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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abcimg</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq Bras Cardiol: Imagem cardiovasc.</abbrev-journal-title></journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name></publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20240113i</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abcimg.20240113i</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Review Article</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>My Approach to Functional Analysis in Computed Tomography Angiography: Myocardial Perfusion and FFRct</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6010-5803</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Teixeira</surname><given-names>Gustavo Corrêa de Almeida</given-names></name>
<role>acquisition of data and writing of the manuscript</role>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0006-0887-8215</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Castro</surname><given-names>Bruno Vicente Gomes de</given-names></name>
<role>acquisition of data and writing of the manuscript</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8550-6312</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Silva</surname><given-names>Douglas Carli</given-names></name>
<role>acquisition of data and writing of the manuscript</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7232-4552</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Magalhães</surname><given-names>Tiago</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"><sup>5</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Teleimagem</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Teleimagem, Imagem Cardiovascular, São Paulo, SP - Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">CEDIP Medicina Diagnóstica</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Curitiba</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">PR</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">CEDIP Medicina Diagnóstica, Curitiba, PR - Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>3</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Siemens Healthineers AG</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Erlangen</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">Bayern</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="DE">Germany</country>
<institution content-type="original">Siemens Healthineers AG, Erlangen, Bayern - Germany</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff4">
<label>4</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Instituto de Radiologia do Hospital das Clínicas FMUSP</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Instituto de Radiologia do Hospital das Clínicas FMUSP, São Paulo, SP - Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff5">
<label>5</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital do Coração</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital do Coração, Diagnóstico por Imagem, São Paulo, SP - Brazil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><label>Mailing Address:</label> <bold>Gustavo Corrêa de Almeida Teixeira</bold> • Teleimagem, Imagem Cardiovascular. Rua Desembargador Eliseu Guilherme, 53, 7° andar. Postal Code: <postal-code>04004-030</postal-code>, Paraíso, São Paulo, SP - Brazil E-mail: <email>gustavo.cateixeira@gmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><label>Potential Conflict of Interest</label>
<p>Author declare potential conflict of interest: Douglas Carli Silva - Clinical Specialist at Siemens Healthineers.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><label>Editor responsible for the review:</label> <p>Marcelo Tavares</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>13</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2024</year></pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2024</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>37</volume>
<issue>4</issue>
<elocation-id>e20240113</elocation-id>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>31</day>
<month>10</month>
<year>2024</year>
</date>
<date date-type="rev-recd">
<day>01</day>
<month>11</month>
<year>2024</year></date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>01</day>
<month>11</month>
<year>2024</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>Coronary computed tomography angiography (CCTA) is an effective noninvasive method for detecting atherosclerotic disease, especially in symptomatic patients with low-to-moderate disease probability. Despite good accuracy in detecting obstructions, its relationship with functional lesion severity is limited. For a more accurate assessment, anatomical evaluation can be associated with myocardial computed tomography perfusion and fractional flow reserve derived from CCTA (FFRct). Myocardial perfusion computed tomography identifies areas of ischemia. FFRct, which assesses the hemodynamic significance of stenoses, has shown high accuracy and can reduce the need for invasive catheterizations. The image acquisition and interpretation protocols are essential to ensure reliable results and appropriate management of patients with coronary artery disease.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords</title>
<kwd>Computed Tomography Angiography</kwd>
<kwd>Myocardial Perfusion Imaging</kwd>
<kwd>Myocardial Fractional Flow Reserve</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="22"/>
<table-count count="2"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="22"/>
</counts>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introduction</title>
<p>Coronary computed tomography angiography (CCTA), a well-established noninvasive diagnostic method for detecting coronary atherosclerotic disease, has a high negative predictive value and is indicated in symptomatic patients with a low-to-intermediate pre-test probability of obstructive disease. Despite having good accuracy for detecting obstructive disease, the relationship between detected lesions and their functional severity is low.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> In recent years, tomographic anatomical analysis has been complemented with ischemia assessment by myocardial computed tomography perfusion and fractional flow reserve derived from coronary computed tomography (CT) (FFRct). These assessments provide additional information, allowing more precise assessment of the repercussions of the identified stenoses.</p>
<fig id="f11">
<caption>
<title>Coronary computed tomography angiography (CCTA) combining anatomy and functional assessment in the investigation of coronary disease. <bold>Central panel:</bold> three-dimensional reconstruction of the heart and coronary arteries. <bold>Upper left panel:</bold> 3D coronary tree with perfusion map of the left ventricle demonstrating the region irrigated by the affected artery. <bold>Lower left panel:</bold> fractional flow reserve derived from CTA (FFRct) with a value &lt;0.80, compatible with flow-limiting stenosis. <bold>Lower panel:</bold> color-coded myocardial perfusion, demonstrating a perfusion defect under stress related to the region of the left anterior descending artery. <bold>Right panel:</bold> visual anatomical analysis by CCTA, demonstrating a sub-occlusive lesion in the left anterior descending artery.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-04-e20240113-gf11.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Combined assessment, such as associating CCTA with myocardial computed tomography perfusion, results in greater specificity and accuracy than CCTA alone. Combining both techniques has better diagnostic performance regarding restenosis of coronary stents and segments whose anatomical assessment is limited due to motion artifacts or excessive calcification. Similar results were found for prognostication of major cardiovascular events within 2 years, being comparable to the combined use of invasive coronary angiography and myocardial scintigraphy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<p>In turn, tomographic analysis complemented with ischemia assessment by FFRct provides crucial information on patients with coronary artery disease, since ischemia-guided revascularization of lesions (FFR ≤ 0.80) detected by invasive FFR measurement reduces the incidence of major adverse cardiovascular events, especially urgent revascularization.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
<sec>
<title>Myocardial computed tomography perfusion</title>
<p>Myocardial computed tomography perfusion assessment uses iodinated contrast before and after administration of vasodilator drugs to identify ischemic areas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Two main techniques have been described for this assessment. The &quot;dynamic&quot; technique, which involves serial acquisition of the first contrast passage through the myocardium, and the &quot;static&quot; technique, which is based on a single acquisition during the peak of the initial contrast injection (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> The dynamic technique can quantitatively evaluate flow, although it requires specific post-processing software. It also requires CT scanners that can cover the entire heart, or at least 2 acquisitions from devices with less coverage which are subsequently merged using the image reconstruction function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f1">
<label>Figure 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Intensity of the myocardial and ventricular cavity attenuation curves over time. Relative hypoattenuation of the ischemic myocardium occurs close to the peak of ventricular cavity contrast enhancement. The difference in attenuation between a normal and ischemic myocardium (arrow) represents myocardial ischemia, which is identified in the first injection of iodinated contrast during pharmacological stress (ie, the &quot;acquisition window&quot; for identifying myocardial ischemia). LV: left ventricle.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-04-e20240113-gf01.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>The static perfusion technique, however, has a simpler and more accessible acquisition protocol on machines with less coverage and allows visual interpretation of the images (qualitative), eliminating the need for post-processing software.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Due to its greater clinical applicability (it can be performed by CT scanners with ≥ 64 detector columns), this article will describe the static perfusion protocol.</p>
<p>Two acquisitions are necessary for the perfusion assessment, one at rest, which is also used to assess coronary anatomy, and another after the use of a coronary vasodilator drug, with an interval of 10 to 15 minutes between acquisitions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
<p>Although the order of acquisitions (stress/rest or rest/stress) does not appear to affect the results, the techniques have certain advantages and disadvantages. Some authors report that performing the stress sequence first avoids artifacts secondary to residual contrast, which can be confused with perfusion defects. However, beginning with the rest sequence would prioritize coronary luminal evaluation and, if potentially obstructive coronary lesions are not visualized, the stress sequence may not be necessary.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Acquisition protocol</title>
<p>Adequate preparation is required to effectively obtain the images, including caffeine abstinence in the 24 hours prior to the test. Patients should be assessed for contraindication to dipyridamole, beta-blockers, and nitrates. Heart rate, blood pressure, and electrocardiogram monitoring are also recommended throughout the examination.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p>Image acquisition at rest should follow the usual CCTA protocols, prioritizing anatomical assessment. However, the stress protocol can be performed at a lower radiation dose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
<p>The available stressor agents are dipyridamole, adenosine, and regadenoson, the first of which is the most widely used in our setting and, thus, is suggested. Nitrate and beta-blockers are used to achieve rest following the usual CCTA protocol.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> It is important to note that if the rest/stress protocol is selected, a 20-minute interval is required between the application of nitrate and acquisition of stress images.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
<p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref> presents a suggested protocol for 64-channel CT scanners, including acquisition parameters. <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref> presents a flowchart summarizing the acquisition steps.</p>
<table-wrap id="t1">
<label>Table 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Suggested Myocardial Computed Tomography Perfusion Protocol</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="100%">
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Suggested Myocardial Computed Tomography Perfusion Protocol</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Pre-exam: abstain from caffeine for 24 hours.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Check contraindications to the use of dipyridamole, beta-blockers, nitrate, and iodinated contrast.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Make 2 access points (18-20 gauge catheters - antecubital veins)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Administer dipyridamole 0.56 mg/kg/4 min (check symptoms, vital signs, and ECG during injection).</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Wait 2 minutes after completed injection.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Stress acquisition: retrospective gating; contrast (370 mg/mL) 60 mL at 3 mL/s. Begin acquisition at the peak of left atrial contrast.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Parameters: 100 mA current and 100 Kv tube voltage.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Reverse dipyridamole with aminophylline 240 mg.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Wait 10-15 min between acquisition under stress and acquisition at rest.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Heart rate control (IV metoprolol ≤ 20 mg) until the heart rate is &lt; 65 bpm.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Administer sublingual nitrate 3 min before acquisition at rest.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Acquisition at rest: retrospective gating; contrast (370 mg/mL) 80-90 mL at 5 mL/s.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Parameters: tube current ≤ 850 mA and tube voltage 100 Kv (preferred).</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN1">
<p>References (2.9). bpm: beats per minute; ECG: electrocardiogram; IV: intravenous; HR: heart rate.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<fig id="f2">
<label>Figure 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Acquisition steps of the combined CCTA and myocardial computed tomography perfusion protocol (modified from Magalhães et al.).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> bpm: beats per minute; HR: heart rate.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-04-e20240113-gf02.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Image reconstruction and artifact recognition</title>
<p>Some strategies can be suggested to ensure good image reconstruction. One is to reconstruct several phases at each 5% of the R-R interval, allowing identification of the best temporal resolution. It is also essential to reconstruct the images in 3 classic projections: the short, long horizontal, and long vertical axes. These projections allow evaluation of the myocardial regions in 2 distinct axes. Finally, the images should be evaluated in slices of 3-5 mm, and correction filters should be used, if available.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Image interpretation</title>
<p>Image interpretation should follow a systematic approach. The first step consists of evaluating the CCTA, describing and grading the identified stenoses. Uninterpretable segments should also be described, ie, those whose luminal evaluation was inaccessible due to artifacts, stents, or calcifications. It is important to check for points of myocardial thinning, adipose metaplasia, calcification, ventricular aneurysms or pseudoaneurysms, and mural thrombi, which may indicate or be related to areas of hypoperfusion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
<p>The images are then evaluated for the presence of hypoattenuation during rest and stress. Hypoattenuation during stress that is reversible at rest suggests myocardial ischemia (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>), while areas of hypoperfusion at rest indicate infarction (fibrosis). It is worth noting that areas of hypoattenuation at rest may show partial improvement, normalization, or even hyperattenuation during stress, a phenomenon known as late hyperattenuation of myocardial scar areas. Finally, areas of hypoattenuation that increase in size during stress suggest peri-infarction ischemia (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 4</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> All identified changes must be confirmed in at least two different projections and evaluated in several phases, since true hypoperfusions persist throughout these phases, which is essential to exclude the possibility of artifactual findings.</p>
<fig id="f3">
<label>Figure 3</label>
<caption>
<title>These images demonstrate a practical case involving combined assessment with CCTA and myocardial computed tomography perfusion. <bold>First stage (anatomical evaluation):</bold> CCTA images demonstrate moderate (questionable) stenosis in the proximal third of the right coronary artery (RCA) and limited evaluation of the ostium of the diagonal branch. <bold>Second stage (perfusion evaluation):</bold> myocardial computed tomography perfusion images reveal reversible perfusion defects in the anterolateral and inferolateral segments, in line with the previously described stenoses. <bold>Third stage (lesion reclassification):</bold> reclassification of the stenoses is plausible. <bold>Fourth stage (anatomical-functional correlation):</bold> the findings indicate flow-limiting stenoses in the diagonal and right coronary branches. CCTA: coronary computed tomography angiography.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-04-e20240113-gf03.tif"/>
</fig>
<fig id="f4">
<label>Figure 4</label>
<caption>
<title>Example of peri-infarction ischemia in the region irrigated by the second marginal branch (Mg2) (hypoattenuation at rest in the inferolateral segment, with an increase in the affected area during stress). There is also ischemia in the region irrigated by the RCA (inferior wall - occluded), which may indicate insufficient collateral circulation. The CCTA images confirm the anatomical plausibility of the perfusion findings.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-04-e20240113-gf04.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Finally, a detailed correlation is performed between the areas of hypoperfusion, whether fixed or reversible, and the corresponding coronary artery obstructions. Segments in which the CCTA assessment presented uncertainties, such as moderate lesions, stents, or calcified plaques, can be reclassified according to the identified perfusion defects. Diagnostic uncertainty in association with a perfusion defect strongly suggests the presence of significant stenosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Combined assessment allows precise identification of the vessels responsible for irrigating a hypoattenuated region, which is useful given the frequent anatomical variation in the coronary tree. In addition, the plausibility of a specific stenosis being responsible for a perfusion defect can be assessed. For example, a perfusion defect in the inferoapical region may be attributed to a long anterior descending artery that bypasses the ventricular apex, demonstrating a correlation between anatomy and function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 5</xref> summarizes the steps for image interpretation.</p>
<fig id="f5">
<label>Figure 5</label>
<caption>
<title>Combined interpretation of CCTA and myocardial perfusion (modified from Magalhães et al).2 CCTA: Coronary computed tomography angiography.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-04-e20240113-gf05.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Flow reserve derived from CCTA</title>
<p>The hemodynamic significance of coronary stenoses was initially demonstrated by invasive measurement of fractional flow reserve (FFR) through catheterization, which is considered the gold standard. For FFRct assessment, a 3D anatomical model of the aortic root and coronary arteries was created, followed by a physiological model derived from the following principles: 1) resting coronary flow is proportional to ventricular mass; 2) microvascular resistance is inversely proportional to vessel size; and 3) reduced microvascular resistance simulates maximal hyperemia. Finally, dedicated computational algorithms calculate the hemodynamic effects of the stenoses on epicardial circulation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Thus, FFRct can be calculated at each point of the coronary tree from data obtained through a standard coronary tomography, without the need for adenosine or increased patient exposure to ionizing radiation.</p>
<p>The DISCOVER-FLOW study found that FFRct had a diagnostic accuracy of 84.3% and significantly greater specificity than visual analysis by CCTA (82.9% vs 39.6%, respectively).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> The DeFacto study did not meet its primary objective of exceeding the lower limit of the confidence interval, but it found better discrimination than CCTA (area under the receiver operating characteristic curve: 0.81 vs 0.68).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> According to post-hoc analysis, the lack of standardization of beta-blocker and nitrate use may have contributed to the lower diagnostic performance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> With an updated software version and more rigorous acquisition protocols, the NXT study found an 81% diagnostic accuracy, 86% sensitivity, 79% specificity, 65% positive and 93% negative predictive values for FFRct in per-patient analysis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
<p>In the PLATFORM study, using FFRct as an initial strategy avoided 61% of catheterizations and significantly reduced catheterizations in stenoses ≥ 50% (12% in the FFRct group vs 73% in the invasive group).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> The multicenter ADVANCE study found great prognostic value for FFRct, with revascularization rates of 38.4% and 5.8% in those with FFRct ≤ 0.80 and FFRct &gt; 0.80, respectively.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
<p>In recent years, new approaches based on machine learning algorithms have been developed to calculate FFRct more quickly. These algorithms use geometric relationships learned from large datasets to predict FFRct values based on anatomical features derived from CCTA, eliminating the need for complex simulations. The main advantage of this method is the possibility of calculating FFRct directly at the examination site using conventional workstations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Studies with small numbers of patients have demonstrated good accuracy and high reproducibility compared to conventional CCTA in relation to invasive FFR measurement, with a shortened average analysis time.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Acquisition and interpretation</title>
<p>The examination should be performed using machines with at least 64 detector columns under strict heart rate control with oral and intravenous beta-blockers (including ivabradine when necessary), aiming for a heart rate &lt; 60 bpm, which is associated with sublingual nitrate for vasodilation and better coronary visualization. Finally, apnea training is essential to minimize motion artifacts, which degrade the images.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
<p>After image acquisition, post-processing generates an interactive 3D anatomical model, with FFRct values represented by colors ranging from blue to red, and respective values from 1 to 0 at each point of the coronary tree. The colors of normal values (&gt; 0.8) range from blue to green, while abnormal values (&lt; 0.8) range from yellow to orange to red (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 6</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f6">
<label>Figure 6</label>
<caption>
<title>Three-dimensional model of FFRct in the coronary tree. FFRct values &gt;0.80 in blue and green, and values &lt;0.80 in yellow, orange, and red. (A) Lesion in the middle third of the RCA, with abnormal values, suggesting flow-limiting stenosis, (B) Proximal third of the left anterior descending artery with normal FFRct values (&gt;0.8), without obstructions of hemodynamic significance. FFR: fractional flow reserve.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-04-e20240113-gf06.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Using the lowest FFRct value distal to the stenotic lesion has high sensitivity but low specificity, since there is a gradual decline in FFR in distal coronary segments, even in disease-free individuals. Decreased coronary flow reserve can also be observed in patients who have diffuse atherosclerosis without significant lesions (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figure 7</xref>). For these reasons, FFRct should be measured 1 to 2 cm after the stenotic lesion, where it has the best diagnostic performance for detecting ischemia (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figure 8</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f7">
<label>Figure 7</label>
<caption>
<title>Male patient, 82 years old, with atherosclerosis in the middle third of the left anterior descending artery, without causing significant luminal reductions. A gradual decrease in pressure was observed along the vessel, with a FFRct value of 0.66 at its nadir. However, following the recommendations for FFRct analysis (1 to 2 cm from the stenotic lesion), the values were within the normal range (&gt;0.8). FFR: fractional flow reserve.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-04-e20240113-gf07.tif"/>
</fig>
<fig id="f8">
<label>Figure 8</label>
<caption>
<title>Male patient, 70 years old, presenting dyspnea on light and moderate exertion. CCTA demonstrating moderate lesion 60 to 70%, and moderate reduction in catheterization. FFRct was performed at 2 cm from the lesion, with a value of 0.64, compatible with flow-limiting stenosis.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-04-e20240113-gf08.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Errors in lumen segmentation and misalignment of the centerline can generate an inaccurate 3D model, reducing the methods accuracy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Although calcification impedes stenosis interpretation in CCTA, there were no significant differences in the diagnostic performance of FFRct, even in patients with calcium scores &gt; 400.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
<p>Research on FFRct is limited, especially in clinical scenarios such as microvascular disease and the presence of stents and coronary grafts.</p>
<p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">Figures 9</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">10</xref> show additional clinical cases illustrating the added value of functional assessment by FFRct in patients with coronary stenoses identified by CTA.</p>
<fig id="f9">
<label>Figure 9</label>
<caption>
<title>Case 1: A 67-year-old male patient presented with atypical angina on moderate exertion. CTA demonstrated diffuse atherosclerotic disease with an elevated calcium score of 434. (A) Middle third of the left anterior descending artery (LAD) with mixed component plaque, with 70% luminal reduction, and FFRct of 0.84. Middle third of the RCA with mixed component plaque and moderate luminal reduction, with FFRct of 0.93 (Figure 8). The patient was exempted from invasive evaluation, opting for optimized drug therapy.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-04-e20240113-gf09.tif"/>
</fig>
<fig id="f10">
<label>Figure 10</label>
<caption>
<title>Case 2: 46-year-old male patient undergoing evaluation for angina. (A) Predominantly non-calcified plaque in the proximal third of the LAD, with significant luminal reduction. (B) FFRct with a value of 0.68, confirming the presence of flow-limiting stenosis. (C) Cardiac catheterization confirming significant luminal reduction (below), with angioplasty with stent performed (above).</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-04-e20240113-gf10.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1">
<label>Sources of Funding</label>
<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
<label>Study Association</label>
<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
<label>Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate</label>
<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
<ack>
<title>Acknowledgements</title>
<p>The authors would like to thank Siemens Healthineers for providing images and support.</p>
</ack>
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<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S1" xml:lang="pt">
<front-stub>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20240113</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Como eu Faço a Análise Funcional na Angiotomografia: Perfusão Miocárdica e FFRct</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6010-5803</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Teixeira</surname><given-names>Gustavo Corrêa de Almeida</given-names></name>
<role>obtenção de dados e redação do manuscrito</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0006-0887-8215</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Castro</surname><given-names>Bruno Vicente Gomes de</given-names></name>
<role>obtenção de dados e redação do manuscrito</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7"><sup>2</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8550-6312</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Silva</surname><given-names>Douglas Carli</given-names></name>
<role>obtenção de dados e redação do manuscrito</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8"><sup>3</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9"><sup>4</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7232-4552</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Magalhães</surname><given-names>Tiago</given-names></name>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff10"><sup>5</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff6">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Teleimagem, Imagem Cardiovascular, São Paulo, SP - Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff7">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Curitiba</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">PR</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">CEDIP Medicina Diagnóstica, Curitiba, PR - Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff8">
<label>3</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Erlangen</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">Bayern</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="DE">Alemanha</country>
<institution content-type="original">Siemens Healthineers AG, Erlangen, Bayern - Alemanha</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff9">
<label>4</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Instituto de Radiologia do Hospital das Clínicas FMUSP, São Paulo, SP - Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff10">
<label>5</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital do Coração, Diagnóstico por Imagem, São Paulo, SP - Brasil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c2"><label>Correspondência:</label> <bold>Gustavo Corrêa de Almeida Teixeira</bold> • Teleimagem, Imagem Cardiovascular. Rua Desembargador Eliseu Guilherme, 53, 7° andar. CEP: <postal-code>04004-030</postal-code>, Paraíso, São Paulo, SP - Brasil E-mail: <email>gustavo.cateixeira@gmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><label>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</label>
<p>Os autores declaram potencial conflito de interesse em: Douglas Carli Silva - Especialista Clínico Siemens Healthineers.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><label>Editor responsável pela revisão:</label> <p>Marcelo Tavares</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<abstract>
<title>Resumo</title>
<p>A angiotomografia de coronárias é um método não invasivo eficaz para detectar doença aterosclerótica, especialmente em pacientes sintomáticos com baixa a moderada probabilidade de doença. Embora tenha boa acurácia na detecção de obstruções, sua relação com a gravidade funcional das lesões é limitada. Visando a uma avaliação mais precisa, a avaliação anatômica pode ser associada à perfusão miocárdica por tomografia computadorizada (PMTC) e à reserva de fluxo fracionada coronariana derivada da tomografia (FFRct). A PMTC, avalia a perfusão miocárdica e permite identificar áreas de isquemia. A FFRct, que avalia a significância hemodinâmica das estenoses, mostrou alta acurácia e pode reduzir a necessidade de cateterismos (CATEs) invasivos (Figura Central). O protocolo para a aquisição de imagens e a interpretação são essenciais para garantir resultados confiáveis e para o manejo adequado dos pacientes com doença arterial coronariana.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
<title>Palavras-chave</title>
<kwd>Angiografia por Tomografia Computadorizada</kwd>
<kwd>Imagem de Perfusão do Miocárdio</kwd>
<kwd>Reserva Fracionada de Fluxo Miocárdico</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introdução</title>
<p>A angiotomografia de coronárias é um método diagnóstico não invasivo bem estabelecido para a detecção de doença aterosclerótica coronariana, com alto valor preditivo negativo (VPN), sendo indicado em pacientes sintomáticos com probabilidade pré-teste baixa a intermediária. Apesar da boa acurácia para a detecção de doença obstrutiva, apresenta baixa relação entre as lesões detectadas com suas respectivas gravidades funcionais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Nos últimos anos, a análise anatômica tomográfica foi complementada com a avaliação de isquemia pela perfusão miocárdica por tomografia computadorizada (PMTC) e pela reserva de fluxo fracionada coronariana (FFRct), fornecendo informações adicionais, que permitem uma avaliação mais precisa das repercussões das estenoses encontradas.</p>
<fig id="f22">
<caption>
<title>Angiotomografia coronariana aliando anatomia e avaliação funcional na pesquisa de doença coronariana. <bold>Painel central:</bold> reconstrução tridimensional do coração e artérias coronárias. <bold>Painel superior esquerdo:</bold> árvore coronariana 3D com mapa perfusional do ventrículo esquerdo demonstrando território irrigado pela artéria acometida. <bold>Painel inferior esquerdo:</bold> reserva de FFRct com valor &lt; 0,80, compatível com estenose fluxo-limitante. <bold>Painel inferior:</bold> perfusão miocárdica codificada em cores, demonstrando defeito de perfusão sob estresse relacionado ao território da artéria DA. <bold>Painel direito:</bold> análise visual anatômica pela ACTC, demonstrando lesão suboclusiva em artéria DA.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-04-e20240113-gf11-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>O emprego da avaliação combinada, utilizando a angiografia coronariana por tomografia computadorizada (ACTC) associada a PMTC, por exemplo, apresenta maior especificidade e acurácia quando comparada à ACTC isolada. O uso das duas técnicas associadas possui melhor <italic>performance</italic> diagnóstica na avaliação de reestenose de <italic>stents</italic> coronarianos e de segmentos com avaliação anatômica limitada, decorrentes de artefatos de movimento ou calcificações excessivas. Além disso, essa estratégia mostrou-se similar na avaliação prognóstica de eventos cardiovasculares maiores em 2 anos quando comparada ao uso combinado da angiografia coronariana invasiva e cintilografia miocárdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<p>A análise tomográfica complementada com a avaliação de isquemia por reserva de FFRct derivada da tomografia computadorizada (TC), por sua vez, fornece informações cruciais para o manejo de pacientes com doença arterial coronariana, já que a revascularização de lesões guiadas por isquemia (FFR ≤ 0,80) detectadas pela medida invasiva da FFR reduz a incidência de MACE (<italic>major adverse cardiovascular events</italic>), sobretudo na redução da necessidade de revascularização urgente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
<sec>
<title>PMTC</title>
<p>A PMTC avalia a perfusão pelo contraste iodado, antes e após a administração de droga vasodilatadora para identificar áreas de isquemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Existem duas técnicas principais descritas para essa avaliação: a &quot;dinâmica&quot;, com aquisição seriada da primeira passagem do contraste pelo miocárdico; e a &quot;estática&quot;, baseada em uma aquisição única durante o pico da primeira passagem do contraste (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f12">Figura 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> A técnica dinâmica possui a vantagem da possibilidade da avaliação quantitativa de fluxo, porém, é necessário o uso de <italic>softwares</italic> de pós-processamento específicos. Além disso, a técnica exige tomógrafos com cobertura do coração inteiro, ou ao menos duas aquisições de aparelhos com cobertura menor, utilizando-se da função de reconstrução das imagens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f12">
<label>Figura 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Demonstração da curva da intensidade de atenuação do miocárdio e da cavidade ventricular ao longo tempo. A hipoatenuação relativa do miocárdio isquêmico em relação ao normal ocorre próximo ao pico da contrastação da cavidade ventricular. A diferença de atenuação entre o miocárdio normal e o miocárdio isquêmico (seta) representa a isquemia miocárdica, identificada na primeira passagem do contraste iodado, durante o estresse farmacológico (&quot;janela de aquisição&quot; para identificação de isquemia miocárdica).</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-04-e20240113-gf01-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>A técnica de perfusão estática, por sua vez, possui um protocolo de aquisição mais simples e mais acessível em máquinas com menor cobertura, além de permitir a interpretação visual das imagens (qualitativa), dispensando o uso de softwares de pós-processamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Por sua maior aplicabilidade clínica (podendo ser realizada por tomógrafos a partir de 64 colunas de detectores), este artigo terá enfoque na descrição do protocolo de perfusão estática.</p>
<p>Para a avaliação de perfusão, são necessárias duas aquisições: uma em repouso, utilizada também para avaliação da anatomia coronariana, e outra após uso de droga vasodilatadora coronariana, com um intervalo de 10 a 15 minutos entre as aquisições.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
<p>Não há superioridade clara da ordem das aquisições (estresse/repouso ou repouso/estresse), apesar de existirem vantagens e desvantagens entre as técnicas. Alguns autores advogam que a realização da sequência estresse por primeiro evitaria artefatos secundários ao contraste residual, que podem ser confundidos como defeitos de perfusão. Por outro lado, o uso inicial da sequência de repouso priorizaria a avaliação luminal coronariana, e caso não sejam visualizadas lesões coronarianas potencialmente obstrutivas, a realização da sequência de estresse poderia ser dispensada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Protocolo de aquisição</title>
<p>Para a eficaz obtenção das imagens, é necessária uma preparação adequada, com abstenção de cafeína nas últimas 24 horas. Os pacientes devem ser avaliados para contraindicações ao uso de dipiridamol, betabloqueadores e nitratos. Além disso, é recomendado que a frequência cardíaca (FC), pressão arterial e o traçado eletrocardiográfico sejam monitorizados durante todo o exame.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p>A aquisição das imagens de repouso deve ser realizada com os protocolos usuais para ACTC, priorizando a avaliação anatômica. O protocolo de estresse, por sua vez, pode ser realizado com uma dose de radiação mais baixa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
<p>As opções de agentes estressores disponíveis são o dipiridamol, a adenosina ou o regadenoson, sendo o primeiro o mais difundido em nosso meio e, portanto, sugerido neste artigo. O uso de betabloqueadores e nitrato segue as recomendações usuais do protocolo de ACTC, e eles são utilizados na aquisição de repouso.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> É importante notar que, caso seja optado pelo protocolo repouso/estresse, é necessário um intervalo de 20 minutos entre o uso do nitrato e a aquisição das imagens de estresse.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
<p>A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 1</xref> apresenta um protocolo sugerido para tomógrafos de 64 canais, incluindo os parâmetros de aquisição; e a <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f13">Figura 2</xref> apresenta um fluxograma resumindo as etapas de aquisição.</p>
<table-wrap id="t2">
<label>Tabela 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Protocolo sugerido de Perfusão Miocárdica por Tomografia Computadorizada</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="100%">
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Protocolo sugerido de PMTC</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Pré-exame: abstenção de cafeína por 24 h.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Checar contraindicações ao uso de dipiridamol, betabloqueador, nitrato e contraste iodado.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Puncionar dois acessos (jelcos 18-20 gauge - veias antecubitais).</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Administrar dipiridamol 0,56 mg/kg/4 min (checar sintomas, dados vitais e ECG durante injeção).</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Aguardar 2 minutos após o fim da injeção.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Aquisição estresse: <italic>gating</italic> retrospectivo; contraste (370 mg/mL) 60 mL a 3 mL/s. Iniciar aquisição no pico da contrastação do átrio esquerdo.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Parâmetros: corrente de 100 mA e tensão de tubo de 100 Kv.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Reversão do dipiridamol com aminofilina 240 mg.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Aguardar 10-15 minutos entre aquisição sob estresse e aquisição sob repouso.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Controle de FC (metoprolol EV até 20 mg), até FC &lt; 65 bpm.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Administrar nitrato sublingual 3 min antes da aquisição de repouso.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Aquisição repouso: <italic>gating</italic> retrospectivo; contraste (370 mg/mL) 80-90 mL a 5 mL/s.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Parâmetros: corrente do tubo de até 850 mA e tensão do tubo de 100 Kv (preferencial).</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN2">
<p>Referências (2,9). PMTC: perfusão miocárdica por tomografia computadorizada; ECG: ecocardiograma; bpm: batimentos por minuto; ECG: eletrocardiograma; EV: endovenoso; FC: frequência cardíaca.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<fig id="f13">
<label>Figura 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Fluxograma com etapas de aquisição do protocolo combinado de ACTC e PMTC (modificado de Magalhães et a.l).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> bpm: batimentos por minuto; FC: frequência cardíaca.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-04-e20240113-gf02-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Reconstrução das imagens e reconhecimento de artefatos</title>
<p>Algumas estratégias podem ser sugeridas para garantir uma boa reconstrução das imagens. Uma delas é reconstruir várias fases a cada 5% do intervalo R-R, permitindo a identificação da melhor resolução temporal. Além disso, é fundamental que as imagens sejam reconstruídas em três projeções clássicas: eixos curto, longo horizontal e longo vertical. Essas projeções permitem a avaliação dos territórios miocárdicos em dois eixos distintos. Por fim, a avaliação das imagens deve ser realizada em cortes com espessura de 3 a 5 mm, e o uso de filtros de correção, se disponíveis, é recomendado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Interpretação das imagens</title>
<p>A interpretação das imagens deve seguir uma abordagem sistemática. A primeira etapa consiste na avaliação da ACTC, descrevendo e graduando as estenoses encontradas. Também devem ser descritos os segmentos não interpretáveis, ou seja, aqueles que tiveram avaliação luminal inacessível por artefatos, <italic>stents</italic> ou calcificações. É importante verificar pontos de afilamento miocárdico, metaplasia adiposa, calcificações, aneurismas ou pseudoaneurismas ventriculares e trombos murais, que podem indicar ou estar relacionados com áreas de hipoperfusão.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
<p>Em seguida, as imagens são avaliadas para presença de hipoatenuação tanto ao repouso quanto sob estresse. A hipoatenuação observada em estresse e reversível ao repouso sugere isquemia miocárdica (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f14">Figura 3</xref>). Por outro lado, áreas de hipoperfusão ao repouso indicam infarto (fibrose). Vale ressaltar que as áreas de hipoatenuação ao repouso podem apresentar melhora parcial, normalização ou até hiperatenuação durante o estresse, um fenômeno conhecido como hiperatenuação tardia das áreas de cicatriz miocárdica. Por fim, áreas de hipoatenuação que aumentam de tamanho durante o estresse sugerem isquemia perinfarto (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f15">Figura 4</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Todas as alterações identificadas devem ser confirmadas em pelo menos duas projeções diferentes e avaliadas em diversas fases, uma vez que hipoperfusões verdadeiras persistem ao longo dessas fases, o que é essencial para excluir a possibilidade de achados artefatuais.</p>
<fig id="f14">
<label>Figura 3</label>
<caption>
<title>As imagens demonstram um caso prático em que a avaliação combinada de ACTC e PMTC foi utilizada. <bold>1ª etapa (avaliação anatômica):</bold> imagens de ACTC demonstram estenose moderada (duvidosa) em terço proximal da coronária direita (CD) e avaliação limitada do óstio do ramo diagonal. <bold>2ª etapa (avaliação da perfusão):</bold> as imagens de PMTC revelam defeitos perfusionais reversíveis nos segmentos anterolateral e inferolateral, alinhados às estenoses previamente descritas. <bold>3ª etapa (reclassificação das lesões encontradas):</bold> é plausível a reclassificação das estenoses encontradas. <bold>4ª etapa (correlação anátomo-funcional):</bold> os achados indicam estenoses fluxo-limitantes nos ramos diagonal e CD. ACTC: angiografia coronariana por tomografia computadorizada; CD: coronária direita.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-04-e20240113-gf03-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<fig id="f15">
<label>Figura 4</label>
<caption>
<title>Exemplo de isquemia perinfarto no território irrigado pelo segundo ramo marginal (Mg2) (hipoatenuação ao repouso em segmento inferolateral, com aumento da área acometida na fase de estresse). Há também isquemia no território irrigado pela CD (parede inferior), que se encontra ocluída, podendo apontar para insuficiência de circulação colateral. As imagens de ACTC confirmam a plausibilidade anatômica dos achados de perfusão. CD: coronária direita.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-04-e20240113-gf04-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Por fim, realiza-se uma correlação minuciosa entre as áreas de hipoperfusão, sejam elas fixas ou reversíveis, e as obstruções de artérias coronárias correspondentes. Segmentos em que a avaliação anatômica por ACTC apresentou incertezas, como em lesões moderadas, <italic>stents</italic> ou placas calcificadas, podem ser reclassificados de acordo com os defeitos perfusionais encontrados. Diante de dúvida diagnóstica anatômica associada a um defeito perfusional, a presença de estenose significativa é fortemente sugerida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> A avaliação combinada possibilita a identificação precisa dos vasos responsáveis pela irrigação de um território hipoatenuado, o que é útil, dada a frequente presença de variações anatômicas da árvore coronariana. Além disso, é possível avaliar a plausibilidade de uma estenose específica ser responsável por um defeito perfusional. Por exemplo, um defeito perfusional na região ínfero-apical pode ser atribuído a uma artéria descendente anterior (DA) longa que contorna o ápice ventricular, evidenciando uma correlação entre a anatomia e a função.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f16">Figura 5</xref> resume os passos para a interpretação das imagens.</p>
<fig id="f16">
<label>Figura 5</label>
<caption>
<title>Fluxograma de interpretação combinada de ACTC e perfusão miocárdica (modificado de Magalhães et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>). ACTC: angiografia coronariana por tomografia computadorizada.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-04-e20240113-gf05-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Reserva de fluxo fracionada coronariana derivada da TC (FFRct)</title>
<p>A significância hemodinâmica das estenoses coronarianas foi inicialmente demonstrada pela medida invasiva da reserva de fluxo fracionado (FFR) através do cateterismo (CATE), considerada o padrão-ouro. Para avaliação da FFRct, criou-se um modelo anatômico 3D da raiz aórtica e das coronárias, seguido de um modelo fisiológico, derivado de três princípios: 1) o fluxo coronariano de repouso é proporcional à massa ventricular; 2) a resistência microvascular é inversamente proporcional ao tamanho do vaso; e 3) a resistência microvascular reduzida simula hiperemia máxima. Por fim, algoritmos computacionais dedicados calculam os efeitos hemodinâmicos das estenoses da circulação epicárdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Assim, a FFRct pode ser calculada em cada ponto da árvore coronariana, a partir dos dados obtidos por meio de uma tomografia de coronárias padrão, sem a necessidade de administração de adenosina ou do aumento da exposição do paciente à radiação ionizante.</p>
<p>Nos estudos de validação do método, o DISCOVER-FLOW apresentou acurácia diagnóstica de 84,3% e um aumento significativo na especificidade na avaliação por vaso em relação à análise visual pela ACTC (82,9% vs. 39,6%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> O estudo DeFacto não atingiu seu objetivo primário por ultrapassar o limite inferior do intervalo de confiança, mas demonstrou melhor discriminação em relação à ACTC, com AUC (<italic>area under the</italic> ROC <italic>curve</italic>) de 0,81 vs. 0,68.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Em análise <italic>post-hoc</italic>, a falta de padronização do uso de betabloqueadores e nitratos pode ter contribuído na redução da <italic>performance</italic> diagnóstica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Com versão de <italic>software</italic> atualizada e protocolos de aquisição mais rigorosos, o estudo NXT apresentou acurácia diagnóstica, sensibilidade, especificidade, VPP (valor preditivo positivo) e VPN para a FFRct, em análise por paciente, de 81%, 86%, 79%, 65% e 93% respectivamente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
<p>No estudo PLATFORM, o uso de FFRct como estratégia inicial cancelou 61% dos CATEs, com redução significativa de CATEs sem estenoses ≥ 50% (12% no grupo FFRct vs. 73% no grupo invasivo).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> No estudo multicêntrico ADVANCE, a FFRct demonstrou grande valor prognóstico, com taxa de revascularização de 38,4% naqueles com FFRct ≤ 0,80 e de 5,8% nos pacientes com FFRct &gt; 0,80.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
<p>Nos últimos anos, novas abordagens baseadas em algoritmos de aprendizado de máquina (ML) foram desenvolvidas para calcular a FFRct de forma mais ágil. Esses algoritmos utilizam relações geométricas aprendidas a partir de grandes conjuntos de dados para prever os valores de FFRct com base nas características anatômicas derivadas da ACTC, eliminando a necessidade de simulações complexas. A principal vantagem desse método é a possibilidade de calcular a FFRct diretamente no local do exame, em estações de trabalho convencionais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Estudos com números reduzidos de pacientes têm demonstrado boa acurácia e alta reprodutibilidade quando comparados com a ACTC convencional em relação à medida invasiva da FFR, com tempo médio de análise reduzido.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Aquisição e interpretação</title>
<p>O exame deve ser adquirido por máquinas de pelo menos 64 colunas de detectores, com controle rigoroso de FC com betabloqueadores via oral e endovenosos e, eventualmente, ivabradina, visando a FC &lt; 60 bpm, associados a nitrato sublingual para vasodilatação e melhor visualização coronariana. Por fim, o treinamento da apneia é fundamental para minimizar artefatos de movimento que degradem as imagens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
<p>Após a aquisição das imagens, o pós-processamento gera um modelo anatômico 3D interativo, com os valores de FFRct representados por cores variando do azul ao vermelho, e respectivos valores de 1 a 0 em cada ponto da árvore coronariana. Valores normais &gt; 0,8 têm cores variando do azul ao verde, e valores anormais &lt; 0,8, amarelo, laranja e vermelho (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f17">Figura 6</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f17">
<label>Figura 6</label>
<caption>
<title>Modelo tridimensional da FFRct na árvore coronariana. Valores de FFRct &gt; 0,80 nas cores azul e verde, e valores &lt; 0,80 nas cores amarelo, laranja e vermelho. (A) Lesão em terço médio da artéria CD, com valores anormais, sugerindo estenose fluxo-limitante, (B) Terço proximal da artéria DA com valores normais de FFRct (&gt; 0,8), sem obstruções de significância hemodinâmica. FFR: fluxo fracionado.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-04-e20240113-gf06-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>O uso do menor valor de FFRct distalmente à lesão estenótica tem alta sensibilidade, porém baixa especificidade, visto que há um declínio gradual da FFR em segmentos coronarianos distais mesmo em indivíduos sem doença. Também podemos observar uma queda na reserva de fluxo coronariano em pacientes com aterosclerose difusa sem lesões significativas (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f18">Figura 7</xref>). Por essas razões, a FFRct deve ser medida de 1 a 2 cm após a lesão estenótica, onde tem a melhor <italic>performance</italic> diagnóstica para detecção de isquemia (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f19">Figura 8</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f18">
<label>Figura 7</label>
<caption>
<title>Paciente masculino, 82 anos, com aterosclerose em terço médio da artéria DA, sem causar reduções luminais significativas. Observa-se uma queda gradual da pressão ao longo do vaso, com valor da FFRct de 0,66 em seu nadir. Entretanto, seguindo as recomendações de análise da FFR-CT (1 a 2cm da lesão estenótica), os valores encontram-se dentro da faixa de normalidade (&gt; 0,8).</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-04-e20240113-gf07-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<fig id="f19">
<label>Figura 8</label>
<caption>
<title>Paciente masculino, 70 anos, apresentando dispneia aos pequenos e médios esforços. ACTC demonstrando lesão moderada 60 a 70%, e redução moderada em CATE. Realizada a reserva de FFRct a 2 cm da lesão, com valor de 0,64, compatível com estenose fluxo-limitante.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-04-e20240113-gf08-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Erros na segmentação do lúmen e o desalinhamento da linha central podem gerar um modelo 3D impreciso, reduzindo a acurácia do método.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Embora a presença de calcificação produza dificuldades na interpretação de estenoses pela ACTC, não houve diferenças significativas na <italic>performance</italic> diagnóstica da FFRct, mesmo naqueles pacientes com escore de cálcio &gt; 400.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
<p>A avaliação da FFRct é limitada ou carece de estudos em determinados cenários clínicos, como na doença microvascular, presença de <italic>stents</italic> e em enxertos coronarianos.</p>
<p>As <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f20">Figuras 9</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f21">10</xref> trazem casos clínicos adicionais que ilustram o valor incremental da avaliação funcional pela FFRct em pacientes com estenoses coronarianas identificadas pela angiotomografia.</p>
<fig id="f20">
<label>Figura 9</label>
<caption>
<title>Caso 1: paciente masculino, 67 anos, apresentando angina atípica aos médios esforços. Angiotomografia demonstrou doença aterosclerótica difusa, com escore de cálcio elevado de 434. (A) Terço médio de artéria DA com placa de componente misto, com redução luminal de 70%, e reserva de FFRct de 0,84. Terço médio de artéria CD com placa de componente misto, e redução luminal moderada, com FFRct de 0,93 (Figura 8). Paciente foi dispensado de avaliação invasiva, optando-se por terapia medicamentosa otimizada. FFRct: Reserva de fluxo fracionada coronariana derivada da TC.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-04-e20240113-gf09-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<fig id="f21">
<label>Figura 10</label>
<caption>
<title>Caso 2: paciente masculino, 46 anos, em avaliação por quadro de angina. (A) Placa predominantemente não calcificada em terço proximal de DA, com redução luminal importante. (B) FFRct com valor de 0,68, confirmando a presença de estenose fluxo-limitante. (C) CATE cardíaco confirmando redução luminal importante (abaixo), sendo realizada angioplastia com stent (acima). FFRct: Reserva de fluxo fracionada coronariana derivada da TC.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-04-e20240113-gf10-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn4">
<label>Fontes de Financiamento</label>
<p>O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn5">
<label>Vinculação Acadêmica</label>
<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
<label>Aprovação Ética e Consentimento Informado</label>
<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
<ack>
<title>Agradecimento</title>
<p>Agradecemos o apoio da Siemens Healthineers pela concessão das imagens e pelo suporte fornecido.</p>
</ack>
</back>
</sub-article>
</article>
