).</p></list-item>
</list>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>PMAP</title>
<p>Considerada a medida de referência para definição de HP e estratificação de gravidade, a determinação da PMAP é de grande importância para o cardiologista clínico. Vários trabalhos ao longo das últimas décadas validaram essa estimativa não invasiva, culminando na recomendação da diretriz americana para avaliação ecocardiográfica do coração direito em adultos de 2010. Esse documento descreveu de forma detalhada as fórmulas tanto para o cálculo da PMAP como para a Pressão Diastólica da Artéria Pulmonar (PDAP), as quais foram replicadas na diretriz de 2025.</p>
<p>Considerando o conhecimento atual, valores de PMAP maiores que 20 mmHg são patológicos e devem ser descritos no laudo ecocardiográfico.</p>
<p>O passo a passo para o cálculo da PMAP após a aquisição da PSAP e PDAP está exemplificado na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f14">Figura 5</xref> e na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t7">Tabela 2</xref> estão descritas as principais fórmulas utilizadas na prática clínica.</p>
<fig id="f14">
<label>Figura 5</label>
<caption><p>Estimativa da PMAP e da PDAP usando a velocidades inicial e final da Insuficiência Pulmonar (IP); A) IP ao Doppler contínuo; a PMAP é obtida da soma da PAD com o gradiente de pico da IP calculado pela fórmula de Bernoulli. A PDAP é obtida pelo gradiente calculado considerando a velocidade telediastólica da IP somado à PAD; B) Estimativa da PAD pela avaliação da VCI e sua colapsabilidade respiratória; C) Insuficiência tricúspide; D) Aplicação das fórmulas para cálculo da PMAP e PDAP.</p></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-02-e20250028-pt-gf06.tif"/>
</fig>
<table-wrap id="t7">
<label>Tabela 2</label>
<caption><title>Principais fórmulas com validação clínica na estimativa da PMAP</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="33%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Parâmetro</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Fórmula</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Condição</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">PMAP</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><mml:math display="block"><mml:mrow><mml:mfrac><mml:mn>1</mml:mn><mml:mn>3</mml:mn></mml:mfrac><mml:mo stretchy="false">(</mml:mo><mml:mi>P</mml:mi><mml:mi>S</mml:mi><mml:mi>A</mml:mi><mml:mi>P</mml:mi><mml:mo stretchy="false">)</mml:mo><mml:mo>+</mml:mo><mml:mfrac><mml:mn>2</mml:mn><mml:mn>3</mml:mn></mml:mfrac><mml:mi>P</mml:mi><mml:mi>D</mml:mi><mml:mi>A</mml:mi><mml:mi>P</mml:mi></mml:mrow></mml:math></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" />
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">PMAP</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">79 – 0,45x(<italic>TAc</italic>)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">TAc ≥ 120ms (Fc entre 60 – 100bpm)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">PMAP</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">90 – 0,62x(<italic>TAc</italic>)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">TAc &lt; 120ms (FC entre 60 – 100bpm)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">PMAP</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">0,61x(<italic>PSAP</italic>) + 2<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" />
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">PMAP</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">VTI da IT + PAD<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle" />
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN7"><p>FC: Frequência Cardíaca; IT: Insuficiência Tricúspide; PAD: Pressão do Átrio Esquerdo; PMAP: Pressão Média da Artéria Pulmonar; PDAP: Pressão Diastólica da Artéria Pulmonar; TAc: Tempo de Aceleração da via de saída do ventrículo direito; VTI: Integral Velocidade-Tempo<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>Cuidados na aquisição e interpretação</p>
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item><label>–</label><p>O cálculo da PMAP envolve outras variáveis e, por isso, sua estimativa deve ser realizada com a melhor técnica possível.</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>A PMAP utiliza a Insuficiência Pulmonar (IP) como parâmetro de análise para o seu cálculo. A velocidade inicial do jato de IP somado à PAD permite a obtenção do valor da PMAP.</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>A PDAP utiliza a velocidade final do jato da IP somado à PAD e permite a obtenção do valor da PDAP.</p></list-item>
</list>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>RVP</title>
<p>Conceito que descreve a medida de resistência que o sistema vascular pulmonar oferece ao fluxo sanguíneo oriundo do VD. Esse dado fornece um importante parâmetro discriminatório, permitindo a estratificação entre o componente pré-capilar e pós-capilar da HP.</p>
<p>A identificação dessa medida de forma não invasiva deriva do clássico trabalho de Abbas et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> O estudo foi publicado no Journal of the American College of Cardiology (JACC) em 2003, e sua fórmula posteriormente ratificada em uma nova publicação de 2013 no Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography (JASE).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
<p>Para o cálculo da RVP, são necessários dois parâmetros básicos de avaliação (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f15">Figura 6</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f15">
<label>Figura 6</label>
<caption><p>Cálculo da RVP usando o Integral Velocidade-Tempo (VTI): Via de Saída do Ventrículo Direito (VSVD) (A), e a velocidade máxima da Insuficiência Tricúspide (IT) (B), e a aplicação da fórmula (C).</p></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-02-e20250028-pt-gf07.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>As fórmulas validadas usadas para o cálculo da RVP são apresentadas na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t8">Tabela 3</xref>.</p>
<table-wrap id="t8">
<label>Tabela 3</label>
<caption><title>Principais fórmulas com validação clínica na estimativa da RVP</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="33%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Parâmetro</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Fórmula</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Condição</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">RVP</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><mml:math display="block"><mml:mrow><mml:mfrac><mml:mrow><mml:mi>V</mml:mi><mml:mi>e</mml:mi><mml:mi>l</mml:mi><mml:mi>o</mml:mi><mml:mi>c</mml:mi><mml:mi>i</mml:mi><mml:mi>d</mml:mi><mml:mi>a</mml:mi><mml:mi>d</mml:mi><mml:mi>e</mml:mi><mml:mi>M</mml:mi><mml:mi>á</mml:mi><mml:mi>x</mml:mi><mml:mi>i</mml:mi><mml:mi>m</mml:mi><mml:mi>a</mml:mi><mml:mi>d</mml:mi><mml:mi>o</mml:mi><mml:mi>I</mml:mi><mml:mi>T</mml:mi><mml:mo stretchy="false">(</mml:mo><mml:mi>m</mml:mi><mml:mo>/</mml:mo><mml:mi>s</mml:mi><mml:mo stretchy="false">)</mml:mo></mml:mrow><mml:mrow><mml:mi>V</mml:mi><mml:mi>T</mml:mi><mml:mi>I</mml:mi><mml:mi>d</mml:mi><mml:mi>a</mml:mi><mml:mi>V</mml:mi><mml:mi>S</mml:mi><mml:mi>V</mml:mi><mml:mi>D</mml:mi><mml:mo stretchy="false">(</mml:mo><mml:mi>c</mml:mi><mml:mi>m</mml:mi><mml:mo stretchy="false">)</mml:mo></mml:mrow></mml:mfrac><mml:mo>×</mml:mo><mml:mn>10</mml:mn><mml:mo>+</mml:mo><mml:mn>0</mml:mn><mml:mo>,</mml:mo><mml:msup><mml:mrow><mml:mn>16</mml:mn></mml:mrow><mml:mrow><mml:mo stretchy="false">(</mml:mo><mml:mn>12</mml:mn><mml:mo stretchy="false">)</mml:mo></mml:mrow></mml:msup></mml:mrow></mml:math></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">RVP &gt; 2,0 Woods é considerado anormal</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">RVP</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><mml:math display="block"><mml:mrow><mml:mfrac><mml:mrow><mml:mi>P</mml:mi><mml:mi>S</mml:mi><mml:mi>V</mml:mi><mml:mi>D</mml:mi><mml:mo>−</mml:mo><mml:mi>P</mml:mi><mml:mi>C</mml:mi><mml:mi>P</mml:mi></mml:mrow><mml:mrow><mml:mi>D</mml:mi><mml:mi>C</mml:mi></mml:mrow></mml:mfrac></mml:mrow></mml:math></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Os valores de PSVD, PCP e DC podem ser adquiridos a partir de dados ecocardiográficos</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN8"><p>RVP: Resistência Vascular Pulmonar; IT: Insuficiência Tricúspide; VTI: Integral Velocidade - Tempo; VSVD: Via de Saída do Ventrículo Direito; PSVD: Pressão Sistólica do VD; PCP: Pressão Capilar Pulmonar; DC: Débito Cardíaco<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>PCP</title>
<p>A avaliação em conjunto das pressões pulmonar, RVP e PCP irá permitir a classificação da HP em um dos cinco espectros descritos abaixo segundo a mais recente classificação de HP (ESC 2022):</p>
<list list-type="order">
<list-item><p>Hipertensão Arterial Pulmonar (HAP)</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>HP associada com doença ventricular esquerda</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>HP associada com doença pulmonar</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>HP associada com doença pulmonar obstrutiva</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>HP com mecanismo (etiologia) não claro ou multifatorial</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>Dessa forma, a avaliação da PCP irá determinar se as pressões capilares e, consequentemente, a do átrio esquerdo estarão aumentadas ou não, realizando uma estratificação inicial entre os grupos com e sem acometimento das cavidades esquerdas (hipertensão pós-capilar e pré-capilar).</p>
<p>As principais fórmulas para esse cálculo são descritas abaixo (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t9">Tabela 4</xref>), sendo a fórmula de Nagueh a mais utilizada. Em seu trabalho original, os achados de Nagueh et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> se relacionaram, com boa acurácia, às pressões de enchimento do ventrículo esquerdo, e, portanto, à PCP.</p>
<table-wrap id="t9">
<label>Tabela 4</label>
<caption><title>Principais fórmulas com validação clínica na estimativa da PCP</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="33%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Parâmetro</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Fórmula</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Condição</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">PCP</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">1,24 X E/e’ médio + 1,9 <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">– Valores de normalidade: &lt; 12 – 15 mmHg<break/> E/e’ &gt; 15 se correlacionou com PCP &gt; 15 mmHg <break/> Trabalho original:<break/> Sensibilidade: 89% - Especificidade: 91% - Acurácia: 0,92</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">PCP</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">PCP = 5,7 X E/VP + 4,6 <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Estudo com 45 pacientes (FEVE: 40% ± 15%)</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN9"><p>PCP: Pressão Capilar Pulmonar; E: Velocidade de influxo da valva mitral; VP: velocidade de propagação; FEVE: fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>Na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f16">Figura 7</xref>, é demonstrada a aplicação da fórmula de Nagueh.</p>
<fig id="f16">
<label>Figura 7</label>
<caption><p>Cálculo da PCP pela fórmula de Nagueh; A) Ondas E e A do influxo mitral ao Doppler pulsado; B) Onda e&apos; do anel mitral ao Doppler tecidual; C) Fórmula de Nagueh com a estimativa de um significativo incremento da PCP.</p></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-02-e20250028-pt-gf08.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Cuidados na aquisição e interpretação</p>
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item><label>–</label><p>A avaliação das variáveis E/e’ é feita de rotina na avaliação da função diastólica e, portanto, não adiciona maior tempo ao exame.</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>Por utilizarem o método Doppler, essas variáveis sofrem influência do ângulo de insonação.</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>Em pacientes com valvopatias mitrais significativas, a onda A pode estar aumentada pela valvopatia, limitando a análise da PCP.</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label><p>A avaliação da PCP é prejudicada na presença de arritmias.</p></list-item>
</list>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Resumo das principais advertências e armadilhas</title>
<list list-type="order">
<list-item><p>Meça a borda primária mais densa do sinal Doppler de onda contínua (&quot;queixo&quot;) e não os espectros tênues (&quot;barba&quot;), otimizando o ganho e o brilho de múltiplos planos de imagem.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Agentes ultrassonográficos de realce, contraste sanguíneo-salino e solução salina agitada podem ser usados para aumentar o sinal Doppler, melhorando a acurácia diagnóstica.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Posicione o feixe de ultrassom paralelo à direção do fluxo sanguíneo, idealmente em um ângulo &lt;20° para minimizar qualquer erro na medição da velocidade.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Se houver IT significativa, o formato do sinal Doppler de onda contínua pode ajudar a orientar a precisão das estimativas da PSVD. Um contorno Doppler de onda contínua triangular subestimará a PSVD, enquanto a precisão é melhorada com um contorno Doppler parabólico.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Não considere a velocidade após uma pausa ou contração prematura (extrassístole).</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Considere a velocidade média ao longo de cinco a sete batimentos em pacientes com arritmia.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Realizar a medida da VCI com uma visualização de suas paredes durante todo o período respiratório, evitando uma possível falsa colapsabilidade por erro de amostragem.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>O envelhecimento fisiológico e o aumento do área de superfície de massa corporal podem aumentar a PSAP sem necessariamente significar patologia.</p></list-item>
</list>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Interpretação clínica</title>
<p>Embora existam vários métodos ecocardiográficos para calcular a PMAP, o relato padrão da PSVD é geralmente preferido por vários motivos. Primeiro, o PSVD é medido diretamente a partir da velocidade de pico do jato de regurgitação tricúspide, tornando-o uma estimativa mais direta e confiável. Em contraste, métodos como o TAc da VSVD e a estimativa da PMAP e PDAP dependem de cálculos e suposições indiretas, que podem induzir a erros de medição.</p>
<p>A correta quantificação e estratificação das pressões pulmonares irá permitir a estratificação das pressões pulmonares em discreto, moderado e importante. Essa classificação foi retomada no <italic>guideline</italic> de avaliação de ecocardiograma do coração direito em adultos e considerações especiais na HP da Sociedade Americana de Ecocardiografia (ASE) e gradua a anormalidade dos valores apresentados na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t10">Tabela 5</xref>.</p>
<table-wrap id="t10">
<label>Tabela 5</label>
<caption><title>Classificação dos níveis das pressões pulmonares segundo a diretriz de 2025 da Sociedade Americana de Ecocardiografia (ASE)</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="20%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Variável</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Valor de normalidade</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle" colspan="3">Graduação da anormalidade</th>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="center" valign="middle">Discreto</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Moderado</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Importante</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Velocidade da IT</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt; 2,8m/s</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">2,8 −3,1m/s</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">3,2 - 3,5m/s</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">≥3,6m/s</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">PSAP</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">≤34mmHg</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">35 – 49 mmHg</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">50 −69 mmHg</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">≥70mmHg</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">PAD</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">0 a 4<break/> (Média 3 mmHg)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">5 a 9<break/> (Média 8 mmHg)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">10 a 14 mmHg</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">≥15mmHg</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">TAc pulmonar</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&gt;105ms</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">80 – 105ms</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">61-79ms</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">≤ 60ms</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN10"><p>RVP: Resistência Vascular Pulmonar; IT: Insuficiência Tricúspide; PSAP: Pressão Sistólica da Artéria Pulmonar; PAD: Pressão do Átrio Direito; TAc: Tempo de Aceleração<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>Devido à significativa limitação na correta identificação da PAD, a HP pode ser avaliada considerando apenas a velocidade máxima da IT de modo a evitar erros de inferência, parâmetro que já havia sido corroborado pela diretriz europeia de cardiologia (ESC) em seu <italic>guideline</italic> de HP de 2022.</p>
<p>A avaliação definitiva da PMAP para diagnóstico, classificação e início da terapia farmacológica para HP requer medição hemodinâmica direta por cateterismo cardíaco direito invasivo.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusão</title>
<p>A avaliação das pressões pulmonares tem sido um pilar na identificação de pacientes adultos e pacientes com doenças congênitas que apresentam um pior prognóstico clínico. A identificação dos níveis pressóricos pulmonares ainda é fundamentada na quantificação invasiva por meio da avaliação hemodinâmica, sendo esse o método padrão ouro. A ecocardiografia com Doppler aparece como uma excelente alternativa na estratificação inicial desses pacientes, adicionando outros parâmetros como a função ventricular e avaliação valvar.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn5"><label>Fontes de Financiamento</label>
<p>O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6"><label>Vinculação Acadêmica</label>
<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn7"><label>Aprovação Ética e Consentimento Informado</label>
<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn8"><label>Uso de Inteligência Artificial</label>
<p>Os autores não utilizaram ferramentas de inteligência artificial no desenvolvimento deste trabalho.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
<sec sec-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-in-article">
<label>Disponibilidade de Dados</label>
<p>Os conteúdos subjacentes ao texto da pesquisa estão contidos no manuscrito.</p>
</sec>
</back>
</sub-article>
</article>
