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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abcimg</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq Bras Cardiol: Imagem cardiovasc.</abbrev-journal-title></journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name></publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20240128i</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abcimg.20240128i</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Review Article</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>My Approach To Echocardiographic Evaluation in Pediatric Patients with Sickle Cell Disease</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0001-7500-5856</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Dias</surname><given-names>Viviane Thome Gonçalves</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>acquisition of data</role>
<role>analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<role>writing of the manuscript and critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0275-0166</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Almeida</surname><given-names>Mirela Frederico de</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>acquisition of data</role>
<role>analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<role>writing of the manuscript and critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Santa Izabel</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital Santa Izabel, Salvador, BA – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal da Bahia</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal da Bahia, Salvador, BA – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>3</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Alianca</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital Alianca, Salvador, BA – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><label>Mailing Address:</label> <bold>Viviane Thome G. Dias</bold> • Rede D&apos;or Aliança. Avenida Juracy Magalhaes, 2096. Postal code: <postal-code>41920-900</postal-code>. Salvador, BA – Brazil. E-mail: <email>diasvivi82@gmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><label>Editor responsible for the review:</label> <p>Marcelo Tavares</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><label>Potential Conflict of Interest</label>
<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>27</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2025</year></pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2025</year></pub-date>
<volume>38</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<elocation-id>e20240128</elocation-id>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>30</day>
<month>11</month>
<year>2024</year>
</date>
<date date-type="rev-recd">
<day>27</day>
<month>03</month>
<year>2025</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>18</day>
<month>04</month>
<year>2025</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>Sickle cell disease (SCD) is the most prevalent hereditary genetic disorder worldwide, and cardiovascular alterations are the main cause of death among patients with this disease.</p>
<p>Therefore, the early identification of markers of sickle cell cardiomyopathy using echocardiographic parameters (Central Illustration) is essential for the appropriate management of the cardiovascular condition in these patients.</p>
<p>This review provides a comprehensive overview of the use of echocardiography in pediatric patients with SCD, highlighting the main characteristics of the condition and the importance of regular follow-up.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords</title>
<kwd>Echocardiography</kwd>
<kwd>Sickle Cell Anemia</kwd>
<kwd>Child</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="10"/>
<table-count count="0"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="16"/>
</counts>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<fig id="f5">
<caption>
<title>Echocardiographic evaluation in patients with sickle cell disease.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-02-e20240128-gf05.tif"/>
</fig>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introduction</title>
<p>Sickle cell disease (SCD) is considered the most prevalent hereditary genetic disorder worldwide.</p>
<p>In Brazil, this condition affects between 60,000 and 100,000 individuals and has a higher incidence among the Afro-descendant population (8%). The distribution across the Brazilian territory is heterogeneous, with a higher incidence in the states of Bahia, Distrito Federal, and Piauí. The national incidence is approximately 1:1,200 live births, while it reaches 1:650 live births in Bahia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>SCD is characterized by a recessive autosomal hereditary mutation, in which the glutamic acid is replaced by valine at the sixth position of the hemoglobin (Hb) beta chain. As a result, the organism produces Hb S , an abnormal type of Hb responsible for the physiopathology of SCD. Hb S has a shorter half-life (approximately one-sixth of the normal Hb A) due to its increased susceptibility to hemolysis and increased adhesiveness, contributing to vaso-occlusive events.</p>
<p>The disease may manifest as a homozygous form (Hb SS), known as sickle cell anemia, which is the most severe and prevalent form (approximately 60% to 75% of cases), with symptoms typically beginning within the first year of life. The heterozygous form occurs in approximately 25% to 40% of cases, tends to be milder, and results from the association of Hb S with other abnormal Hb, such as Hb SC and Hb SE. On the other hand, the sickle cell trait occurs when there is an association between Hb S and Hb A.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Individuals with sickle cell trait are usually asymptomatic.</p>
<p>Under stress conditions (e.g., extreme temperatures, infection, or dehydration), the deoxygenated Hb S undergoes polymerization, causing red blood cells to assume a sickle shape. This condition makes Hb more prone to hemolysis, leading to chronic anemia. Moreover, the increased Hb rigidity impairs its passage through the microvasculature, triggering repeated painful vasoconstriction, endothelial dysfunction, inflammation, and ischemia-reperfusion injury.</p>
<p>The cardiac involvement in SCD arises from multiple mechanisms:</p>
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item><label>–</label> <p>Chronic hemolytic anemia leads to reflex peripheral vasodilation to improve tissue oxygen delivery. This condition activates the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system to retain sodium and water and, consequently, increase preload and chronic cardiac chamber <bold>dilation</bold>, particularly in the left chambers. Over time, this results in compensatory <bold>eccentric hypertrophy</bold>.</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label> <p>Chronic vaso-occlusive crises may cause microvascular myocardial dysfunction, renal failure, and systemic arterial hypertension. These conditions promote myocardial fibrosis and consequent <bold>systolic</bold> (less common) and <bold>diastolic</bold> <bold>dysfunction</bold> (more frequent).</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label> <p><bold>Pulmonary hypertension</bold> in patients with SCD is multifactorial (Group 5): it may present with pre-capillary (arterial) characteristics secondary to intravascular hemolysis and Hb release into the plasma, which consumes nitric oxide and causes vasoconstriction, and post-capillary (venous) characteristics, in which diastolic dysfunction increases ventricular filling pressure, impairing blood flow through pulmonary veins and increasing pulmonary venous pressure. Additionally, chronic hypoxia and pulmonary thromboembolism may further contribute to elevated pulmonary pressure in patients with SCD.</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>Given these alterations, qualified and regular echocardiographic assessments are essential in patients with SCD.</p>
<sec>
<title>Echocardiographic evaluation in patients with SCD</title>
<sec>
<title>Dilation of cardiac chambers</title>
<p>The dilation of cardiac chambers, particularly the left chamber, occurs in approximately 30% to 65% of patients with SCD and is more prevalent in adults and those with the most severe form.</p>
<p>Atrium dilation is the earliest cardiac alteration resulting from volume overload secondary to compensatory vasodilation in response to anemia as a mechanism to improve oxygen delivery to tissues.</p>
<p>Sabatini et al. demonstrated an inverse association between serum Hb levels (degree of anemia) and left atrial dilation, and a direct association between reticulocyte levels (a marker for hemolytic anemia) and left atrial dilation<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f1">
<label>Figure 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Apical 2- and 4-chamber views for left atrial volume calculation.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-02-e20240128-gf01.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Eccentric hypertrophy</title>
<p>Eccentric hypertrophy (more common in the left chambers) occurs in 25% to 45% of patients with SCD and is more prevalent among older adults and individuals with more severe hemolytic anemia.</p>
<p>Koyunku et al. conducted a retrospective study on 146 patients with SCD aged over 18 years and found that 45 (30.8%) patients presented eccentric hypertrophy. After a 5-year follow-up, 31 (21.2%) patients had died. Survival analysis showed that patients presenting eccentric hypertrophy had a worse prognosis (the greater the eccentric hypertrophy, the higher the risk of death).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Cardiac dysfunction</title>
<p>Chronic hemolytic anemia and recurrent vaso-occlusive episodes are physiopathological mechanisms for microvascular dysfunction and myocardial fibrosis. Moreover, disease-related systemic alterations, such as renal dysfunction, systemic arterial hypertension, and iron overload (which may occur in patients receiving periodical blood transfusions), contribute to the development or worsening of cardiac dysfunction, or both.</p>
<p><bold>Diastolic dysfunction</bold> is common in adults with SCD (approximately 15% to 20% of cases) and is associated with an increased risk of premature death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Evaluating diastolic function in patients with SCD is needed but also challenging for echocardiographers.</p>
<p>In children, the assessment of diastolic function is limited because the Doppler parameters vary significantly according to age, body surface area, and heart rate. Unlike systolic function, which can be evaluated using one parameter (e.g., ejection fraction), there is no single gold-standard marker for diastolic function.</p>
<p>Even invasive measurements obtained by cardiac catheterization have limitations and provide only partial information on ventricular diastolic characteristics. Also, the parameters used to define diastolic dysfunction may be affected by the underlying disease physiopathology without truly reflecting diastolic function alterations, such as atrial dilation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<p>In the general population, atrial dilation is associated with increased ventricular filling pressures. However, this dilation in patients with SCD occurs early in the development of the disease due to volume overload from the compensatory physiopathology of the condition and may not reflect elevated filling pressures. Hammoudi et al. evaluated 127 patients with SCD and found that most presented with left atrial dilation, but this finding was not associated with diastolic dysfunction. Instead, it correlated with disease severity and duration.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
<p>Tricuspid regurgitation velocity peak is another parameter used to assess diastolic function. However, an increase in this parameter in patients with SCD may not necessarily indicate elevated pulmonary arterial pressure but rather increased cardiac preload or pre-capillary pulmonary hypertension. Hence, tricuspid regurgitation velocity data must be interpreted with caution in this population.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
<p>The ratio between early diastolic transmitral flow velocity and tissue Doppler velocity (E/e′) is also used to estimate the left ventricular filling pressure in SCD. Sachdev et al. assessed 436 patients with SCD (homozygous for Hb S) and found that the E/e′ ratio independently correlated with reduced exercise capacity measured using the six-minute walk test.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<p>Another parameter used to evaluate diastolic function is the ratio between early and late diastolic flow velocity (E/A ratio). In a study of 141 patients with SCD, Sachdev et al. found that a low E/A ratio (i.e., indicative of diastolic dysfunction) was associated with increased mortality risk (hazard ratio of 3.5).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
<p><bold>Systolic dysfunction</bold> (assessed by conventional echocardiography) is rare in children with SCD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Poludasu et al. performed a meta-analysis of 19 case-control studies and found no significant difference in systolic function between 841 patients with SCD (homozygous Hb S) and 554 controls when evaluated using echocardiographic parameters<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f2">
<label>Figure 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Apical 2- and 4-chamber views for the analysis of ventricular function during systole and diastole.</title>
<p>Ejection fraction was calculated using Simpson&apos;s method. CVEd/VDFVE: Left Ventricular End-Diastolic Volume; MOD: Simpson&apos;s Method; FEVE/FE: Left Ventricular Ejection Fraction; CVE/VSFVE: Left Ventricular End-Systolic Volume; SV: Stroke Volume.</p></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-02-e20240128-gf02.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Strain analysis in SCD: what is new?</title>
<p>The development of 2D strain imaging enabled the early detection of cardiac damage in many chronic diseases and has become an increasingly important tool in prognostic stratification. The aim is to highlight the contribution of 2D strain in detecting subclinical ventricular myocardial damage in patients with SCD.</p>
<p>Cardiac dilation and eccentric ventricular hypertrophy in patients with SCD occur in response to increased preload and may progressively alter the cardiac function. These alterations contribute to morbidity and mortality in patients with SCD.</p>
<p>The global longitudinal strain of the left ventricle is a more specific predictor of myocardial remodeling than the left ventricle ejection fraction (LVEF), making it a sensitive tool for detecting early systolic dysfunction even when LVEF is preserved.</p>
<p>Studies have shown that patients with SCD presenting lower Hb levels (Hb &lt; 9 g/dl) and increased preload are more likely to develop long-term subclinical systolic dysfunction in the left ventricle due to the limited adaptability of the heart to chronic preload increases. Resende et al. followed 219 patients with SCD for 30 months and observed that those with abnormal strain had worse clinical outcomes (pain crises, acute chest syndrome, and SCD-related death), independent of age, tricuspid regurgitation velocity peak, and ejection fraction assessed using conventional echocardiography. Thus, patients with SCD who present abnormal strain are at greater risk for adverse outcomes<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f3">
<label>Figure 3</label>
<caption>
<title>Left ventricle global longitudinal strain of −19.5% in a child with SCD.</title>
<p>Sept: Septal wall; Ant: Anterior wall; Inf: Inferior wall; Lat: Lateral wall; Post: Posterior wall; GLPS: Global Longitudinal Peak Strain; FR: Frame Rate</p></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-02-e20240128-gf03.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Pulmonary hypertension</title>
<p>Pulmonary hypertension is characterized by reduced blood flow through the pulmonary arterial circulation due to increased pulmonary vascular resistance and elevated arterial pressures.</p>
<p>The prevalence of pulmonary hypertension is higher in patients with Hb SS disease than in those with SC, Sβ+, or Sβ° thalassemia.</p>
<p>Studies using echocardiography to measure tricuspid regurgitation velocity peak as an index of systolic pulmonary artery pressure demonstrated a high prevalence (30%) of pulmonary hypertension in patients with SCD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
<p>The physiopathology of pulmonary hypertension varies. First, since pulmonary pressure is a product of flow and pulmonary vascular resistance, the high cardiac output in SCD leads to increased pulmonary pressure regardless of altered pulmonary vascular resistance. Second, chronic volume overload may lead to left ventricular failure and subsequent pulmonary venous hypertension. Third, intravascular hemolysis may induce pulmonary arterial vasculopathy, mainly driven by nitric oxide depletion due to free plasma Hb.</p>
<p>Last, several other mechanisms may contribute, including hypoxemia, post-embolic pulmonary hypertension, lung injury related to SCD, and chronic liver disease. Importantly, several of these factors often occur simultaneously in the same patient with SCD and pulmonary hypertension. This represents a major challenge in the clinical management of the disease. Therefore, these patients are currently classified into Group 5 of the WHO classification system for pulmonary hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
<p>Mehari et al. studied 531 patients and found associations between pulmonary pressure and reduced exercise tolerance and increased mortality rate in patients with SCD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
<p>Given the impact of pulmonary hypertension on the morbidity and mortality of patients with SCD, the American Thoracic Association published a management guideline in 2014 recommending diagnostic cardiac catheterization when tricuspid regurgitation velocity was ≥ 3 m/s or between 2.5 and 2.9 m/s in symptomatic patients (e.g., reduced performance in the six-minute walk test or elevated serum NT-pro-BNP) <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 4</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f4">
<label>Figure 4</label>
<caption>
<title>Apical 4-chamber view for the analysis of tricuspid regurgitation using continuous Doppler in a patient with SCD.</title>
<p>PG: Pressure Gradient; CW: Continuous Wave Doppler; WF: Waveform; CF: Color Flow Doppler</p></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-02-e20240128-gf04.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Echocardiographic assessment during SCD treatment</title>
<p>Symptomatic patients with SCD or those with pulmonary hypertension are candidates for disease-modifying treatments.</p>
<p>Hydroxyurea is one of the drugs used to treat SCD. One of its mechanisms of action is to increase fetal Hb levels; thus, reducing pathological Hb S levels and its physiopathological consequences.</p>
<p>Dhar et al. analyzed 100 patients with SCD, including 60 who received hydroxyurea, and observed that left ventricular dilation and hypertrophy significantly improved with hydroxyurea therapy. Additionally, left ventricular volume and mass were inversely correlated with treatment duration, demonstrating that pharmacological therapy may lead to cardiac remodeling.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
<p>Another recommended therapy in symptomatic patients with SCD is chronic blood transfusion, aimed at reducing levels of pathological Hb S.</p>
<p>Turpin et al. evaluated 13 patients with SCD (homozygous Hb S) before and after chronic blood transfusion therapy and observed improved functional class and reduced tricuspid regurgitation jet velocity following transfusion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
<p>Therefore, patients with SCD undergoing disease-modifying treatment should also be regularly evaluated by echocardiography for a better definition of the cardiovascular status.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Echocardiographic assessment during SCD crises</title>
<p>Patients with SCD may present numerous acute events throughout life, such as pain crises, acute chest syndrome, splenic sequestration, and stroke.</p>
<p>Onalo et al. followed 176 patients for two years (92 without crisis and 84 with at least one crisis) and found a higher prevalence of pulmonary hypertension and cardiac dysfunction in those who experienced a crisis during this period.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
<p>Therefore, patients with SCD who present with a sickle cell crisis must have their cardiovascular status re-evaluated to ensure appropriate cardiac management during these episodes.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusion</title>
<p>Routine echocardiogram for asymptomatic pediatric patients with SCD is not yet a reality in clinical practice. However, the significant impact of cardiac alterations can be already observed from childhood.</p>
<p>Serial echocardiography exams must be considered to allow an early diagnosis of cardiac complications, improve clinical care for patients with SCD, and reduce cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in this population.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1">
<label>Sources of Funding</label>
<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
<label>Study Association</label>
<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
<label>Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate</label>
<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn4">
<label>Use of Artificial Intelligence</label>
<p>The authors did not use any artificial intelligence tools in the development of this work.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
<sec sec-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-available-upon-request">
<label>Availability of Research Data</label>
<p>The underlying content of the research text is contained within the manuscript.</p>
</sec>
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<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S1" xml:lang="pt">
<front-stub>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20240128</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Como Eu Faço Avaliação Ecocardiográfica nos Pacientes Pediátricos com Doença Falciforme</article-title>
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<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0001-7500-5856</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Dias</surname><given-names>Viviane Thome Gonçalves</given-names></name>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>obtenção de dados</role>
<role>análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
<role>redação do manuscrito e revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0275-0166</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Almeida</surname><given-names>Mirela Frederico de</given-names></name>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>obtenção de dados</role>
<role>análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
<role>redação do manuscrito e revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"><sup>2</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6"><sup>3</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff4">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital Santa Izabel, Salvador, BA – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff5">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal da Bahia, Salvador, BA – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff6">
<label>3</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital Alianca, Salvador, BA – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c2"><label>Correspondência:</label> <bold>Viviane Thome G. Dias</bold> • Rede D&apos;or Aliança. Avenida Juracy Magalhaes, 2096. CEP: <postal-code>41920-900</postal-code>. Salvador, BA – Brasil. E-mail: <email>diasvivi82@gmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><label>Editor responsável pela revisão:</label> <p>Marcelo Tavares</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><label>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</label>
<p>Declaro não haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<abstract>
<title>Resumo</title>
<p>A Doença Falciforme (DF) é a doença genética hereditária de maior prevalência no mundo, e as complicações cardiovasculares são uma das principais causas de óbito na população falcêmica.</p>
<p>Diante disso, o reconhecimento precoce dos marcadores da miocardiopatia falcêmica, através dos parâmetros ecocardiográficos (Figura Central), é fundamental para a conduta adequada da condição cardiovascular destes doentes.</p>
<p>Essa revisão abordará de forma objetiva e didática o uso da ecocardiografia em pacientes pediátricos com DF, mostrando as principais particularidades nesta doença e a importância do acompanhamento regular.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
<title>Palavras-chave</title>
<kwd>Ecocardiografia</kwd>
<kwd>Anemia Falciforme</kwd>
<kwd>Criança</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<fig id="f10">
<caption>
<title>Avaliação ecocardiográfica em paciente com Doença Falciforme.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-02-e20240128-gf05-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introdução</title>
<p>A DF é considerada a doença genética hereditária de maior prevalência no mundo.</p>
<p>No Brasil, há prevalência de 60.000 a 100.000 pacientes e apresenta maior incidência na população afrodescendente, cerca de 8%. A distribuição no território brasileiro é heterogênea, com existência significativa nos estados da Bahia, do Distrito Federal e do Piauí. A ocorrência no Brasil é de 1:1.200 nascidos vivos e no estado da Bahia é de 1:650 nascidos vivos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>A DF é caracterizada por uma mutação genética de herança autossômica recessiva. Ocorre a troca do aminoácido ácido glutâmico pela valina na posição seis do gene que codifica a hemoglobina (Hb). Assim, o organismo passa a produzir um tipo de Hb patológica, a denominada Hb S, responsável pela fisiopatologia da doença. A Hb S apresenta menor meia-vida (cerca de 1/6 da meia-vida da Hb normal, tipo A) por conta da maior suscetibilidade a hemólise, possuindo maior adesividade, sendo responsável pelos eventos vaso-oclusivos.</p>
<p>A doença pode se manifestar na forma homozigótica (Hb SS), a forma mais prevalente (ocorre em cerca de 60 a 75% dos casos), conhecida como anemia falciforme, o espectro mais grave da doença, com sintomas já a partir do primeiro ano de vida. A forma heterozigótica ocorre em cerca de 25 a 40% dos casos e tende a ser mais branda. Esta forma aparece quando há associação da Hb S com outras Hbs patológicas, como Hb SC e Hb SE. O traço falcêmico, por sua vez, ocorre quando há associação entre a Hb S e a Hb A, normal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Geralmente, os pacientes com traço falcêmico são assintomáticos.</p>
<p>Em situações de estresse, como extremo de temperatura, infecção e desidratação, a Hb S desoxigenada sofre um processo de polimerização e assume o formato de foice. Esta condição torna a Hb mais suscetível a hemólise, e o paciente evolui com anemia crônica. Além disso, a Hb com maior rigidez apresenta dificuldade de passagem pela microvasculatura, provocando vasoconstrição dolorosa repetida, disfunção das células endoteliais, inflamação e lesão de isquemia, além de reperfusão em órgãos-alvo.</p>
<p>O envolvimento cardíaco na DF tem múltiplas causas:</p>
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item><label>–</label> <p>A anemia hemolítica crônica leva a vasodilatação periférica reflexa a fim de melhorar a oferta de oxigênio aos tecidos. Tal condição, por sua vez, estimula o sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona, retendo sódio e água e consequente aumento da pré-carga, levando a <bold>dilatação</bold> crônica de câmaras cardíacas, principalmente de câmaras esquerda. Este quadro, a longo prazo, faz com que o coração apresente <bold>hipertrofia excêntrica</bold> compensatória.</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label> <p>As crises vaso-oclusivas crônicas podem levar a disfunção microvascular miocárdica, falência renal e hipertensão arterial sistêmica. Tais condições provocam fibrose miocárdica e consequente <bold>disfunção</bold> sistólica (menos comum) e <bold>diastólica</bold> (mais frequente).</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>–</label> <p>A <bold>hipertensão pulmonar</bold> no paciente falcêmico é multifatorial (grupo 5): pode ter característica pré-capilar (arterial), secundária a hemólise intravascular com consequente liberação de Hb no plasma, capaz de consumir óxido nítrico e provocar efeito vasoconstritor; e característica pós-capilar (venosa), em que a disfunção diastólica eleva a pressão de enchimento ventricular, dificultando o escoamento sanguíneo pelas veias pulmonares com consequente aumento da pressão pulmonar venosa. Além disso, o quadro de hipóxia crônica e tromboembolismo pulmonar podem também colaborar para o aumento da pressão pulmonar no paciente falcêmico.</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>Diante de todas essas alterações, torna-se imperativo a avaliação ecocardiográfica qualificada e regular em pacientes com DF.</p>
<sec>
<title>Avaliação ecocardiográfica no paciente com DF</title>
<sec>
<title>Dilatação de câmaras cardíacas</title>
<p>A dilatação de câmaras cardíacas, principalmente a esquerda, ocorre em cerca de 30-65% dos pacientes com doença falcêmica e é mais prevalente em pacientes que apresentam anemia hemolítica mais grave e adultos.</p>
<p>A dilatação atrial é a alteração cardíaca que ocorre mais precocemente por conta da sobrecarga de volume secundária a vasodilatação compensatória a anemia como forma de melhorar a oferta de oxigênio aos tecidos.</p>
<p>Sabatini <italic>et al</italic>. demonstraram em 2022 uma associação inversa entre o nível de Hb sérica (grau de anemia) e a dilatação do átrio esquerdo, e uma associação direta entre os níveis de reticulócitos (marcador de anemia hemolítica) e a dilatação do átrio esquerdo<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 1</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f6">
<label>Figure 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Janela apical 2 e 4 câmaras para cálculo do volume atrial esquerdo.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-02-e20240128-gf01-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Hipertrofia excêntrica</title>
<p>A hipertrofia excêntrica, mais frequente em câmaras esquerdas, ocorre em cerca de 25-45% dos pacientes com doença falcêmica, também mais prevalente em pacientes com anemia hemolítica mais grave e com idade mais avançada.</p>
<p>Koyunku <italic>et al</italic>., estudaram retrospectivamente 146 pacientes com anemia falciforme e idade acima de 18 anos, e encontraram 45 pacientes (30,8%) com hipertrofia excêntrica. Do total de pacientes, após seguimento de cinco anos, 31 (21,2%) pacientes faleceram. Após análise de curva de sobrevida, os pacientes com hipertrofia excêntrica apresentaram pior prognóstico (quanto pior a hipertrofia excêntrica, maior a chance de óbito).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Disfunção Cardíaca</title>
<p>Anemia hemolítica crônica e episódios repetidos de vaso-oclusão são substratos fisiopatológicos para disfunção microvascular e fibrose miocárdica. Além disso, alterações orgânicas inerentes a própria doença, como disfunção renal, hipertensão arterial sistêmica e sobrecarga de ferro (evento que pode ocorrer em pacientes tratados com hemotransfusão periódica) são situações que colaboram para a gênese e/ou agravamento da função cardíaca.</p>
<p>A <bold>disfunção diastólica</bold> no paciente portador de DF é uma condição comum, presente em cerca de 15-20% da população adulta com DF, e associa-se para o risco de morte prematura.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Avaliar a função diastólica no paciente com DF é necessário, mas, ao mesmo tempo, é um desafio ao ecocardiografista.</p>
<p>Isso porque a função diastólica em crianças possui alguns fatores limitantes, pois os parâmetros de avaliação com Doppler variam significativamente conforme a idade, superfície corpórea e frequência cardíaca. Não existe uma medida única que descreva adequadamente a função diastólica, como a fração de ejeção para a função sistólica.</p>
<p>Pela ausência de um parâmetro padrão-ouro para o diagnóstico de disfunção diastólica, mesmo as medidas obtidas durante o cateterismo cardíaco apresentam deficiências e fornecem informações parciais sobre as características da diástole ventricular. Parâmetros utilizados para defini-la podem estar alterados por conta da própria fisiopatologia da doença de base, sem refletir necessariamente alteração da função diastólica cardíaca, como a dilatação atrial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<p>Na população geral, a dilatação atrial associa-se a disfunção diastólica cardíaca secundariamente ao aumento pressórico ventricular. No paciente com DF, por sua vez, a dilatação atrial é um evento precoce na evolução da doença por conta da sobrecarga volêmica que ocorre na fisiopatologia do paciente falcêmico, sem necessariamente ser reflexo do aumento da pressão de enchimento ventricular. Hammoudi <italic>et al</italic>. avaliaram 127 pacientes com DF e observaram que a maioria apresentou dilatação atrial esquerda, mas este achado não se associou a disfunção diastólica e sim a severidade e tempo de doença.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
<p>O pico de velocidade da regurgitação tricuspídea é outro índice usado no algoritmo de avaliação da função diastólica cardíaca. No entanto, no paciente falcêmico, o aumento deste índice pode não refletir necessariamente o aumento da pressão arterial pulmonar e sim ao aumento da pré-carga cardíaca ou por quadro de hipertensão pulmonar pré-capilar. Assim, deve-se ter cautela ao analisar o pico de velocidade da regurgitação tricuspídea como índice de avaliação da função diastólica no paciente falcêmico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
<p>A razão entre a velocidade transmitral diastólica precoce e a velocidade tecidual (E/e’) para estimativa da pressão de enchimento do ventrículo esquerdo tem sido usada como parâmetro de função diastólica em paciente com DF. Sachdev <italic>et al</italic>. avaliaram 436 pacientes com anemia falciforme (homozigose para Hb S) e observaram que a relação E/e’ associou-se de maneira independente a baixa capacidade de exercício (avaliada pelo teste de caminhada de seis minutos).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<p>Outro índice utilizado como marcador de função diastólica nesta população é a relação E/A. Sachdev <italic>et al</italic>. avaliaram um grupo de 141 pacientes com DF e identificaram que uma baixa relação E/A (marcador de disfunção diastólica) associou-se a risco aumentado de mortalidade numa razão de risco de 3,5.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
<p>Já a <bold>disfunção sistólica</bold> (avaliada na ecocardiografia convencional) é um evento raro na evolução da criança falcêmica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Poludasu <italic>et al</italic>. realizaram uma metanálise com 19 estudos tipo caso-controle e não encontraram diferença estatisticamente significante entre pacientes (841) com anemia falciforme (homozigose Hb S) e controles (554) com relação à função sistólica ao ecocardiograma<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura 2</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f7">
<label>Figura 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Janela apical 2 e 4 câmaras para análise da função ventricular durante a sístole e a diástole.</title> <p>Fração de ejeção calculada através do método de Simpson. CVEd/VDFVE: Volume diastólico final do ventrículo esquerdo; MOD: Método Simpson; FEVE/FE: Fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo; CVE/VSFVE: Volume sistólico final do ventrículo esquerdo; SV: Volume sistólico.</p></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-02-e20240128-gf02-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Análise do Strain na doença falcêmica, o que há de novo?</title>
<p>O advento da <italic>Strain</italic> 2D proporcionou a detecção precoce de danos cardíacos em muitas doenças crônicas e se tornou cada vez mais essencial para estratificar o prognóstico. O objetivo é mostrar a contribuição da deformação 2D para a detecção de dano miocárdico subclínico ventricular em pacientes com DF.</p>
<p>A dilatação cardíaca e a hipertrofia excêntrica ventricular esquerda em pacientes com DF ocorrem para acomodar o aumento da pré-carga e levam progressivamente a alteração da função cardíaca. Essas alterações implicam na morbidade e mortalidade dos pacientes com DF.</p>
<p>O <italic>Strain</italic> global longitudinal do ventrículo esquerdo é um preditor mais específico de remodelação miocárdica do que a fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo (FEVE), sendo uma ferramenta sensível na detecção de comprometimento precoce da função sistólica, apesar de uma FEVE preservada.</p>
<p>Estudos mostram que pacientes com DF que apresentem Hb mais baixa (Hb &lt; 9g/dl) e que tenham pré-carga aumentada possuem, a longo prazo, comprometimento sistólico subclínico do ventrículo esquerdo. Isso se deve provavelmente a má adaptabilidade a longo prazo do aumento crônico da pré-carga.</p>
<p>Resende <italic>et al</italic>. acompanharam 219 pacientes com DF por 30 meses e observaram que aqueles pacientes com <italic>Strain</italic> alterado apresentaram piores desfechos clínicos (crise álgica, síndrome torácica aguda e óbito associado a DF) independentemente da idade, valor de pico da velocidade do refluxo tricuspídeo e fração de ejeção pela ecocardiografia convencional. Assim, pacientes com DF que possuem <italic>Strain</italic> alterado têm pior prognóstico evolutivo<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figura 3</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f8">
<label>Figura 3</label>
<caption>
<title>Strain Global Longitudinal de pico do ventrículo esquerdo de −19.5% em criança com anemia falciforme.</title> <p>Sept: parede septal; Ant: parede anterior; inf: parede inferior; Lat: parede lateral; Post: parede posterior; GLPS: Deformação longitudinal global máxima; FR: Taxa de quadros por segundo.</p></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-02-e20240128-gf03-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Hipertensão pulmonar</title>
<p>A hipertensão pulmonar é uma condição caracterizada pela diminuição do fluxo sanguíneo através da circulação arterial pulmonar por conta do aumento da resistência vascular pulmonar e pressões arteriais elevadas.</p>
<p>A prevalência de hipertensão pulmonar é maior em pacientes com doença da Hb SS do que naqueles com talassemia SC ou Sβ+ ou Sβ°.</p>
<p>Estudos usando ecocardiografia para medir a velocidade máxima de regurgitação tricúspide como um índice de pressão arterial pulmonar sistólica demonstraram uma alta prevalência (30%) de hipertensão pulmonar na população com DF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
<p>A fisiopatologia da hipertensão pulmonar é variável: primeiramente, como a pressão pulmonar é o produto do fluxo e da resistência vascular pulmonar, o alto débito cardíaco na DF induz pressão pulmonar elevada com as resistências vasculares pulmonares alteradas ou não. Em segundo lugar, a sobrecarga crônica de volume pode levar à insuficiência do ventrículo esquerdo e subsequente hipertensão venosa pulmonar. Em terceiro lugar, a hemólise intravascular pode induzir vasculopatia arterial pulmonar, principalmente impulsionada pela eliminação de óxido nítrico devido à Hb plasmática livre.</p>
<p>Finalmente, vários outros mecanismos podem participar, incluindo hipoxemia, hipertensão pulmonar pós-embólica, lesão pulmonar relacionada à DF, alteração hepática crônica. É importante ressaltar que vários desses fatores estão frequentemente presentes simultaneamente em um mesmo paciente com DF que sofre de HP. Isso representa um importante desafio para o manejo clínico da doença. Assim, esses pacientes são atualmente classificados no grupo cinco dentro do sistema de classificação da Organização Mundial da Saúde (OMS) para hipertensão pulmonar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
<p>Mehari <italic>et al</italic>. estudaram 531 pacientes e observaram associação positiva entre aumento da pressão pulmonar e redução da tolerância ao exercício, e maior taxa de mortalidade em pacientes com DF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
<p>Diante do impacto da hipertensão pulmonar na morbimortalidade do paciente com DF, a Sociedade Americana Torácica publicou em 2014 um <italic>guideline</italic> de manejo destes pacientes sugerindo cateterismo cardíaco diagnóstico quando a velocidade de regurgitação tricuspídea for ≥ 3m/s ou quando entre 2,5-2,9m/s em pacientes com sintomas como redução do teste de caminhada e/ou aumento sérico de NT-pro-BNP<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">Figura 4</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f9">
<label>Figura 4</label>
<caption>
<title>Janela apical 4 câmaras para análise do refluxo tricuspídeo pelo Doppler contínuo em paciente com Anemia Falciforme.</title> <p>PG: Gradiente pressórico; CW: Doppler Contínuo; WF: Forma de onda; CF: Doppler com Fluxo Colorido.</p></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-38-02-e20240128-gf04-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Avaliação ecocardiográfica durante o tratamento da DF</title>
<p>O paciente sintomático ou portador de hipertensão pulmonar tem indicação de tratamento modificador de doença da DF.</p>
<p>A hidroxiuréia é uma das medicações utilizadas para o tratamento da DF. Um dos seus mecanismos de ação é o aumento da Hb fetal, reduzindo os níveis da Hb S patológica e seus efeitos fisiopatológicos.</p>
<p>Dhar <italic>et al</italic>. analisaram 100 pacientes com DF, estando 60 destes em uso de hidroxiuréia. Eles observaram que a dilatação e hipertrofia do ventrículo esquerdo melhoraram significativamente com o tratamento de hidroxiuréia. Além disso, o volume e a massa do ventrículo esquerdo correlacionaram-se negativamente com a duração do tratamento com hidroxiuréia, demonstrando que a terapia medicamentosa pode levar ao remodelamento cardíaco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
<p>Outra terapia preconizada para pacientes falcêmicos sintomáticos é a hemotransfusão crônica, cujo objetivo é reduzir as taxas da Hb S patológica.</p>
<p>Turpin <italic>et al</italic>. avaliaram 13 pacientes com anemia falciforme (homozigose Hb S) antes e após tratamento com hemotransfusão crônica. O estudo demonstrou melhora de classe funcional e redução da velocidade do jato de refluxo tricuspídeo após o tratamento com hemotransfusão.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
<p>Assim, pacientes com DF em tratamento modificador de doença também devem ser avaliados rotineiramente com o ecocardiograma para melhor definição do seu <italic>status</italic> cardiovascular.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Avaliação ecocardiográfica durante a crise na DF</title>
<p>Ao longo da vida, o paciente portador de DF pode apresentar inúmeros eventos agudos, como crise álgica, síndrome torácica aguda, sequestro esplênico e acidente vascular cerebral.</p>
<p>Onalo <italic>et al</italic>. acompanharam por dois anos 176 pacientes com DF, sendo 92 sem evento de crise e 84 com evento de crise e observaram maior prevalência de hipertensão pulmonar e disfunção cardíaca em pacientes com algum evento de crise durante este período.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
<p>Assim, o paciente com DF que apresenta algum episódio de crise falcêmica deve ter a sua condição cardiovascular reavaliada a fim de que melhor manejo cardíaco possa ser oferecido neste momento.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusão</title>
<p>O Ecocardiograma de rotina para a população pediátrica assintomática com anemia falciforme não é uma realidade em nosso meio, porém o impacto significativo das alterações cardíacas já pode ser observado desde a infância.</p>
<p>Exames ecocardiográficos seriados devem ser considerados a fim de proporcionar diagnóstico precoce de complicações cardíacas e melhorar o atendimento clínico ao paciente falcêmico com o intuito de reduzir a morbidade e mortalidade cardiovascular nesta população.</p>
</sec>
</body>
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<label>Fontes de Financiamento</label>
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<label>Vinculação Acadêmica</label>
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<fn fn-type="other" id="fn7">
<label>Aprovação Ética e Consentimento Informado</label>
<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn8">
<label>Uso de Inteligência Artificial</label>
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</fn-group>
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</article>