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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abcimg</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq Bras Cardiol: Imagem cardiovasc.</abbrev-journal-title></journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name></publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20240088i</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abcimg.20240088i</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Review Article</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Advances in Percutaneous Tricuspid Valve Treatment</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7900-6506</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Pereira</surname><given-names>Marcio Mendes</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>acquisition of data</role>
<role>writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2634-4632</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Otto</surname><given-names>Maria Estefânia</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>acquisition of data</role>
<role>writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0008-9564-7435</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Melo</surname><given-names>Fernando</given-names><suffix>Netto</suffix></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup></xref>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>acquisition of data</role>
<role>writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0003-0825-2982</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Esteves</surname><given-names>Fernanda</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"><sup>5</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6"><sup>6</sup></xref>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>acquisition of data</role>
<role>writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">UDI Hospital</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Luis</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">MA</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">UDI Hospital, São Luis, MA – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Instituto de Cardiologia e Transplantes do Distrito Federal</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Brasília</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">DF</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Instituto de Cardiologia e Transplantes do Distrito Federal, Brasília, DF – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>3</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital DF Star</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Brasília</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">DF</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital DF Star, Brasília, DF – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff4">
<label>4</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Centro Avançado de Diagnóstico em Cardiologia Villas Boas</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Brasília</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">DF</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Centro Avançado de Diagnóstico em Cardiologia Villas Boas, Brasília, DF – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff5">
<label>5</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Vila Nova Star</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital Vila Nova Star, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff6">
<label>6</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital e Maternidade São Luiz</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital e Maternidade São Luiz, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><label>Mailing Address:</label> Marcio Mendes Pereira • UDI Hospital. Av. Prof. Carlos Cunha, 2000. Postal Code: <postal-code>65076-820</postal-code>. Jaracti, São Luis, MA – Brazil E-mail: <email>marciomp50@hotmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><label>Potential Conflict of Interest</label><p>I declare that there is a potential conflict of interest for the following authors: Pereira MM - Proctor in MitraClip echocardiography by Abbott Laboratories; Netto FM – Proctor in MitraClip echocardiography by Abbott Laboratories; and Esteves F – Proctor in MitraClip echocardiography by Abbott Laboratories and proctor in echocardiography by Edwards Lifesciences.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><label>Editor responsible for the review:</label><p>Marcelo Tavares</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>22</day>
<month>11</month>
<year>2024</year></pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2024</year></pub-date>
<volume>37</volume>
<issue>4</issue>
<elocation-id>e20240088</elocation-id>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>16</day>
<month>09</month>
<year>2024</year>
</date>
<date date-type="rev-recd">
<day>17</day>
<month>09</month>
<year>2024</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>21</day>
<month>09</month>
<year>2024</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>Tricuspid regurgitation (TR) is a frequently underdiagnosed and undertreated condition, often associated with poor clinical outcomes, particularly in elderly and high-risk surgical patients. As the prevalence of TR continues to rise and traditional surgical methods face limitations, percutaneous techniques have emerged as promising alternatives. This article reviews the latest advancements in the percutaneous treatment of TR, highlighting new etiological and quantitative classifications, in addition to exploring the indications and outcomes of key techniques, including percutaneous edge-to-edge repair and transcatheter valve replacement. Moreover, it discusses the anatomical challenges involved and the vital role of echocardiography in periprocedural planning and monitoring. Based on current data, percutaneous interventions have shown effectiveness in alleviating symptoms and enhancing the quality of life for patients with severe TR, making them a viable option for those who are not candidates for conventional surgery.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords</title>
<kwd>Tricuspid Valve Insufficiency</kwd>
<kwd>Transcatheter Aortic Valve Replacement</kwd>
<kwd>Echocardiography</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="16"/>
<table-count count="4"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="46"/>
</counts>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introduction</title>
<p>The tricuspid valve (TV) plays a crucial role in maintaining right ventricular (RV) hemodynamics. The occurrence of significant tricuspid regurgitation (TR) can result in right heart failure<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> and systemic complications that are difficult to manage clinically, often progressing to renal and hepatic failure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
<p>Over the past twenty years, TR has garnered increasing attention in the field of interventional cardiology, transforming what was once considered a &quot;forgotten valve&quot; into a topic of significant interest at conferences and in academic publications. This phenomenon was the result of its high prevalence, especially in the elderly population,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> and poor prognosis during its evolution.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Furthermore, conventional surgical treatment of TR, although effective, has significant limitations, especially in patients with advanced stages of heart failure or at high surgical risk.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> In recent years, there has been a considerable expansion in the development and implementation of minimally invasive percutaneous techniques, with the introduction of a variety of devices aimed at correcting TR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p>However, the appropriate time for intervention and the type of device suitable for each situation remains the subject of study and controversy.</p>
<p>The development of percutaneous techniques for TR treatment has progressed rapidly, enhancing the understanding of the disease. Consequently, this document aims to outline the new etiological and quantitative classification of TR, along with detailed indications for the most commonly utilized percutaneous treatments, emphasizing the necessary echocardiographic monitoring.</p>
<sec>
<title>New quantitative classification and mechanisms of tricuspid insufficiency</title>
<sec>
<title>Re-quantifying TR</title>
<p>For a better understanding of the mechanisms of TR and the results of percutaneous procedures, a new classification of severity of TR quantification and a deep knowledge of the anatomy of the TV have become necessary.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Currently, only 54% of TVs actually have three cusps<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> and the degree of regurgitation is classified into five levels, as described in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>. This quantification is useful as a prognostic marker for the outcome of percutaneous treatment. In some cases, the reduction of torrential TR to severe TR can be considered successful.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Furthermore, there is an inverse relationship between symptom improvement and the five-level TR grading.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
<table-wrap id="t1">
<label>Table 1</label>
<caption><title>Quantification for TR at five levels (adapted from Hahn et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup>)</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="16%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Parameter</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Minor</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Moderate</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Severe</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Massive</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Torrential</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Vena contracta (mm)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">3</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">3-6,9</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">7-13</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">14-20</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">≥21</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">ROA (mm²)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">20</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">20-39</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">40-59</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">60-79</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">≥80</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">RV (ml)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">30</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">30-44</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">45-59</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">60-74</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">≥75</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Regurgitant fraction (%)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">25</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">25-44</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">≥45</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"/>
<td align="center" valign="middle"/>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Vena contracta 3D (mm²)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">---</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">---</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">75-94</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">95-114</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">≥115</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN1"><p>ROA: regurgitant orifice area; RV: regurgitant volume; 3D: three-dimensional echocardiogram.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>New Etiological Classification of TR</title>
<p>Understanding the etiology of TR is essential for therapeutic planning. The Carpentier classification, created for the mitral valve, can be adapted for the TV. However, despite being very informative, especially for cardiac surgery professionals, it does not define specific mechanisms and possible percutaneous treatment methods currently available.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> In this context, a novel etiological classification directly associated with the mechanism of TR has been proposed, categorizing the causes into secondary atrial, secondary ventricular, those associated with intracardiac device leads (ICDL), and primary causes involving the valve leaflets directly. The schematic representation of each etiology is described in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 1</xref>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f1">
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-04-e20240088-gf01.tif"/>
<p>STVRR: surgical tricuspid valve replacement or repair; ICDL: intracardiac device lead; TEER: transcatheter edge-to-edge repair; TTVR: transcatheter tricuspid valve replacement; THCVI: transcatheter heterotopic caval valve implantation; RV: right ventricle; TR: tricuspid regurgitation.</p>
</fig>
<fig id="f2">
<label>Figure 1</label>
<caption><title>Etiological classification of TR. The alterations most characteristic of the right atrium and ventricle stand out, as well as the valve movement in each of the divisions. Adapted from Hahn et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> AF: atrial fibrillation; RA: right atrium; RV: right ventricle; ICDL: intracardiac device lead.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-04-e20240088-gf02.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Percutaneous procedures are more rarely used in primary etiology, which is characterized by structural changes in the TV without significant cardiac or pulmonary diseases that would explain valve dysfunction. The most common causes include degenerative, congenital (such as Ebstein&apos;s anomaly and dysplasias), rheumatic diseases and injuries resulting from trauma, radiation, and carcinoid syndrome. However, primary etiology makes up only a small fraction of TR cases (10%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
<p>Conversely, the most common form of TR is secondary to RV changes (including pulmonary hypertension, pulmonary valve disorders, and RV dysfunction due to cardiomyopathies) or right atrial remodeling resulting from arrhythmias such as atrial fibrillation. This etiology concentrates a wide range of percutaneous procedures, with emphasis on the TriClip (Abbott Vascular, Santa Clara, CA, USA),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> percutaneous prostheses,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> and the <italic>TricValve</italic> (P+F Products+Features GmbH, Wessling, Germany).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> The indications and evaluations for each of these procedures are described in detail in the subsequent sections. Although the two etiologies are secondary, their mechanisms are distinct, as is the prognosis, where the ventricular etiology determines a worse prognosis in relation to the atrial one.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Pace control is the first line of treatment for atrial etiology.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
<p>Finally, the etiology associated with the presence of ICDL, such as pacemaker leads, defibrillators or resynchronizers, has been added to the new TR classification. The ICDL-related TR was first described by Mediratta et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> who observed that the device lead causes a failed movement of one of the leaflets when positioned outside the commissures and in the center of the valve leaflet edge, for which a good solution would be the adequate repositioning of the lead. However, in cases of old ICDL positioning, permanent valve damage may occur, and mere repositioning would be insufficient, requiring the use of percutaneous devices such as prosthetic implantation with ICDL positioned outside the annulus.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Indications for percutaneous treatment</title>
<p>Severe TR is strongly associated with adverse clinical outcomes<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> but remains undertreated.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Valvular disease guidelines recommend surgery for TR when combined with left heart procedures.<sup>22–24</sup> As a result, it is not uncommon for TR surgery to be rare and often delayed until patients are in advanced clinical condition, often too late to benefit from surgical intervention. This delay in addressing TR until severe symptoms of systemic congestion or RV failure emerge significantly heightens surgical risk, making isolated TR surgeries riskier compared to surgeries involving other valves.</p>
<p>In this context, transcatheter interventions emerge as a promising solution, offering a less invasive alternative for patients considered inoperable due to high surgical risk.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
<p>For risk assessment, the TRI-SCORE scoring system (a new risk score for in-hospital mortality prediction following isolated TV surgery), based on a large multicenter database, was specifically developed to predict in-hospital mortality in patients undergoing TV surgery, outperforming traditional scores such as EuroSCORE and the Society of Thoracic Surgeons (STS) Risk Score.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
<p>This score is based on eight parameters, as shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref>. The observed and predicted in-hospital mortality rates increased from 0% to 60% and from 1% to 65%, respectively, as the score increased from 0 to 9 points or more (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 2</xref>). In this context, the TRI-SCORE can be a valuable tool in the selection of patients with the potential to benefit from both conventional surgery and transcatheter interventions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
<table-wrap id="t2">
<label>Table 2</label>
<caption><title>TRI-SCORE: Surgical risk model for in-hospital mortality after isolated TR surgery. Adapted from Dreyfus et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="50%">
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Parameter</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Score</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Age &gt; 70 years</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">NYHA Class III-IV</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Signs of right-sided HF</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">2</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Daily furosemide dose &gt; 125 mg</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Glomerular filtration rate &lt; 30 mL/min</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">2</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Elevated total bilirubin</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">LV ejection fraction &lt; 60%</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Moderate/severe RV dysfunction</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">TOTAL</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">12</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN2"><p>HF: heart failure; NYHA: New York Heart Association; LV: left ventricle; RV: right ventricle.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<fig id="f3">
<label>Figure 2</label>
<caption><title>Predicted in-hospital mortality rate according to the final risk score model. Adapted from Dreyfus et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-04-e20240088-gf03.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>The selection of the optimal treatment requires a multidisciplinary approach (Heart Team) and a detailed assessment of the patient&apos;s valve anatomy, RV function and clinical status. The evidence to date suggests that percutaneous techniques, when properly indicated and performed, can provide significant improvements in clinical outcomes, contributing to the reduction of morbidity rates and improving the quality of life of patients with severe TR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
<p>The central figure represents a structured approach to the TR treatment, which begins with the assessment of the lesion severity and presence of symptoms, in addition to determining the patient&apos;s surgical risk. Based on these considerations, therapeutic decisions are directed, prioritizing percutaneous treatments for patients with high or prohibitive surgical risk.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
<sec>
<title>Step 1: Surgical risk assessment</title>
<p>For symptomatic patients with severe, massive, or torrential TR who have a high or prohibitive surgical risk, percutaneous treatment is the preferred option. Those who do not have these conditions or an acceptable surgical risk are referred for conventional surgical treatment.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Step 2: Determination of Etiology and Anatomical Condition</title>
<p>Patients eligible for percutaneous treatment are evaluated based on the etiology of their TR, classifying them as primary, secondary, or related to the use of intracardiac devices.</p>
<p><bold>Primary TR</bold>: For primary TR, the approach varies according to the etiology. Patients with leaflet prolapse or flail may be candidates for transcatheter edge-to-edge repair (TEER) or transcatheter tricuspid valve replacement (TTVR). In contrast, those with TR due to carcinoid, rheumatic, or valve perforation may require TTVR.</p>
<p><bold>ICDL-related TR:</bold> patients whose TR is associated with the use of intracardiac devices, such as pacemakers, should be initially evaluated for leaflet restriction. If there is no restriction, depending on the anatomical condition, TEER or TTVR repair may be considered. If not, the possibility of repositioning or removal of the electrode, or even TTVR, may be evaluated.</p>
<p><bold>Secondary TR:</bold> is evaluated considering the presence of advanced disease. Patients in the advanced stage may be referred for transcatheter heterotopic caval valve implantation therapy (TricValve). In cases where the disease is not yet advanced, it is crucial to assess the coaptation failure of the leaflets and the tethering height (tent). Patients with a coaptation failure of up to 8.5 mm and a tent height of less than 1.0 cm are considered optimal candidates for TEER (TriClip). In cases where the anatomy is unfavorable, a viable option would be TTVR.</p>
<p>Other percutaneous approaches, such as transcatheter annuloplasty techniques, have also been explored in the treatment of secondary TR in patients with significant dilation of the tricuspid annulus but with mild to moderate tethering of the leaflets (height &lt; 1.0 cm; tent area &lt; 2.5 cm<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>; tent volume &lt; 3 mL measured by 3D). Devices such as the CardioBand are used to reduce the diameter of the annulus and improve leaflet coaptation. This technique is recommended for patients in whom the primary mechanism of TR is annular dilation, with a central regurgitation jet and where there is an adequate anchoring zone for the device. Initial results suggest a significant reduction in regurgitation and improvement in heart failure symptoms.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
<p>Recently, the development of devices for the percutaneous treatment of TR has accelerated, providing new therapeutic options for a condition that historically had limited alternatives. While promising, many of these devices are still in the clinical trial phase. In Brazil, to date, only the TricValve and, more recently, the TriClip have been approved for use in clinical practice.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Transcatheter edge-to-edge treatment of the TV</title>
<p>The TEER of the TV is the most extensively studied percutaneous technique.5 The TriClip system is an edge-to-edge repair technique developed based on the MitraClip device (Abbott Laboratories, Abbott Park, IL, USA). The TRILUMINATE Pivotal trial was the first randomized study to evaluate this technique in an elderly patient population with high surgical risk and symptomatic TR, demonstrating the safety of the technique, a significant reduction in TR and improved quality of life.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
<p>The pre-treatment evaluation of TEER consists of transthoracic (TTE) and transesophageal (TEE) echocardiography, the latter being essential since it guides the intraprocedure. Studying the TV by TEE can be challenging because it is usually in the farthest field from the esophageal position, the leaflets are thin, and there are often problems with acoustic shadowing.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
<p>The main TEE windows are described below:</p>
<p>In the <bold>four-chamber view</bold> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 3C</xref>), typically obtained in the mid-esophagus at an angle between 0° and 25°, the septal leaflet is easily identified as it is attached to the interventricular septum. The lateral leaflet observed may usually be the anterior one, although it can also be the posterior leaflet if the probe tip is retroflexed or advanced deeper into the esophagus. The <bold>RV inlet/outlet window</bold> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 3A</xref>) is obtained between 60° and 90°, in which the RV inlet and outlet tracts and the aortic valve are visualized in a short axis. Similar to the mitral commissural projection, with the biplane or X-plane tool cursor directed across the TV closest to the aortic valve, the orthogonal view shows the septal and anterior leaflets, and similarly, if the cursor is directed to the left (farthest from the aortic valve), the orthogonal view shows the septal and posterior leaflets (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 3A</xref>). This window is often used to visualize leaflet grasp during the procedure; however, if the TV leaflets are not adequately visualized, images should be obtained from the deep esophageal view since, from this position, the interatrial septum and septal mitral annulus are excluded from the field of view. The <bold>transgastric window</bold> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 3D</xref>) is important for screening as well as intraprocedural monitoring. The probe is advanced into the stomach and anteroflexed to obtain a short-axis image of the mid-LV. It is then pulled back until the TV leaflets are visible. The angle is rotated between 0° and 60° so that all three commissures are visualized. Adjustments in the right-left lateralization can help optimize the image. This window is very useful for assessing the size and location of the gap, which will be decisive for planning the procedure (clip location, size, and number of clips). During the procedure, this window is also valuable for guiding the clip to the desired position within the annular plane and for rotating the clip device to align it perpendicularly with the coaptation line of the respective leaflet (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 3F</xref>). <bold>Three-dimensional (3D) images</bold> should be captured at the highest possible frame rate in any of the aforementioned windows, although the commissural view is often preferred to ensure that part of the aortic valve is included in the image for orientation. The appropriate way to display the TV in 3D remains controversial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> However, during the procedure, it is recommended that an <italic>en face</italic> orientation be identical to the transgastric one, aiming to facilitate comparison and understanding of the images, by placing the interatrial septum on the right side of the screen with the aorta located at the five o&apos;clock position (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 3B</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> A very interesting alternative used during the procedure is the 3D imaging with the flexi-slice technique or multiplanar reconstruction, which allows monitoring the capture of the leaflets in real-time, providing simultaneous visualization of the three planes (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 3E</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f4">
<label>Figure 3</label>
<caption><title>Transesophageal echocardiographic windows before and during the TEER procedure. (A) RV inflow/outflow tract windows. (B) 3D image of the TV demonstrating significant coaptation failure. (C) Four-chamber view. (D) Transgastric view. (E) Flexi-slice or multiplanar reconstruction of the TV. (F) Transgastric window with the biplanar or X-plane tool after implantation of two clips in the anteroseptal commissure with mild TR. A: anterior leaflet; S: septal leaflet; P: posterior leaflet; Ao: aorta; TR: tricuspid regurgitation. Images E and F were provided by Julien Ternacle, Bordeaux, France</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-04-e20240088-gf04.tif"/>
</fig>
<fig id="f5">
<label>Figure 4</label>
<caption><title>Illustrative image of the LuX-Valve Plus device, including an interventricular septal anchoring component; a self-expanding nitinol valve stent composed of an atrial disc; two clamps and a trileaflet valve prosthesis with treated bovine pericardium.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-04-e20240088-gf05.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>The TriClip system has two main techniques: the triple hole technique, which positions the clips centrally between the septal-anterior and septal-posterior leaflets, and the bicuspidization technique, which starts with a clip at the anteroseptal commissure and continues with additional clips towards the center of the valve, also known as the zipping technique. Currently, this technique is the most viable and widely used.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
<p>Proper selection of patients for TEER is essential for the success of the procedure. <bold>Optimal factors</bold> include coaptation failure of less than 7 mm, adequate leaflet mobility, jet located in the anteroseptal or central commissure, confined prolapse or flail, and presence of a pacemaker lead that does not restrict leaflet movement; and the <bold>complicating factors</bold>: coaptation failure greater than 8.5 mm, jet located in the posteroseptal or anteroposterior commissure, thickened and short leaflets, leaflet perforation, TEE with difficult acoustic window, pacemaker lead preventing leaflet movement, leaflet tent height greater than 1 cm.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Recently, a score (GLIDE score) was created to predict the immediate post-TEER procedure results with five anatomical criteria easily obtained through TEE, with 1 point added for each complexity criterion: Indicators for patient selection include an anteroseptal gap greater than 6 mm; the location of a posteroseptal, anteroposterior, or diffuse jet; limited image quality; high chordae density; and star-shaped jet morphology when viewed <italic>en face</italic>. The GLIDE score was able to predict procedural success, defined by a reduction in TR greater than or equal to 2 degrees and moderate or less post-procedural TR, respectively, in patients with 0 or 1 points in 91% and 97%, with 2 or 3 points in 47% and 61%, and with more than 4 points in 14% for both definitions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Percutaneous orthotopic TV implantation</title>
<p>The development of devices specifically designed for TTVR is currently at an early stage and is being evaluated in clinical trials.</p>
<p>TTVR emerges as a therapeutic option in patients with severe, symptomatic TR, despite optimized drug treatment (including high doses of diuretics) and with high and/or prohibitive surgical risk. TTVR is mainly indicated in cases of secondary TR (even for larger annuli and larger coaptation failures – in which the valve anatomy is not favorable for TEER), pacemaker-induced TR and part of primary TR. Replacement therapy is contraindicated or considered relatively contraindicated in patients with RV outflow tract obstruction, active infective endocarditis, intracardiac masses, pulmonary artery systolic pressure greater than or equal to 55 mmHg (assessed by echocardiography or right heart catheterization), a decreased left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF &lt; 50%), complications from other cardiac diseases requiring surgical intervention, congenital Ebstein anomaly or severe structural RV dysplasia, and anatomical features that are unsuitable for the approach (such as excessive dilation of the tricuspid annulus that exceeds the available transcatheter valve sizes or inadequate venous access that cannot accommodate the delivery catheter).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
<p>There is growing interest in TTVR therapy due to its ability to eradicate TR (rather than only partial reductions seen with other transcatheter repair techniques), its ability to treat a broader range of anatomies and pathologies, and its potential to offer alternative surgical procedures valve-in-valve in the future. These potential benefits need to be weighed against the need for post-procedure therapeutic anticoagulation, a more invasive procedure, potential induction of atrioventricular block, difficulty implanting pacemakers in the future, long-term durability and risk of worsening of RV function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
<p>In general, in potential candidates for TTVR, it is of utmost importance to measure systolic pressure in the pulmonary artery and assess the size and function of the RV, as they are directly related to the estimation of risk and prognosis of these patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> Sun et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> excluded patients with LV dysfunction (LVEF &lt; 50%), pulmonary hypertension (PASP ≥ 60 mmHg), RV dysfunction (TAPSE &lt; 10 mm and FAC &lt; 29%), untreated severe coronary artery disease, Ebstein&apos;s anomaly, congenital RV dysplasia and RV outflow obstruction. In this study, patients were followed for 12 months, with six patients having previously undergone left valvular surgery and subsequently undergoing LuX-Valve implantation for massive TR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
<p>Several orthotopic replacement systems are under clinical and preclinical investigation. Among these, four of the devices [NaviGate (NaviGate Cardiac Structures, Lake Forest, CA, USA), EVOQUE (Edwards Lifesciences), LuX-Valve (Jenscare Biotechnology, Ningbo, China) and Lux Valve Plus (Jenscare)] have published first-in-human results. These devices rely on radial force (NaviGate, EVOQUE), tricuspid leaflet engagement (all four devices) or septal insertion (LuX-Valve and Lux Valve Plus) for implantation and stability.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
<p>The only therapy currently approved for commercial use in Europe and the USA is EVOQUE, while the others are still under compassionate use.</p>
<p>In patient selection and treatment planning, TTE is the first-line imaging modality. It plays a fundamental role, with special attention paid to the apical four-chamber image &quot;focused&quot; on the RV. When the image of the latter is not satisfactory, TEE is recommended.</p>
<p>Computed tomography (CT) is also essential in screening these patients, as it can measure the diameters related to the tricuspid annulus, as well as the angle of the interventricular septum and simulate the post-implant morphology, actively participating in the selection of the device size. The measurement of the internal diameter of the jugular vein performed by CT in cases of transjugular device implantation is also essential. The recommended diameter should exceed 8 mm.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> In cases of devices implanted via the femoral vein, analysis of venous access is also recommended.</p>
<p>Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMRI) can be used as an adjuvant imaging modality for assessing the TV before TTVR. It can be used for anatomical and functional assessment due to its excellent spatial resolution.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
<p>The procedure is performed under general anesthesia, guided by fluoroscopy and 3D TEE. Intraoperative TEE can be used to assess the severity of regurgitation, tricuspid apparatus anatomy, ventricular function, and pulmonary artery pressure before intervention. For patients with previous mitral and/or aortic valve replacement (especially those with a mechanical valve), the TV in the midesophageal view may be unsatisfactory due to the influence of acoustic shadowing. In this case, the deep esophageal or transgastric view can be used for monitoring and guidance purposes, and acquisition and visualization of 3D images can also be performed based on these projections. 3D TEE is essential for the success of the procedure. The main echocardiographic windows used during the procedure are the same as those used during TEER and have already been described in this article. In cases where transesophageal echocardiographic images are limited, the use of intracardiac echocardiography in association with 3D TEE may be an alternative.</p>
<p>As of the publication date of this article, compassionate implants of the LuX-Valve Plus device have been performed in three patients in Brazil, making them the only cases in Latin America. All three implants were successful, exhibiting low transvalvular gradients, no central insufficiency or paravalvular leaks, and excellent clinical outcomes. Below are some illustrative images of the initial Brazilian experience (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figures 5</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">6</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f6">
<label>Figure 5</label>
<caption><title>I3D TEE image with MPR: orientation and coaxiality of the delivery system so that it is positioned in the central axis of the TV and perpendicular to the annular plane (A); Grasper confirmation. RV inflow/outflow tract images, mid-esophagus using the X-plane tool (red arrow on the left image): the right image confirms the TV&apos;s anterior leaflet position above the clip (B); Grasper confirmation. RV inflow/outflow tract images, mid-esophagus using the X-plane tool (red arrow on the left image): the right image confirms the TV&apos;s posterior leaflet position above the clip (C).</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-04-e20240088-gf06.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>The LuX-Valve system (Jenscare) is a new self-expanding valve (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 4</xref>) made of bovine pericardium leaflet. The valve is fixed by a ventricular septal anchor (in the shape of a &quot;bird&apos;s tongue&quot;) and tricuspid leaflet clamps (in the shape of a &quot;rabbit&apos;s ear&quot;) and does not depend on radial force. The atrial disc consists of a self-adjusting polyester ring designed to prevent paravalvular leaks without compressing the tissue surrounding the TV. The device can be readjusted to minimize and/or prevent any potential paravalvular leaks. The first-generation LuX-Valve system (Jenscare) is implanted through the right atrium, which requires a small incision in the right chest. The second-generation LuX-Valve Plus system (Jenscare) uses a percutaneous transjugular approach and is currently in use.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f7">
<label>Figure 6</label>
<caption><title>Real-time 3D TEE image, mid-esophagus 4C, showing septal anchoring (red star) (A); Transgastric ventricular short axis view (SAX) showing septal anchoring (red star) (B); 3D TEE image of the LuX-Valve Plus as seen from the right atrium (RA) (C); 3D TEE image with color flow mapping of the LuX-Valve Plus seen from the right atrium with laminar spectral flow and absence of paravalvular insufficiency and/or leak (D); 3D TEE image of the LuX-Valve Plus seen from the right atrium in a patient with a pacemaker (red star identifying the pacemaker wire) (E).</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-04-e20240088-gf07.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Post-procedure monitoring and evaluation are conducted using TTE, with primary goals including assessment of the prosthetic stent&apos;s position and stability, leaflet mobility, the presence and extent of intra- or paravalvular regurgitation, and transvalvular gradients.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Transcatheter implantation of heterotopic caval valve (THCVI)</title>
<p>Currently, transcatheter therapies for the TV primarily focus on TEER and orthotopic implantation. However, the success of these techniques depends on several anatomical criteria, which leads to the exclusion of many patients. In this context, THCVI emerges as a strategy to treat the systemic effects of severe TR,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> with TricValve being the device approved in Brazil. It consists of two nitinol stents with bovine pericardium leaflets implanted in the inferior and superior vena cava.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
<p>The TricValve has been tested in the combined TRICUS/TRICUS EURO cohorts, demonstrating significant functional improvement in 95% of patients at one-year follow-up, with immediate abolition of hepatic venous reverse flow.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> Randomized studies are lacking to date.</p>
<p>In summary, studies involving the TricValve have included only severely symptomatic patients (NYHA functional class III or IV, or those with prior hospitalizations for heart failure within the last 12 months) despite receiving optimal medical therapy and deemed to be at high or prohibitive surgical risk for conventional tricuspid surgery. Nevertheless, patients with severe pulmonary hypertension (systolic pulmonary pressure &gt; 65 mmHg) or significantly impaired RV function (i.e., TAPSE &lt; 13 mm) were excluded from these studies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
<p>CT is employed for prosthesis sizing to reduce potential safety concerns. An oversizing of 10% to 40% within the belly of the superior vena cava prosthesis and in the proximal part of the inferior vena cava prosthesis is desirable to optimize fixation and sealing. TTE or ETE plays an important role during implantation and subsequent monitoring. Prosthesis implantation in the superior vena cava is basically guided by scopy. Following the release of the prosthesis, echocardiography is used to evaluate blood flow via Doppler imaging and to check for the presence of paraprosthetic leaks. Prosthesis positioning in the inferior vena cava involves a protrusion into the right atrium of no more than 15 mm, guided by echocardiography, to reduce the risk of perivalvular leak. Once the prosthesis is deployed, the flow through the suprahepatic veins is analyzed, focusing on the disappearance of reverse flow, the identification of any paraprosthetic leaks, and ensuring there is no stenosis of the veins due to the prosthesis (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figure 7</xref>).<sup>47</sup></p>
<fig id="f8">
<label>Figure 7</label>
<caption><title>Evaluation of the TricValve after implantation by TTE. (A) Visualization of the superior caval prosthesis through the subcostal window. (B) Color Doppler with antegrade flow through the superior caval prosthesis. (C) Pulsed Doppler of the flow through the superior caval prosthesis. (D) 3D image of the inferior caval prosthesis demonstrating the 1.5 cm protrusion into the right atrium. (E) Color Doppler with antegrade flow through the inferior caval prosthesis. (F) Pulsed Doppler of the flow through the superior caval prosthesis.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-04-e20240088-gf08.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>In comparison to percutaneous left heart procedures, transcatheter heart valve intervention (THCVI) is generally very well tolerated hemodynamically during the procedure. However, after implantation, there is a sudden physiological change marked by a substantial increase in RV afterload due to reduced retrograde flow to the cavae, an acute rise in right atrial pressure, and an increase in cardiac output, assuming RV function is maintained. This is accompanied by significant systemic decongestion, with particularly positive effects observed in the liver. The individual response to these changes is variable and will largely depend on baseline RV function and its ability to adapt to increased afterload, baseline pulmonary artery pressures, and left ventricular function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusion</title>
<p>The progression of percutaneous interventions for treating TR represents a significant advancement in the management of patients at high surgical risk. The new etiological classification, along with the implementation of advanced imaging techniques, enhances diagnostic and therapeutic accuracy, facilitating a more personalized treatment approach. Although preliminary results show significant improvements, the durability of therapeutic solutions and their long-term impact require further investigation. These developments underscore the growing importance of multidisciplinary strategies that can transform the disease outcome by combining technical sophistication with scientific knowledge.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1"><label>Sources of Funding</label><p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2"><label>Study Association</label><p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3"><label>Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate</label><p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
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<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S1" xml:lang="pt">
<front-stub>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20240088</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Avanços no Tratamento Percutâneo da Valva Tricúspide</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7900-6506</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Pereira</surname><given-names>Marcio Mendes</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>obtenção de dados</role>
<role>redação do manuscrito e revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2634-4632</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Otto</surname><given-names>Maria Estefânia</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8"><sup>2</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9"><sup>3</sup></xref>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>obtenção de dados</role>
<role>redação do manuscrito e revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0008-9564-7435</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Melo</surname><given-names>Fernando</given-names><suffix>Netto</suffix></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff10"><sup>4</sup></xref>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>obtenção de dados</role>
<role>redação do manuscrito e revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0003-0825-2982</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Esteves</surname><given-names>Fernanda</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff11"><sup>5</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff12"><sup>6</sup></xref>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>obtenção de dados</role>
<role>redação do manuscrito e revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff7">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Luis</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">MA</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">UDI Hospital, São Luis, MA – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff8">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Brasília</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">DF</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Instituto de Cardiologia e Transplantes do Distrito Federal, Brasília, DF – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff9">
<label>3</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Brasília</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">DF</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital DF Star, Brasília, DF – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff10">
<label>4</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Brasília</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">DF</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Centro Avançado de Diagnóstico em Cardiologia Villas Boas, Brasília, DF – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff11">
<label>5</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital Vila Nova Star, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff12">
<label>6</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital e Maternidade São Luiz, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c2"><label>Correspondência:</label> Marcio Mendes Pereira • UDI Hospital. Av. Prof. Carlos Cunha, 2000. CEP: <postal-code>65076-820</postal-code>. Jaracti, São Luis, MA – Brasil E-mail: <email>marciomp50@hotmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><label>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</label><p>Declaro haver potencial conflito de interesses para os seguintes autores: Pereira MM - Proctor em ecocardiografia MitraClip pela Abbott Laboratories; Netto FM - Proctor em ecocardiografia MitraClip pela Abbott Laboratories; e Esteves F – Proctor em ecocardiografia MitraClip pela Abbott Laboratories e proctor em ecocardiografia pela Edwards Lifesciences.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><label>Editor responsável pela revisão:</label><p>Marcelo Tavares</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<abstract>
<title>Resumo</title>
<p>A regurgitação tricúspide (RT) é uma condição subdiagnosticada e subtratada, muitas vezes associada a prognósticos clínicos adversos, especialmente em pacientes idosos e de alto risco cirúrgico. Com a crescente prevalência da RT e as limitações das abordagens cirúrgicas convencionais, técnicas percutâneas têm emergido como opções promissoras. Este artigo revisa os avanços recentes no tratamento percutâneo da RT, com foco nas novas classificações etiológicas e quantitativas, e explora as indicações e resultados das principais técnicas, incluindo o reparo percutâneo borda a borda e a substituição valvar transcateter. Discutem-se também os desafios anatômicos envolvidos e o papel crucial da ecocardiografia no planejamento e monitorização periprocedimento. Com base nos dados disponíveis, as intervenções percutâneas têm demonstrado eficácia na melhora dos sintomas e na qualidade de vida dos pacientes com RT severa, representando uma alternativa viável para aqueles inaptos à cirurgia convencional.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
<title>Palavras-chave</title>
<kwd>Regurgitação tricúspide</kwd>
<kwd>tratamento percutâneo</kwd>
<kwd>substituição valvar transcateter</kwd>
<kwd>ecocardiografia</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introdução</title>
<p>A valva tricúspide (VT) desempenha um papel crucial na manutenção da hemodinâmica ventricular direita. A ocorrência de regurgitação tricúspide (RT) significativa pode resultar em insuficiência cardíaca direita<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> e complicações sistêmicas de difícil manejo clínico, muitas vezes evoluindo para insuficiência renal e hepática.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
<p>Nas últimas duas décadas, a RT recebeu destaque crescente no cenário da cardiologia intervencionista, transformando a &quot;valva esquecida&quot; em assunto de grande interesse em congressos e publicações. Esse fenômeno foi resultado da sua alta prevalência, principalmente nos idosos,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> e prognóstico reservado na evolução.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Ademais, o tratamento cirúrgico convencional da RT, apesar de eficaz, apresenta limitações significativas, principalmente em pacientes em estágios avançados de insuficiência cardíaca ou com elevado risco cirúrgico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Nos últimos anos, observou-se uma expansão considerável no desenvolvimento e na implementação de técnicas percutâneas minimamente invasivas, com a introdução de uma variedade de dispositivos voltados para a correção de RT.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p>No entanto, o momento apropriado de intervenção e o tipo de dispositivo adequado para cada situação ainda permanece objeto de estudo e controvérsia.</p>
<p>O avanço das técnicas percutâneas de tratamento de RT tem evoluído de maneira dinâmica e pode melhorar a compreensão da doença. Desse modo, este documento tem como objetivo descrever a nova classificação etiológica e quantitativa da RT, bem como detalhar as indicações dos principais tratamentos percutâneos mais utilizados, com ênfase na monitorização ecocardiográfica necessária.</p>
<sec>
<title>Nova classificação quantitativa e dos mecanismos da insuficiência tricúspide</title>
<sec>
<title>Quantificando novamente a RT</title>
<p>Para um melhor entendimento dos mecanismos da RT e dos resultados dos procedimentos percutâneos, uma nova classificação de severidade da quantificação da RT e um profundo conhecimento da anatomia da VT tornaram-se necessários.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Atualmente, sabe-se que somente 54% das VT possuem realmente três cúspides<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> e podemos classificar o grau de regurgitação em cinco níveis, como descrito na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 1</xref>. Essa quantificação é útil como marcador de prognóstico e no desfecho do tratamento percutâneo. Em alguns casos, a redução de RT torrencial para acentuada pode ser considerada um sucesso terapêutico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Além disso, existe uma relação inversa entre melhora dos sintomas e a graduação de RT em cinco níveis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
<table-wrap id="t3">
<label>Tabela 1</label>
<caption><title>Quantificação para RT em cinco níveis (adaptado de Hahn et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup>)</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="16%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Parâmetros</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Discreta</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Moderada</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Acentuada</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Massiva</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Torrencial</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Vena contracta (mm)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">3</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">3-6,9</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">7-13</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">14-20</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&gt;21</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">AOR (mm²)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">20</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">20-39</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">40-59</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">60-79</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&gt;80</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">VR (ml)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">30</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">30-44</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">45-59</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">60-74</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&gt;75</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Fração regurgitante (%)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">25</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">25-44</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&gt;45</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" />
<td align="center" valign="middle" />
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Vena contracta 3D (mm²)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">---</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">---</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">75-94</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">95-114</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&gt;115</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN3"><p>AOR: área do orifício regurgitante; VR: volume regurgitante; 3D: ecocardiograma tridimensional</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Nova classificação etiológica da RT</title>
<p>A compreensão da etiologia da RT é fundamental para o planejamento terapêutico. A classificação de Carpentier, criada para a valva mitral, pode ser adaptada para a VT. No entanto, apesar de muito elucidativa, principalmente para os profissionais da cirurgia cardíaca, não define mecanismos específicos e possíveis modos de tratamento percutâneo disponíveis atualmente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Nesse contexto, uma nova forma de classificação etiológica que se associa diretamente com o mecanismo da RT foi proposta, dividindo as etiologias em secundária atrial, secundária ventricular, associada a cabo de dispositivo intracardíaco (CDIC) e primária com acometimento direto dos folhetos valvares. A representação esquemática de cada etiologia está descrita na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figura 1</xref>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f9">
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-04-e20240088-pt-gf01.tif"/>
<p>SPCVT: substituição ou plastia cirúrgica da VT; CDIC: cabo de dispositivo intracardíaco; RBBT: reparo borda a borda transcateter; STVT: substituição transcateter da valva tricúspide; ITVCH: implante transcateter de valva caval heterotópica; VD: ventrículo direito.</p>
</fig>
<fig id="f10">
<label>Figura 1</label>
<caption><title>Classificação etiológica da RT. Destacam-se as alterações mais características do átrio e VD, bem como da movimentação valvar em cada uma das divisões. Adaptado de Hahn et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> FA: fibrilação atrial; AD: átrio direito; VD: ventrículo direito; CDIC: cabo de dispositivo intracardíaco.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-04-e20240088-pt-gf02.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Os procedimentos percutâneos são mais raramente utilizados na etiologia primária, que é caracterizada por alterações estruturais na VT, sem a presença de doenças cardíacas ou pulmonares significativas que expliquem a disfunção valvar. As causas mais comuns incluem doenças degenerativas, congênitas (como a anomalia de Ebstein e displasias), reumáticas e lesões adquiridas por trauma, radiação e síndrome carcinoide. No entanto, a etiologia primária compõe somente uma pequena fração dos casos de RT (10%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
<p>Em contrapartida, a RT mais prevalente é a secundária por alterações do ventrículo direito (VD) (hipertensão pulmonar, patologias da valva pulmonar e disfunção do VD por miocardiopatias) ou por remodelamento atrial direito secundário a arritmias como a fibrilação atrial. Justamente nessa etiologia, concentra-se uma ampla gama de procedimentos percutâneos com destaque para o <italic>TriClip</italic> (Abbott Vascular, Santa Clara, CA, EUA),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> as próteses percutâneas<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> e o <italic>TricValve</italic> (P+F Products+Features GmbH, Wessling, Alemanha).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> As indicações e avaliações para cada um desses procedimentos estão descritas em detalhes nas sessões subsequentes. Apesar das duas etiologias serem secundárias, os mecanismos são distintos, bem como o prognóstico, onde a etiologia ventricular determina um prognóstico pior em relação a atrial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Na etiologia atrial, o controle de ritmo é a primeira linha de tratamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
<p>Por fim, a etiologia associada a presença de CDIC como cabos de marcapasso, desfibriladores ou ressincronizadores foi adicionada na nova classificação de RT. O mecanismo da RT por CDIC foi primeiro descrito por Mediratta et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> com a observação de que o cabo do dispositivo causa uma falha de movimentação de um dos folhetos quando posicionado fora das comissuras e no centro da borda do folheto da valva, e uma boa solução para essa causa de RT seria o reposicionamento adequado do cabo. No entanto, nos casos de posicionamento antigo do CDIC, lesões valvares permanentes podem ocorrer e o simples reposicionamento será insuficiente, sendo necessária a utilização de dispositivos percutâneos como o implante de próteses com posicionamento do CDIC para fora do anel.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Indicações para o tratamento percutâneo</title>
<p>A RT acentuada está fortemente associada a desfechos clínicos adversos,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> mas permanece subtratada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> As diretrizes de doenças valvares recomendam cirurgia para RT quando combinada com procedimentos no coração esquerdo.<sup>22–24</sup> Como resultado, não é incomum que a cirurgia isolada para RT seja rara e frequentemente postergada até que os pacientes estejam em estado clínico avançado, muitas vezes tarde demais para se beneficiarem da intervenção cirúrgica. Esse atraso, até que os sintomas graves de congestão sistêmica ou a insuficiência ventricular direita se desenvolvam, eleva significativamente o risco cirúrgico, tornando a operação para RT isolada mais arriscada em comparação com cirurgias de outras válvulas.</p>
<p>Nesse contexto, as intervenções transcateter emergem como uma solução promissora, oferecendo alternativa menos invasiva para pacientes considerados inoperáveis devido ao alto risco cirúrgico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
<p>Para avaliação do risco, o sistema de pontuação TRI-SCORE (<italic>a new risk score for in-hospital mortality prediction after isolated tricuspid valve surgery</italic>), baseado num grande banco de dados multicêntricos, foi desenvolvido especificamente para prever a mortalidade hospitalar em pacientes submetidos a cirurgia da VT, superando os escores tradicionais como o EuroSCORE e STS (<italic>Society of Thoracic Surgeons</italic>) <italic>Risk Score</italic>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
<p>O escore se baseia em oito parâmetros, conforme mostrado na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 2</xref>. As taxas de mortalidade hospitalar observadas e previstas aumentaram de 0% para 60% e de 1% para 65%, respectivamente, à medida que a pontuação aumentou de 0 para 9 pontos ou mais (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11">Figura 2</xref>). Nesse sentido, O TRI-SCORE pode ser uma ferramenta valiosa na seleção de pacientes que têm o potencial de se beneficiar tanto da cirurgia convencional quanto das intervenções transcateter.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
<table-wrap id="t4">
<label>Tabela 2</label>
<caption><title>TRI-SCORE: Modelo de risco cirúrgico para mortalidade hospitalar após cirurgia isolada de RT. Adaptado de Dreyfus et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="50%">
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Parâmetro</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Escore</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Idade &gt; 70 anos</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">NYHA Classe III-IV</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Sinais de IC direita</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">2</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Dose diária de furosemida &gt; 125 mg</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Taxa de filtração glomerular &lt; 30 mL/min</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">2</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Bilirrubina total elevada</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Fração de ejeção do VE &lt; 60%</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Disfunção moderada/acentuada de VD</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">TOTAL</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">12</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN4"><p>IC: insuficiência cardíaca; NYHA: New York Heart Association; VE: ventrículo esquerdo; VD: ventrículo direito.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<fig id="f11">
<label>Figura 2</label>
<caption><title>Taxa de mortalidade hospitalar prevista de acordo com o modelo final de pontuação de risco. Adaptado de Dreyfus et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-04-e20240088-pt-gf03.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>A seleção do tratamento ideal requer uma abordagem multidisciplinar (<italic>Heart Team</italic>) e uma avaliação detalhada da anatomia valvular, função ventricular direita e estado clínico do paciente. As evidências até o momento sugerem que as técnicas percutâneas, quando bem indicadas e executadas, podem proporcionar melhorias significativas nos desfechos clínicos, contribuindo para a redução da morbidade e melhoria da qualidade de vida dos pacientes com RT acentuada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
<p>A figura central representa uma abordagem estruturada para o tratamento da RT, que inicia com a avaliação da gravidade da lesão e a presença de sintomas, além da determinação do risco cirúrgico do paciente. Com base nessas considerações, as decisões terapêuticas são direcionadas, priorizando tratamentos percutâneos para pacientes com risco cirúrgico alto ou proibitivo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
<sec>
<title>Passo 1: Avaliação do risco cirúrgico</title>
<p>Para pacientes sintomáticos com RT acentuada, massiva ou torrencial que apresentam um risco cirúrgico alto ou proibitivo, o tratamento percutâneo é a opção preferida. Aqueles que não apresentam essas condições ou que têm um risco cirúrgico aceitável são direcionados para o tratamento cirúrgico convencional.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Passo 2: Determinação da etiologia e condição anatômica</title>
<p>Os pacientes candidatos ao tratamento percutâneo são então avaliados quanto à etiologia da RT, sendo classificados em primária, secundária ou relacionada ao uso de dispositivos intracardíacos.</p>
<p><bold>RT primária:</bold> para RT primária, a abordagem varia conforme a etiologia. Pacientes com prolapso ou <italic>flail</italic> de cúspides podem ser candidatos a reparo borda a borda transcateter (RBBT) ou substituição transcateter da valva tricúspide (STVT), enquanto aqueles com RT devido a doenças carcinoides, reumáticas ou perfuração da válvula podem necessitar de STVT.</p>
<p><bold>RT relacionada a CDIC:</bold> pacientes cuja RT esteja associada ao uso de dispositivos intracardíacos, como marcapassos, devem ser avaliados inicialmente quanto a restrição dos folhetos. Se não houver restrição, a depender da condição anatômica, pode ser considerado o reparo RBBT ou STVT. Caso contrário, pode ser avaliada a possibilidade de reposicionamento ou remoção do eletrodo, ou, ainda, STVT.</p>
<p><bold>RT secundária:</bold> é avaliada considerando a presença de doença avançada. Se a condição for avançada, o paciente pode ser encaminhado para a terapia de implante transcateter de valva caval heterotópica (ITVCH <italic>— TricValve</italic>). Nos casos em que a doença ainda não está em estágio avançado, é essencial avaliar a falha de coaptação das cúspides e a altura do <italic>tethering</italic> (tenda). Pacientes que apresentam uma falha de coaptação de até 8,5 mm e uma altura de tenda menor que 1,0 cm são considerados candidatos ideais para o RBBT (<italic>TriClip</italic>). Casos em que a anatomia é desfavorável, uma opção viável seria a STVT.</p>
<p>Outras abordagens percutâneas, como as técnicas de anuloplastia transcateter, também têm sido exploradas no tratamento da RT secundária que possuem dilatação significativa do anel tricúspide, mas com <italic>tethering</italic> leve a moderado das cúspides (altura &lt; 1,0 cm; área da tenda &lt; 2,5 cm<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>; volume da tenda &lt; 3 mL medido pelo 3D). Dispositivos como o <italic>CardioBand</italic> são utilizados para reduzir o diâmetro do anel e melhorar a coaptação das cúspides. Essa técnica é recomendada para pacientes em que o mecanismo principal da RT é a dilatação anular, com jato de regurgitação central e onde há uma zona de ancoragem adequada para o dispositivo. Os resultados iniciais sugerem uma redução significativa da regurgitação e melhora nos sintomas de insuficiência cardíaca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
<p>Nos últimos anos, o desenvolvimento de dispositivos para o tratamento percutâneo da RT tem avançado rapidamente, oferecendo novas possibilidades terapêuticas para uma condição que, historicamente, possuía alternativas limitadas. Apesar de promissores, muitos desses dispositivos ainda estão em fase de estudos clínicos. No Brasil, até o momento, apenas o <italic>TricValve</italic> e, mais recentemente, o <italic>TriClip</italic> foram aprovados para uso na prática clínica.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Tratamento borda a borda transcateter da VT</title>
<p>O RBBT da VT representa a técnica percutânea mais estudada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> O sistema <italic>TriClip</italic> é uma técnica de reparo de borda a borda que foi desenvolvida e baseada no dispositivo <italic>MitraClip</italic> (Abbott Laboratories, Abbott Park, IL, EUA). O TRILUMINATE <italic>Pivotal trial</italic> foi o primeiro estudo randomizado que avaliou essa técnica em uma população de pacientes idosos, com alto risco cirúrgico e RT sintomática, que demonstrou a segurança da técnica, redução significativa da RT e melhora da qualidade de vida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
<p>A avaliação pré-tratamento do RBBT é composta pelo ecocardiograma transtorácico (ETT) e transesofágico (ETE), sendo este último imprescindível, uma vez que é o método de imagem que guia o intraprocedimento. O estudo da VT pelo ETE pode ser desafiador, pois normalmente está no campo mais distante da posição esofágica, os folhetos são finos e, frequentemente, há problemas com sombras acústicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
<p>A seguir serão descritas as principais janelas do ETE:</p>
<p>Na <bold>janela quatro câmaras</bold> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f12">Figura 3C</xref>), normalmente obtida no esôfago médio com um ângulo de 0° a 25°, o folheto septal é facilmente identificado preso ao septo interventricular, enquanto o outro folheto lateral pode ser o anterior, mais tipicamente, ou o posterior se a extremidade da sonda for retrofletida ou avançada para o esôfago. A <bold>janela de entrada/saída do VD</bold> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f12">Figura 3A</xref>) é obtida entre 60° e 90°, na qual visualizam-se as vias de entrada e saída do VD e a valva aórtica em eixo curto. Semelhante à projeção comissural mitral, com o cursor da ferramenta biplanar ou <italic>X-plane</italic> direcionado através da VT mais próximo da válvula aórtica, o plano ortogonal mostrará os folhetos septal e anterior, e da mesma forma, se o cursor for direcionado para a esquerda (mais distante da valva aórtica), a projeção ortogonal mostrará os folhetos septal e posterior (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f12">Figura 3A</xref>). Essa janela é bastante utilizada para visualizar a apreensão dos folhetos durante o procedimento. Entretanto, se os folhetos da VT não forem adequadamente visualizados, as imagens devem ser obtidas pela projeção esôfago profunda, pois, desta posição, o septo interatrial e o anel mitral septal são excluídos do campo de visão. A <bold>janela transgástrica</bold> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f12">Figura 3D</xref>) é importante para a triagem, bem como para o intraprocedimento. A sonda é avançada no estômago e anterofletida para se obter uma imagem de eixo curto do VE médio. Em seguida, é recuada até que os folhetos da VT estejam visíveis. O ângulo é girado entre 0° e 60° para que sejam visualizadas todas as três comissuras. Ajustes na lateralização direita-esquerda podem ajudar a otimizar a imagem. Essa janela é bastante útil para avaliar o tamanho e localização do <italic>gap</italic> (lacuna), que será determinante para o planejamento do procedimento (localização do clipe, tamanho e número de clipes). Durante o procedimento, essa janela é útil também para direcionar o clipe para a posição desejada dentro do plano anular e para girar o dispositivo de clipe para obter perpendicularidade com a respectiva linha de coaptação do folheto (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f12">Figura 3F</xref>). As <bold>imagens tridimensionais</bold> devem ser adquiridas com a maior taxa de quadros possíveis, em qualquer uma das janelas descritas acima, mas a vista comissural é frequentemente utilizada para garantir que parte da valva aórtica seja incluída na imagem para fins de orientação. A forma adequada para exibir a VT no 3D permanece controversa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Entretanto, durante o procedimento é recomendado que uma orientação <italic>en face</italic> seja idêntica à transgástrica, para facilitar a comparação e entendimento das imagens, colocando o septo interatrial no lado direito da tela com a aorta localizada na posição de cinco horas (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f12">Figura 3B</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> Uma alternativa bastante interessante utilizada durante o procedimento é o uso da imagem tridimensional com a técnica de <italic>flexi-slice</italic> ou reconstrução multiplanar, que permite monitorizar a captura dos folhetos em tempo real, proporcionando a visualização simultânea dos três planos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f12">Figura 3E</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f12">
<label>Figura 3</label>
<caption><title>Janelas ecocardiográficas transesofágicas no pré e intraprocedimento do RBBT. (A) Janelas de entrada/via de saída do VD. (B) Imagem tridimensional da VT demonstrando importante falha de coaptação. (C) Janela quatro câmaras. (D) Janela transgástrica. (E) <italic>Flexi-slice</italic> ou reconstrução multiplanar da VT.(F) Janela transgástrica com a ferramenta biplanar ou X-plane após implante de dois clipes na comissura anterosseptal com RT discreta. A: folheto anterior;S: folheto septal; P: folheto posterior; Ao: aorta; RT: regurgitação tricúspide. As imagens E e F foram cedidas por Julien Ternacle, Bordeaux, França.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-04-e20240088-pt-gf04.tif"/>
</fig>
<fig id="f13">
<label>Figura 4</label>
<caption><title>Imagem ilustrativa do dispositivo LuX-Valve Plus, que inclui um componente de ancoragem do septo interventricular; um stent valvar de nitinol autoexpansível composto por um disco atrial; duas pinças e uma prótese de valva trifolheto com pericárdio bovino tratado.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-04-e20240088-pt-gf05.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>O sistema <italic>TriClip</italic> possui duas técnicas principais: a técnica do orifício triplo, que posiciona os clipes centralmente entre os folhetos septal-anterior e septal-posterior; e a técnica de bicuspidização, que inicia com um clipe na comissura anterosseptal e prossegue com clipes adicionais em direção ao centro da valva, conhecida também como técnica de <italic>zipping</italic>. Atualmente, esta técnica é a mais viável e utilizada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
<p>A escolha adequada do paciente que se submeterá ao RBBT é uma etapa crucial para o sucesso do procedimento. Os <bold>fatores ideais</bold> são: falha de coaptação inferior a 7 mm, mobilidade adequada dos folhetos, jato localizado na comissura anterosseptal ou central, prolapso ou <italic>flail</italic> confinado e presença de cabo de marcapasso que não restringe a movimentação do folheto; e os <bold>complicadores</bold>: falha de coaptação superior a 8,5 mm, jato localizado na comissura posterosseptal ou anteroposterior, folhetos espessados e curtos, perfuração de folhetos, ETE com difícil janela acústica, cabo de marcapasso impedindo a movimentação do folheto, altura da tenda dos folhetos maior que 1 cm.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Recentemente, foi criado um escore (escore de GLIDE) para prever o resultado imediato pós-procedimento de RBBT com cinco critérios anatômicos facilmente obtidos através do ETE, sendo somado 1 ponto para cada critério de complexidade: GAP anterosseptal maior que 6mm; localização do jato posterosseptal, anteroposterior ou difuso; qualidade da imagem limitada; densidade alta de cordoalhas, e morfologia do jato <italic>en face</italic> em formato de estrela. O escore de GLIDE foi capaz de prever o sucesso do procedimento, definido pela redução da RT maior ou igual a 2 graus e RT pós-procedimento moderada ou menor, respectivamente, em pacientes com 0 ou 1 pontos em 91% e 97%, com 2 ou 3 pontos em 47% e 61% e com mais de 4 pontos em 14% para as duas definições.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Implante ortotópico percutâneo de válvula tricúspide</title>
<p>O desenvolvimento de dispositivos projetados especificamente para STVT está atualmente em um estágio inicial e sendo avaliado em ensaios clínicos.</p>
<p>A STVT surge como opção terapêutica nos pacientes com RT grave, sintomáticos, apesar de tratamento medicamentoso otimizado (incluindo altas doses de diuréticos), de alto e/ou risco cirúrgico proibitivo. A STVT é principalmente indicada nos casos de RT secundária (mesmo para anéis maiores e maiores falhas de coaptação – nos quais a anatomia valvar não é favorável para o reparo transcateter borda a borda), RT induzida por marcapasso e parte de RT primária. A terapia de substituição é contraindicada ou relativamente contraindicada para pacientes com obstrução do trato de saída do VD, endocardite infecciosa ativa, massa intracardíaca, pressão sistólica da artéria pulmonar igual ou superior a 55 mmHg (avaliada por ecocardiografia ou cateterismo cardíaco direito), fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo diminuída (FEVE &lt; 50%), complicação de outras doenças cardíacas que requerem intervenção cirúrgica, pacientes com anomalia de Ebstein congênita ou displasia estrutural grave do VD e estrutura anatômica não adequada para a abordagem (seja por dilatação excessiva do anel tricúspide além dos tamanhos disponíveis das válvulas transcateter ou alterações nos acessos venosos, que precisam ser grandes o suficiente para acomodar o cateter de entrega).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
<p>Há um interesse crescente na terapia de STVT, pelo fato de ser a única técnica que erradica a RT (em vez de apenas reduções parciais observadas com outras técnicas de reparo transcateter), a capacidade de tratar uma gama mais ampla de anatomias e patologias e o potencial de oferecer procedimentos <italic>valve-in-valve</italic> no futuro. Esses benefícios potenciais precisam ser ponderados em relação à necessidade de anticoagulação terapêutica pós-procedimento, um procedimento mais invasivo, indução potencial de bloqueio atrioventricular, dificuldades de implantação de marca-passos no futuro, durabilidade em longo prazo e risco de piora da função do VD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
<p>Em geral, nos possíveis candidatos a STVT, é de suma importância a aferição da pressão sistólica em artéria pulmonar e avaliação do tamanho e função do VD, pois estão diretamente relacionados à estimativa de risco e prognóstico desses pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> Sun et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> excluíram pacientes com disfunção do VE (FEVE &lt; 50%,), hipertensão pulmonar (PSAP ≥ 60 mmHg), disfunção do VD (TAPSE &lt; 10 mm e FAC &lt; 29%), doença arterial coronariana grave não tratada, anomalia de Ebstein, displasia congênita do VD e obstrução do fluxo de saída do VD. Neste estudo, os pacientes foram acompanhados por 12 meses, sendo que seis pacientes foram submetidos anteriormente a cirurgia valvar esquerda e na sequência ao implante de <italic>LuX-Valve</italic> por RT massiva.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
<p>Vários sistemas de substituição ortotópica estão sob investigação clínica e pré-clínica. Entre eles, quatro dos dispositivos [<italic>NaviGate</italic> (NaviGate Cardiac Structures, Lake Forest, CA, EUA), <italic>EVOQUE</italic> (Edwards Lifesciences), <italic>LuX-Valve</italic> (Jenscare Biotechnology, Ningbo, China) e <italic>Lux Valve Plus</italic> (Jenscare)] publicaram os primeiros resultados em humanos. Esses dispositivos dependem de força radial (<italic>NaviGate, EVOQUE</italic>), engate do folheto tricúspide (todos os quatro dispositivos) ou inserção septal (<italic>LuX-Valve e Lux Valve Plus</italic>) para implantação e estabilidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
<p>A única terapia atualmente aprovada para uso comercial na Europa e EUA é a <italic>EVOQUE</italic>, sendo as demais utilizadas ainda sob uso compassivo.</p>
<p>Na seleção dos pacientes e planejamento terapêutico, o ETT é a modalidade de imagem de primeira linha e exerce papel fundamental com especial atenção na imagem apical quatro câmaras &quot;focada&quot; no VD, e quando a imagem deste não for satisfatória o ETE é recomendado.</p>
<p>A tomografia computadorizada (TC) também é essencial no <italic>screening</italic> desses pacientes visto que pode medir os diâmetros relacionados ao anel tricúspide, bem como o ângulo do septo interventricular e simular a morfologia pós-implante, participando ativamente na escolha do tamanho do dispositivo. A medida do diâmetro interno da veia jugular realizada pela TC nos casos de implante de dispositivos via transjugular também é imprescindível. O diâmetro recomendado deve exceder 8 mm.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> Nos casos de dispositivos implantados via femoral, a análise dos acessos venosos também é recomendada.</p>
<p>A ressonância magnética cardíaca (RMC) pode ser utilizada como modalidade de imagem adjuvante para avaliação de VT antes de STVT. Pode ser usada para avaliação anatômica e funcional devido à sua excelente resolução espacial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
<p>O procedimento é realizado sob anestesia geral, guiado por fluoroscopia e ETE tridimensional. O ETE intraoperatório pode ser usado para avaliar a gravidade da regurgitação, anatomia do aparelho tricúspide, função ventricular e pressão da artéria pulmonar antes da intervenção. Para pacientes com substituição prévia de válvula mitral e/ou aórtica (especialmente aqueles com válvula mecânica), a válvula tricúspide na visão de esôfago médio pode ser insatisfatória devido à influência da sombra acústica. Nesse caso, a visão esofágica profunda ou transgástrica pode ser usada para monitoramento e orientação, e a aquisição e visualização de imagens tridimensionais também podem ser realizadas com base nessas projeções. O ETE 3D é fundamental para o sucesso do procedimento. As principais janelas ecocardiográficas usadas durante o procedimento são as mesmas usadas durante o RBBT, e já foram descritas nesse artigo. Nos casos em que as imagens ecocardiográficas transesofágicas são limitadas, o uso do ecocardiograma intracardíaco em associação ao ETE 3D pode ser uma alternativa.</p>
<p>Foram realizados, até o momento da publicação deste artigo, implantes compassivos do dispositivo <italic>LuX-Valve Plus</italic> em três pacientes no Brasil, os únicos da América Latina. Os implantes foram bem-sucedidos em todos os três casos, com gradientes transvalvares baixos e ausência de insuficiência central e/ou <italic>leak</italic> paravalvular e ótima evolução clínica. A seguir, algumas imagens ilustrativas da experiência inicial brasileira (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f14">Figuras 5</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f15">6</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f14">
<label>Figura 5</label>
<caption><title>Imagem de ETE 3D com MPR: orientação e coxialidade do sistema de entrega de modo que esse seja posicionado no eixo central da VT e perpendicular ao plano anular (A); Confirmação do <italic>grasper</italic>. Imagens de via de entrada/saída do VD, esôfago médio com uso da ferramenta <italic>X-plane</italic> (seta vermelha da imagem à esquerda): a imagem da direita confirma o posicionamento do folheto anterior da VT acima do clipe (B); Confirmação do <italic>grasper</italic>. Imagens de via de entrada/saída do VD, esôfago médio com uso da ferramenta <italic>X-plane</italic> (seta vermelha da imagem à esquerda): a imagem da direita confirma o posicionamento do folheto posterior da VT acima do clipe (C).</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-04-e20240088-pt-gf06.tif"/>
</fig>
<fig id="f15">
<label>Figura 6</label>
<caption><title>Imagem de ETE 3D em tempo real, esôfago médio 4C, mostrando o ancoramento septal (estrela vermelha) (A); Vista do eixo curto ventricular transgástrico (SAX) mostrando o ancoramento septal (estrela vermelha) (B); Imagem ETE 3D da <italic>LuX-Valve Plus</italic> vista a partir do átrio direito (AD) (C); Imagem ETE 3D com mapeamento de fluxo em cores da <italic>LuX-Valve Plus</italic> vista a partir do átrio direito com fluxo espectral laminar e ausência de insuficiência e/ou <italic>leak</italic> paravalvular (D); Imagem ETE 3D da <italic>LuX-Valve Plus</italic> vista a partir do átrio direito num paciente portador de marcapasso (estrela vermelha identificando o fio do marcapasso) (E).</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-04-e20240088-pt-gf07.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>O sistema <italic>LuX-Valve</italic> (Jenscare) é uma nova válvula autoexpansível (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f13">Figura 4</xref>) feita de folheto de pericárdio bovino. A válvula é fixada por uma âncora septal ventricular (em forma de &quot;língua de pássaro&quot;) e pinças de folheto tricúspide (em forma de &quot;orelha de coelho&quot;), e não depende de força radial. O disco atrial é um anel de poliéster autoadaptável posicionado para evitar vazamento paravalvar e não tem compressão no tecido ao redor da válvula tricúspide. O dispositivo pode ser reajustado para minimizar e/ou evitar <italic>leak</italic> paravalvular. O sistema <italic>LuX-Valve</italic> (Jenscare) de primeira geração é implantado através do átrio direito, o que requer uma pequena incisão no tórax direito. O sistema <italic>LuX-Valve Plus</italic> (Jenscare) de segunda geração adota uma abordagem transjugular percutânea e está sendo usada atualmente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
<p>O acompanhamento e avaliação de pós-procedimento é realizada com o ETT que tem como principais objetivos avaliar a posição e a estabilidade do <italic>stent</italic> protético, mobilidade dos folhetos, presença e o grau de regurgitação intra ou paravalvar e gradientes transvalvares.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>ITVCH</title>
<p>Atualmente, as terapias transcateter da VT são focadas no RBBT e no implante ortotópico. Entretanto, para o sucesso destas técnicas existem vários critérios anatômicos, o que causa a exclusão de inúmeros pacientes. Nesse contexto, surge o ITVCH como uma estratégia para tratar os efeitos sistêmicos da RT acentuada,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> sendo <italic>TricValve</italic> o dispositivo aprovado no Brasil. Ele consiste em dois <italic>stents</italic> de nitinol com folhetos de pericárdio bovino implantados nas veias cavas inferior e superior.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
<p>O <italic>TricValve</italic> foi testado nas coortes combinadas TRICUS/TRICUS EURO, que demonstrou, em um ano de acompanhamento, melhora funcional significativa em 95% dos pacientes, com abolição imediata do fluxo reverso das veias hepáticas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> Faltam estudos randomizados até o presente momento.</p>
<p>Em resumo, os estudos com o <italic>TricValve</italic> incluíram apenas pacientes gravemente sintomáticos (classe funcional III ou IV da NYHA ou com admissão prévia por insuficiência cardíaca durante os últimos 12 meses), apesar da terapia médica ideal, e considerados de alto risco cirúrgico ou proibitivo para cirurgia tricúspide convencional. No entanto, aqueles com hipertensão pulmonar grave (pressão pulmonar sistólica &gt; 65 mmHg) ou função ventricular direita gravemente prejudicada (ou seja, TAPSE &lt; 13 mm) foram excluídos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
<p>Para a escolha do tamanho das próteses é utilizada a TC para minimizar a possibilidade de quaisquer problemas de segurança. Um grau de superdimensionamento de 10 a 40% dentro da parte da barriga da prótese da veia cava superior e na parte proximal da prótese da cava inferior é desejável para otimizar a fixação e a vedação. O ETT ou ETE desempenham um papel importante durante o implante e monitoramento subsequente. O implante da prótese na veia cava superior é basicamente guiado pela escopia. Após a liberação da prótese, o ecocardiograma faz a avaliação do fluxo através do Doppler e da existência de <italic>leak</italic> paraprotético. O posicionamento da prótese na veia cava inferior compreende uma protusão para o átrio direito de no máximo 15 mm, orientado pelo ecocardiograma, para diminuir o risco de <italic>leak</italic> perivalvar. Após a liberação da prótese, estuda-se o fluxo pela veias supra-hepáticas, dando destaque para o desaparecimento do fluxo reverso, presença de <italic>leak</italic> paraprotético e ausência de estenose das veias pela prótese (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f16">Figura 7</xref>).<sup>47</sup></p>
<fig id="f16">
<label>Figura 7</label>
<caption><title>Avaliação do TricValve após implante pelo ETT. (A) Visualização da prótese da cava superior pela janela subcostal. (B) Doppler colorido com fluxo anterógrado pela prótese da cava superior. (C) Doppler pulsátil do fluxo através da prótese da cava superior. (D) Imagem tridimensional da prótese da cava inferior demonstrando a protrusão de 1,5 cm no átrio direito. (E) Doppler colorido com fluxo anterógrado pela prótese da cava inferior. (F) Doppler pulsátil do fluxo através da prótese da cava superior.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-04-e20240088-pt-gf08.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Comparado aos procedimentos percutâneos do coração esquerdo, o ITVCH é tipicamente muito bem tolerado hemodinamicamente durante o procedimento. No entanto, após a implantação, há uma mudança abrupta na fisiologia caracterizada por um aumento significativo na pós-carga do VD devido à diminuição do fluxo retrógrado para as cavas, um aumento agudo na pressão do átrio direito e aumento no débito cardíaco se a função do VD for preservada. Isso é acoplado a uma descongestão sistêmica significativa, com efeitos favoráveis especialmente observados no fígado. A resposta individual a essas mudanças é variável e dependerá amplamente da função basal do VD e sua capacidade de se adaptar ao aumento da pós-carga, pressões arteriais pulmonares basais e função do ventrículo esquerdo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
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<title>Conclusão</title>
<p>O progresso das intervenções percutâneas para o tratamento da RT marca um avanço paradigmático no manejo de pacientes com risco cirúrgico elevado. A nova classificação etiológica, combinada com a adoção de técnicas avançadas de imagem, proporciona uma maior precisão diagnóstica e terapêutica, permitindo uma abordagem mais individualizada. Ainda que os resultados preliminares evidenciem melhorias significativas, a durabilidade das soluções terapêuticas e seu impacto a longo prazo exigem investigações adicionais. Esses desenvolvimentos sublinham a crescente importância de estratégias multidisciplinares, que, ao aliar sofisticação técnica e conhecimento científico, podem transformar o desfecho doença.</p>
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<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn4"><label>Fontes de Financiamento</label><p>O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn5"><label>Vinculação Acadêmica</label><p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6"><label>Aprovação Ética e Consentimento Informado</label><p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p></fn>
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