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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abcimg</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq Bras Cardiol: Imagem cardiovasc.</abbrev-journal-title></journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name></publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20240077i</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abcimg.20240077i</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Review Article</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>New Perspectives in The Assessments of Left Atrial Function in Athletes</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Almeida</surname><given-names>Rômulo Leal</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7175-4078</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Santos</surname><given-names>Maria do Socorro Brasileiro</given-names></name>
<role>writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Lima</surname><given-names>Isabelle Adjanine Borges de</given-names></name>
<role>writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Santos</surname><given-names>Eduardo Porto dos</given-names></name>
<role>writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Moura</surname><given-names>Stephanney Karolinne Mercer Souza Freitas de</given-names></name>
<role>writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8809-8783</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Tavares</surname><given-names>Marcelo</given-names></name>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Santos</surname><given-names>Amilton da Cruz</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Laboratório de Estudos do Treinamento Físico Aplicado</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">João Pessoa</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">PB</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Laboratório de Estudos do Treinamento Físico Aplicado, João Pessoa, PB – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal da Paraíba</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">João Pessoa</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">PB</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal da Paraíba, João Pessoa, PB – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><label>Mailing Address:</label> <bold>Rômulo Leal Almeida</bold> • Universidade Federal da Paraíba, Centro de Ciências da Saúde. Campus I. Postal Code: <postal-code>58051-900</postal-code>. João Pessoa, PB – Brazil E-mail: <email>romulomed@gmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><label>Potential Conflict of Interest</label><p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><label>Editor responsible for the review:</label><p>Marcelo Tavares</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>01</day>
<month>10</month>
<year>2024</year></pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2024</year></pub-date>
<volume>37</volume>
<issue>3</issue>
<elocation-id>e20240077</elocation-id>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>01</day>
<month>08</month>
<year>2024</year>
</date>
<date date-type="rev-recd">
<day>06</day>
<month>08</month>
<year>2024</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>06</day>
<month>08</month>
<year>2024</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>In high-performance athletes, especially those who practice endurance sports that involve high-intensity training for long periods, the heart shows electrical, functional, and structural changes, increasing the likelihood of ventricular and atrial arrhythmias. It is already known that these athletes have increased left atrium (LA) diameter and indexed volume. However, the effects of these changes on atrial function are not yet fully understood. The mechanics of the LA involve three functions: 1) it acts as a reservoir that collects venous flow from the pulmonary veins, occurring during ventricular systole; 2) it acts as a conduit, allowing the passive filling of the left ventricle; and 3) it acts as a contractile pump, expressed by atrial contraction. Recently, the analysis of atrial function through myocardial deformation using the speckle tracking technique has been increasingly used and contributed to the understanding of atrial mechanics. Endurance athletes have greater atrial adaptations, including greater LA diameter and volume, probably caused by the repetitive and sustained increase in effort preload to meet the cardiac output demand during high-intensity training. In addition to an increased LA, studies have shown a reduced reservoir function in athletes when compared to the control group. Therefore, we believe these findings may contribute to a more effective stratification of patients at higher risk of developing atrial fibrillation (AF). Finally, we understand that further studies are needed to better understand the dose-response relationship between exercise and left atrial function.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords</title>
<kwd>Atrial Function</kwd>
<kwd>Athletes</kwd>
<kwd>Echocardiography</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="4"/>
<table-count count="0"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="26"/>
</counts>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<fig id="f2">
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240077-gf02.tif"/>
<attrib>Assessment of atrial function in athletes. Searching for new ways to help differentiate between physiological adaptations and pathological remodeling.</attrib>
</fig>
<sec>
<title>Left Atrial Function and Physical Exercise</title>
<p>The benefits of physical exercise are clear, with several studies demonstrating that individuals who are more active and have greater functional capacity have fewer negative cardiovascular outcomes and lower mortality, regardless of other risk factors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> However, it is well documented in the literature that athletes exposed to high-intensity training at high frequencies are susceptible to potentially detrimental cardiac adaptations, including atrial fibrillation (AF), coronary calcification, myocardial fibrosis, and left atrial dilation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<p>In high-performance athletes, especially those who practice endurance sports that involve high-intensity training for long periods, the heart undergoes profound electrical, functional, and structural changes, which increases the likelihood of ventricular and atrial arrhythmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> The need to increase cardiac output during exercise leads to biatrial dilation, left ventricular (LV) hypertrophy, and increased LV diameter and systolic volume.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> The presence and degree of these adaptations may vary according to the type of exercise practiced, volume, and intensity of training, in addition to individual susceptibility, such as age, gender, and genetic predisposition.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
<p>It is already known that high-performance athletes have increased LA diameter and indexed volume, especially those who practice endurance sports.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> LA dilation is correlated with an increase in cardiovascular events, even in patients who do not have valve disease or AF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> However, the effects of atrial function remodeling caused by sport are not yet fully understood (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Central Illustration</xref>).</p>
<p>Although it is a consensus that high-performance athletes have a larger left atrium (LA) with larger volume and dimensions, we still have much to understand about atrial function and its adaptations in athletes with different levels of training.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> For a long time, the studies aimed to assess the adaptations found in the LV; nevertheless, in recent years, there has been growing interest in understanding the atrial adaptations caused by sport since the atrium plays an important role in ventricular filling and, consequently, in increasing cardiac output during exercise. Ways to assess left atrial function are needed to help differentiate between physiological adaptations to exercise and pathological remodeling.</p>
<p>The mechanics of the LA involve three functions: 1) it acts as a reservoir that collects venous flow from the pulmonary veins, occurring during ventricular systole; 2) it acts as a conduit, allowing the passive filling of the LV; and 3) it acts as a contractile pump, expressed by atrial contraction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Each of these phases can be assessed in different ways, including LA volumetric assessment, Doppler echocardiography with transmitral and pulmonary flow velocities, left atrial ejection fraction and kinetic energy, LA tissue Doppler, and strain rate.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
<p>Recently, the analysis of atrial function through myocardial deformation using the speckle tracking technique known as left atrial strain (LAS) has been increasingly used and contributed to the understanding of atrial mechanics. One of the advantages of this technique is that it is less operator-dependent since it is not necessary to perfectly align the ultrasound beams. In this method, the reflections of ultrasonic waves in different types of tissue produce pixels in different shades of gray according to the amplitude of the reflected wave, generating natural acoustic markers known as speckles. Myocardial deformation can be calculated by tracking and moving these markers.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
<p>The quantification of longitudinal strain can assess LA function throughout the cardiac cycle and, consequently, during all phases of atrial mechanics.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> LAS in the reservoir phase (LASr) assesses function in the rapid filling phase, LAS in the conduit phase (LAScd) assesses function in the passive emptying phase, and LAS in the contraction phase (LASct) assesses function in the active emptying phase. By assessing atrial function, LV diastolic function can be indirectly analyzed, which is extremely relevant for athletes since atrial enlargement alone does not characterize diastolic dysfunction, with other parameters being necessary to aid in the differential diagnosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> For LAS analysis, LA 4-chamber and 2-chamber apical views are essential, optimized and with a high frame rate, usually between 40 and 80 fps. A specific cardiac cycle is selected, and the point-by-point tracing is manually drawn from the endocardial border of the mitral annulus to the opposite mitral annulus, extrapolating the entry of the pulmonary veins and the left atrial appendage. The software defines the myocardial region of interest, which is adjusted to 3 mm in width and must cover from the endocardial to the epicardial border. If the tracking quality is not approved in two or more segments, even after manual adjustment, this incidence must be excluded from the analysis. Finally, the software calculates the strain for each of the apical windows mentioned above.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
<p>In the LAS analysis, two different methods can be used to assess function: the first one uses the QRS complex as a reference point, and it measures the positive peak of the atrial longitudinal strain (equivalent to the reservoir function) and the strain at the time of atrial contraction (represented in the electrocardiogram by the P wave). The second method uses the P wave as a reference and, initially, obtains a negative peak (equivalent to the contraction function) and, subsequently, a positive peak (equivalent to the conduit function).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Highly heterogeneous LAS normal values can be found in the literature. The best evidence we currently have is based on the 2017 meta-analysis and consists of 39%, 23%, and 17% for LASr, LAScd, and LASct, respectively.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
<p>As with other cardiological adaptations seen in athletes, the magnitude of the changes in the atrium depends mainly on age, type of sport practiced, intensity, and training duration. Regarding age, master athletes have associated changes to LA function closely linked to LV diastolic properties, regardless of the sport practiced.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Recent studies have shown that atrial volume is correlated with the number of hours of training throughout life, with athletes with more than 3,600 hours of training having a higher risk of left atrial dilation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
<p>In elite basketball athletes, in addition to increased LA volume, a reduction in the reservoir function and conduit tension was observed, with no difference in LA reinforcement tension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> An increase in LA volume and a tendency towards a reduction in the reservoir function (37 x 39.4%) were also evidenced in an important meta-analysis<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> published in 2019, as well as a reduction in the contractile function (12.4 x 17.4%) when comparing elite athletes with the normal population. Another article that evaluated elite handball athletes identified an increase in the volume of the right and left atria, as well as a reduction in myocardial deformation during atrial systole when comparing the group of athletes with the control group.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> These findings corroborate the results found in a prospective study in which elite female volleyball athletes trained intensively 16 hours/week for 16 weeks. In the post-training evaluation, an increase in the biatrial indexed volume was observed, as well as a significant reduction in the reservoir function and atrial contraction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> An observational study in 1,073 university athletes showed increased LA in 19.1% and alteration in the reservoir function in 5.2% of the population studied, showing that athletes with atrial enlargement had a higher prevalence of reduced reservoir function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
<p>Improved atrial function in this population is probably due to greater ventricular compliance. However, it is known that patients who train intensively can undergo changes, such as greater myocardial fibrosis, which can compromise ventricular compliance and supposedly lead to worse atrial function in this population, reinforcing the &quot;reverse J&quot; behavior found in other cardiac adaptations. This behavior is even shown to be present in the correlation between cardiovascular risk and training load (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Nevertheless, this hypothesis was not fully tested in previous studies, as athletes were compared with a control group and were not stratified by performance levels or training time.</p>
<fig id="f1">
<label>Figure 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Dose-response association between physical training volume and cardiovascular health outcomes. Adapted from Franklin et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240077-gf01.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>The correlation between exercise dose (intensity x volume) and the prevalence of AF has also followed a &quot;J&quot; pattern, i.e., the practice of exercise between 5 and 20 MET-h/week has a protective effect against AF. In contrast, the practice of exercise with an intensity greater than 55 MET-h/week tends to involve a higher incidence of AF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> The higher prevalence of AF at higher training intensity and volume is suggested to be correlated with expected atrial adaptations in athletes. Athletes with increased left atrial volume and reduced atrial emptying have a higher prevalence of AF, even with normal LV diastolic parameters, demonstrating different pathophysiology from non-athlete individuals, who have a high correlation with diastolic dysfunction. This suggests that the increased prevalence of AF in athletes may be associated with atrial myopathy resulting from atrial stretching triggered by physical training.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Therefore, it is extremely important to be aware of the potential adaptations found at different levels of performance to better understand atrial adaptations among athletes and the correlation involving the increased incidence of AF in this population.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1"><label>Sources of Funding</label><p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2"><label>Study Association</label><p>This article is part of the thesis of Doctoral submitted by Rômulo Leal Almeida from Universidade Federal da Paraíba.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3"><label>Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate</label><p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
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<name><surname>Claessen</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Stefani</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Flannery</surname><given-names>MD</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Brown</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Janssens</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Differing Mechanisms of Atrial Fibrillation in Athletes and Non-athletes: Alterations in Atrial Structure and Function</article-title>
<source>Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging</source>
<year>2020</year>
<volume>21</volume>
<issue>12</issue>
<fpage>1374</fpage>
<lpage>1383</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1093/ehjci/jeaa183</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Trivedi SJ, Claessen G, Stefani L, Flannery MD, Brown P, Janssens K, et al. Differing Mechanisms of Atrial Fibrillation in Athletes and Non-athletes: Alterations in Atrial Structure and Function. Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging. 2020;21(12):1374-83. doi: 10.1093/ehjci/jeaa183.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
</ref-list>
</back>
<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S1" xml:lang="pt">
<front-stub>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20240077</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Novas Perspectivas das Adaptações na Função Atrial Esquerda em Atletas</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Almeida</surname><given-names>Rômulo Leal</given-names></name>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>redação do manuscrito</role>
<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7175-4078</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Santos</surname><given-names>Maria do Socorro Brasileiro</given-names></name>
<role>redação do manuscrito</role>
<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Lima</surname><given-names>Isabelle Adjanine Borges de</given-names></name>
<role>redação do manuscrito</role>
<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Santos</surname><given-names>Eduardo Porto dos</given-names></name>
<role>redação do manuscrito</role>
<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Moura</surname><given-names>Stephanney Karolinne Mercer Souza Freitas de</given-names></name>
<role>redação do manuscrito</role>
<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8809-8783</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Tavares</surname><given-names>Marcelo</given-names></name>
<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Santos</surname><given-names>Amilton da Cruz</given-names></name>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>redação do manuscrito</role>
<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">João Pessoa</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">PB</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Laboratório de Estudos do Treinamento Físico Aplicado, João Pessoa, PB – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff4">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">João Pessoa</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">PB</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal da Paraíba, João Pessoa, PB – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c2"><label>Correspondência:</label> <bold>Rômulo Leal Almeida</bold> • Universidade Federal da Paraíba, Centro de Ciências da Saúde. Campus I. CEP: <postal-code>58051-900</postal-code>. João Pessoa, PB – Brasil E-mail: <email>romulomed@gmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><label>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</label><p>Declaro não haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><label>Editor responsável pela revisão:</label><p>Marcelo Tavares</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<abstract>
<title>Resumo</title>
<p>Em atletas de alta performance, principalmente aqueles que praticam esportes de resistência com treinos de alta intensidade e longa duração, o coração sofre alterações elétricas, funcionais e estruturais, aumentando a probabilidade de arritmias ventriculares e atriais. Sabe-se que esses atletas possuem aumento do diâmetro e do volume indexado do átrio esquerdo (AE), entretanto, os efeitos dessas alterações na função atrial ainda não estão totalmente esclarecidos. A mecânica do AE envolve três funções: 1) função de reservatório, caracterizada pelo armazenamento do retorno venoso proveniente das veias pulmonares, que ocorre durante a sístole ventricular; 2) função de conduto, representada pelo enchimento passivo do ventrículo esquerdo (VE); e 3) função contrátil, expressa pela contração atrial. Recentemente, a análise da função do átrio por meio da deformação miocárdica, utilizando a técnica de <italic>speckle tracking</italic>, vem sendo utilizada cada vez mais e contribuindo para a compreensão da mecânica atrial. Atletas de resistência apresentam maiores adaptações atriais, como um maior diâmetro e volume do AE, provavelmente provocado pelo aumento repetitivo e sustentado da pré-carga de esforço, a fim de atender a demanda do débito cardíaco durante o treinamento de alta intensidade. Além do aumento do AE, estudos têm demonstrado redução da função de reservatório em atletas, quando comparados ao grupo controle. Deste modo, acreditamos que estes achados podem contribuir para melhor estratificação de pacientes com maior risco de desenvolver fibrilação atrial (FA). Por fim, entendemos que são necessários mais estudos para um melhor entendimento sobre a relação dose-resposta entre exercício e função atrial esquerda.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
<title>Palavras-chave</title>
<kwd>Função Atrial</kwd>
<kwd>Atletas</kwd>
<kwd>Ecocardiografia</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<fig id="f4">
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240077-gf02-pt.tif"/>
<attrib>Avaliação da função atrial em atletas. A busca por novas formas de auxiliar na diferenciação entre adaptações fisiológicas e o remodelamento patológico.</attrib>
</fig>
<sec>
<title>Função Atrial Esquerda e Exercício Físico</title>
<p>Os benefícios do exercício físico são indiscutíveis, com vários estudos demonstrando que pessoas mais ativas e com maior capacidade funcional apresentam menos desfechos cardiovasculares negativos e menor mortalidade, independentemente de outros fatores de risco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> No entanto, está bem documentado na literatura que atletas expostos a grandes volumes e intensidades de treinamento estão suscetíveis a adaptações cardíacas potencialmente deletérias, como fibrilação atrial (FA), calcificação coronária, fibrose miocárdica e dilatação do átrio esquerdo (AE).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<p>Em atletas de alta performance, principalmente aqueles que praticam esportes de resistência com treinos de alta intensidade e longa duração, o coração sofre profundas alterações elétricas, funcionais e estruturais, o que aumenta a probabilidade de arritmias ventriculares e atriais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> A necessidade de aumentar o débito cardíaco durante a prática de exercício leva à dilatação biatrial, hipertrofia do ventrículo esquerdo (VE), aumento do diâmetro e do volume sistólico do VE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> A presença e o grau dessas adaptações podem variar de acordo com o tipo de exercício praticado, volume e a intensidade do treinamento, além da susceptibilidade individual, como idade, sexo e predisposição genética.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
<p>Sabe-se que atletas de alto rendimento possuem aumento do diâmetro e volume indexado do AE, principalmente aqueles que praticam esportes de resistência.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> A dilatação do AE tem correlação com o aumento de eventos cardiovasculares, mesmo naqueles pacientes que não apresentam doença valvar ou FA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Entretanto, os efeitos do remodelamento provocado pelo esporte na função atrial ainda não estão totalmente esclarecidos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura Central</xref>).</p>
<p>Apesar de ser consenso que atletas de alta performance possuem AE com maior volume e maiores dimensões, ainda temos muito a compreender sobre a função atrial e suas adaptações em atletas com diferentes níveis de treinamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Por muito tempo, o principal foco dos estudos foi avaliar as adaptações encontradas no VE; entretanto, nos últimos anos, houve um interesse crescente pelo conhecimento das adaptações atriais provocadas pelo esporte, visto que o átrio tem importante papel no enchimento ventricular e, por conseguinte, no aumento do débito cardíaco durante o esforço. A busca por formas de avaliação da função atrial esquerda faz-se necessária a fim de auxiliar na diferenciação entre adaptações fisiológicas ao exercício e remodelamento patológico.</p>
<p>A mecânica do AE envolve três funções: 1) função de reservatório, caracterizada pelo armazenamento do retorno venoso proveniente das veias pulmonares, que ocorre durante a sístole ventricular; 2) função de conduto, representada pelo enchimento passivo do VE; e 3) função contrátil, expressa pela contração atrial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Cada uma dessas fases pode ser avaliada de diversas maneiras, incluindo avaliação volumétrica do AE, ecocardiografia Doppler com velocidades de fluxo transmitral e pulmonar, fração de ejeção atrial esquerda e energia cinética, Doppler tecidual do AE, deformação e taxa de deformação.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
<p>Recentemente, a análise da função do átrio por meio da deformação miocárdica, utilizando a técnica de <italic>speckle tracking</italic>, conhecida como <italic>strain</italic> atrial esquerdo (LAS), está sendo cada vez mais utilizada, contribuindo para a compreensão da mecânica atrial. Uma das vantagens desta técnica é sua menor dependência do operador, visto que não é necessário alinhamento perfeito dos feixes de ultrassom. Nesse método, as reflexões das ondas ultrassônicas, nos diferentes tipos de tecidos, produzem <italic>pixels</italic> em diferentes tons de cinza de acordo com a amplitude da onda refletida, gerando marcadores naturais acústicos conhecidos como <italic>speckles</italic>. Através do rastreio e deslocamento desses marcadores, consegue-se calcular a deformação miocárdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
<p>A quantificação do <italic>strain</italic> longitudinal permite avaliar a função do AE durante todo o ciclo cardíaco e, consequentemente, durante todas as fases da mecânica atrial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> O <italic>strain</italic> de AE de reservatório (LASr) avalia a função na fase de enchimento rápido, o <italic>strain</italic> de AE de conduto (LAScd) avalia a função na fase de esvaziamento passivo e o <italic>strain</italic> de AE de contração (LASct) avalia a função na fase de esvaziamento ativo. Através da avaliação da função atrial, é possível analisar de forma indireta a função diastólica do VE, que é de extrema relevância para o atleta, uma vez que a presença isolada de aumento atrial não caracteriza disfunção diastólica, sendo necessário considerar outros parâmetros que auxiliem neste diagnóstico diferencial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Para a análise do LAS, é essencial a aquisição de imagens apicais 4 câmaras e 2 câmaras, otimizadas para o AE e com frequência de quadros alta, geralmente entre 40 e 80 qps. Seleciona-se um ciclo cardíaco específico e desenha-se manualmente o traçado ponto a ponto, desde a borda endocárdica do anel mitral até o anel mitral oposto, extrapolando-se a entrada das veias pulmonares e do apêndice atrial esquerdo. O software define a região miocárdica de interesse, a qual é ajustada para 3 mm de largura e deve cobrir da borda endocárdica até a epicárdica. Caso a qualidade do <italic>tracking</italic> não seja aprovada em dois ou mais segmentos, mesmo após ajuste manual, deve-se excluir essa incidência da análise. Finalmente, o software calcula o <italic>strain</italic> para cada uma das janelas apicais citadas acima.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
<p>Na análise do LAS há dois métodos diferentes para avaliação funcional: o primeiro usa como ponto de referência o complexo QRS, além de medir o pico positivo do <italic>strain</italic> longitudinal atrial (equivalente à função de reservatório) e o <italic>strain</italic> no momento da contração atrial (representada no eletrocardiograma pela onda P). O segundo método utiliza a onda P como referencial, além de obter, inicialmente, um pico negativo (equivalente a função de contração) e, posteriormente, um pico positivo (equivalente a função de conduto).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Os valores de normalidade do LAS apresentam grande heterogeneidade na literatura. A melhor evidência que dispomos, atualmente, baseia-se na metanálise de 2017 e consiste em 39%, 23% e 17%, para LASr, LAScd e LASct, respectivamente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
<p>Assim como nas demais adaptações cardiológicas evidenciadas em atletas, a magnitude das mudanças no átrio depende principalmente da idade, tipo de esporte praticado, intensidade e tempo de treinamento. Em relação à idade, atletas master possuem alterações relacionadas na função do AE intimamente ligadas às propriedades diastólicas do VE, independente da prática esportiva realizada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Estudos recentes têm demonstrado que o volume atrial tem correlação com a quantidade de horas de treinamento ao longo da vida, sendo que atletas com mais de 3.600 horas de treinamento apresentam maior risco de dilatação do AE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
<p>Em atletas de elite do basquete foi evidenciada, além do aumento do volume do AE, uma redução da função de reservatório e tensão do conduto, sem diferença na tensão de reforço do AE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> O aumento do volume do AE e a tendência na redução da função de reservatório (37 x 39,4%) também foram evidenciados em importante metanálise<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> publicada em 2019, assim como a redução na função contrátil (12,4 x 17,4%), quando comparada a população de atletas de elite com a população normal. Outro artigo, que avaliou atletas de elite de handebol, identificou um aumento do volume de átrios direito e esquerdo, assim como uma redução da deformação miocárdica durante a sístole atrial quando comparado o grupo de atletas com o grupo controle.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Tais achados são compatíveis com os resultados encontrados em estudo prospectivo, no qual as atletas de elite de voleibol feminino foram treinadas de forma intensiva durante 16 horas/semana por 16 semanas. Na avaliação pós-treinamento, foi observado um aumento do volume indexado biatrial, assim como uma redução significativa na função de reservatório e de contração atrial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Um estudo observacional em 1.073 atletas universitários evidenciou um aumento de AE em 19,1% e uma alteração da função de reservatório em 5,2% da população estudada, mostrando que os atletas com aumento atrial tinham maior prevalência de redução da função de reservatório.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
<p>A melhora da função atrial nessa população provavelmente ocorre devido a uma maior complacência ventricular. Entretanto, sabemos que em pacientes com alta carga de treinamento podemos ter alterações, como maior fibrose miocárdica, que podem comprometer a complacência ventricular e, supostamente, levar à piora da função atrial nessa população, reforçando o comportamento em &quot;J reverso&quot; encontrado em outras adaptações cardíacas, comportamento inclusive evidenciado na correlação de risco cardiovascular e carga de treinamento (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Contudo, esta hipótese não foi completamente testada em trabalhos anteriores, pois foram comparados atletas com um grupo controle, não estratificando os atletas por níveis de performance ou por tempo de treinamento.</p>
<fig id="f3">
<label>Figura 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Associação dose-resposta entre o volume de treinamento físico e os resultados de saúde cardiovascular. Adaptado de Franklin et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240077-gf01-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>A correlação entre a dose de exercício (intensidade x volume) e a prevalência de FA também tem seguido um comportamento em &quot;J&quot;, ou seja, a prática de exercício entre 5 e 20 MET-h/semana tem efeito protetor em relação à FA, enquanto a prática de exercício com intensidade superior a 55 MET-h/semana tendem a aumentar a incidência de FA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Sugere-se que a maior prevalência de FA em treinamentos de maior intensidade e volume esteja relacionada às adaptações atriais esperadas no atleta. Aqueles com aumento do volume do AE e esvaziamento atrial reduzido têm maior prevalência de FA, mesmo com parâmetros diastólicos normais do VE, demonstrando fisiopatologia diferente de indivíduos não atletas, os quais apresentam alta correlação com disfunção diastólica. Esse fato sugere que o aumento da prevalência de FA em atletas pode estar relacionado à miopatia atrial resultante do estiramento atrial desencadeado pelo treinamento físico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Desta maneira, é de extrema importância ter conhecimento das eventuais adaptações encontradas em níveis diferentes de performance, para melhorar a compreensão acerca das adaptações da mecânica atrial na população de atletas e a correlação do aumento da incidência de FA nesta população.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn4"><label>Fontes de Financiamento</label><p>O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn5"><label>Vinculação Acadêmica</label><p>Este artigo é parte de tese de Doutorado de Rômulo Leal Almeida pela Universidade Federal da Paraíba.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6"><label>Aprovação Ética e Consentimento Informado</label><p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
</back>
</sub-article>
</article>
