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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abcimg</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq Bras Cardiol: Imagem cardiovasc.</abbrev-journal-title></journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name></publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20240059i</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abcimg.20240059i</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Review Article</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>My Approach to Calculate the Left Ventricular Ejection Fraction: From a Two-Dimensional to a Three-Dimensional Technique</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0471-4372</contrib-id>
<name><surname>França</surname><given-names>Lucas Arraes de</given-names></name>
<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1028-9568</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Moleta</surname><given-names>Danilo Bora</given-names></name>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital viValle</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv1">São José dos Campos</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital viValle, São José dos Campos, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><label>Mailing Address: Lucas Arraes de França</label> • Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein. Av. Albert Einstein, 627/701. Postal Code: <postal-code>05652-900</postal-code>. São Paulo, SP – Brazil E-mail: <email>lucas.franca81@gmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><p>Editor responsible for the review: Marcelo Tavares</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><label>Potential Conflict of Interest</label>
<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>29</day>
<month>08</month>
<year>2024</year></pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2024</year></pub-date>
<volume>37</volume>
<issue>3</issue>
<elocation-id>e20240059</elocation-id>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>15</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2024</year></date>
<date date-type="rev-recd">
<day>17</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2024</year></date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>04</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2024</year></date>
</history>
<permissions>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>Echocardiography is the most used diagnostic method for measuring left ventricular systolic function indices. It is possible to estimate, in a quick, available, and non-invasive way, parameters such as ventricular volumes, stroke volume, and ejection fraction. Being an expert in the technique is quite important to estimate these parameters accurately. Being able to refine the technique constantly is also important, and this is closely associated with the examiner&apos;s experience and knowledge of the current software solutions.</p>
<p>In this review article, we will discuss how to accurately measure left ventricular volumes and their ejection fraction using two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) echocardiographic techniques. We will also outline tips and suggestions based on the main North American and European guidelines for quantifying heart chambers and the most recent articles in the literature.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords</title>
<kwd>Stroke Volume</kwd>
<kwd>Echocardiography</kwd>
<kwd>Three-Dimensional Echocardiography</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="4"/>
<table-count count="4"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="14"/>
</counts>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<fig id="f2">
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240059-gf02.tif"/>
</fig>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introduction</title>
<p>In the early days of echocardiography, based on the one-dimensional method (M-mode), it was only possible to measure the end-diastolic and end-systolic diameters of the left ventricle (LV). Also, the end-diastolic and end-systolic volumes of the LV, the systolic ejected volume (stroke volume), and the ejection fraction were calculated using mathematical formulas strongly influenced by geometric assumptions. Furthermore, the M-mode, despite its excellent temporal resolution, was performed completely blindly, which often led to an overestimation of ventricular diameters and left ventricular mass.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>With the evolution of the technique and the use of two-dimensional (2D) echocardiography, it was possible to measure ventricular diameters in their true axis (perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the LV), reducing the interobserver variability of their measurements. However, measuring ventricular volumes was still very dependent on mathematically pre-determined geometries. Over the years, techniques that trace the outline of the blood-tissue interface from apical 2-chamber (2C) and 4-chamber (4C) views, such as the area-length method and the biplane disc summation technique, were made available to measure LV end-diastolic and end-systolic volumes. Although they are still based on geometric assumptions and the frequent shortening of the LV apical region, such techniques can correct geometric distortions not visible in a long-axis parasternal section by allowing the analysis of a much larger number of ventricular segments.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
<p>At the beginning of the 21st century, with the availability of advanced echocardiography techniques, most of the existing limitations in measuring ventricular volumes were eliminated. With the introduction of echocardiography with microbubble-enhanced ultrasound, it became possible to identify the compact blood-myocardium interface better and then trace the endocardial borders more accurately. Consequently, it was possible to measure volumes with less underestimation, finding values closer to those found in nuclear magnetic resonance imaging. Its applicability for opacifying the left ventricular cavity was already approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2014 and has been used frequently in most of the world&apos;s largest echocardiography centers in patients who have suboptimal echocardiographic windows.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> With the evolution of three-dimensional (3D) echocardiography, it became possible to estimate left ventricular volumes without any geometric assumptions, eliminating the apical shortening bias. Robust studies in the literature have already demonstrated its importance for measuring LV ventricular volumes, left ventricular mass, and ejection fraction, with values being very close to those found by the gold standard technique, which is nuclear magnetic resonance imaging.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
<p>In recent years, the use of artificial intelligence has grown substantially. Software solutions now have mathematical algorithms, and these algorithms can easily, quickly, and reproducibly estimate left ventricular volumes, stroke volume, and ejection fraction, both through 2D and 3D echocardiography, reducing interobserver variability, especially in less experienced examiners.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
<p>In this article, we will discuss how to accurately measure left ventricular volumes and their ejection fraction using 2D and 3D echocardiographic techniques, paying special attention to the main details that can lead to measurement errors.</p>
<sec>
<title>2D Echocardiography</title>
<p>The American Society of Echocardiography (ASE) and the European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging (EACVI) guidelines for quantifying cardiac chambers recommend measuring the end-diastolic and end-systolic diameters of the LV during echocardiographic but do not suggest that these diameters be used to measure ventricular volumes, especially in ventricles with changes in their geometry and changes in segmental myocardial contractility. The technique based on conventional 2D echocardiography recommended for estimating LV volumes, stroke volume, and ejection fraction is the biplane disc summation technique (modified Simpson&apos;s rule).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p>Using this technique, from apical 4C and 2C views, it is possible to visualize 13 of the 17 LV segments, correcting potential geometric distortions that may involve its apical regions and inferoseptal, anterolateral, anterior, and inferior walls. Furthermore, it has the advantage of measuring volumes that take on a form that is less based on geometric assumptions than the volumes quantified from simple linear diameters of the LV, as in the cube and Teichholz techniques. As a disadvantage, the biplane disc summation technique does not allow the inclusion of changes in myocardial contractility that may affect the anteroseptal and inferolateral walls of the LV, as seen in the apical 3-chamber view. It also has a limitation involving frequent endocardial dropout, which makes tracing the compact blood-myocardial interface difficult, especially in suboptimal echocardiographic windows.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
<p>To measure left ventricular volumes using the biplane disc summation technique, apical 4C and 2C views must be obtained. Shortening of the apical region of the LV should be avoided as much as possible, and spatial and temporal resolutions should be optimized to identify better the myocardial segments studied. In adults, we choose to use second harmonic frequency waves to better differentiate the myocardial trabeculae from the endocardial border and reduce ring-down artifacts. In obese individuals, the frequency should be reduced to optimize the image being obtained.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<p>After acquiring the clips, with conventional software present in echocardiography devices of different brands, the image must be frozen at the end of the diastole, which will correspond to the peak of the R wave of the electrocardiogram, immediately after the closure of the mitral valve.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> You must begin marking the endocardial border (blood-tissue interface) of the medial mitral annulus along the entire left ventricular cavity to the lateral mitral annulus or vice versa. During this process, it is important to ensure that the marking stops at the mitral annulus and does not invade the ventricular surface of the mitral valve leaflets. The trabeculae corresponding to the non-compacted area of the myocardium, as well as the papillary muscles and the chordae tendineae, must be included in the volumetric quantification. If there are images compatible with thrombi or masses inside the LV, these must also be included in the volumetric quantification. After volumetric measurement at the end of the diastole, the end-systolic volume is measured, which must be taken after the T wave of the electrocardiogram at the moment when the smallest systolic ventricular volume is visually observed. The measurement of LV end-diastolic and end-systolic volumes must be made in the apical views of 4C and 2C (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f1">
<label>Figure 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Measurement of left ventricular end-diastolic and end-systolic volumes using the biplane disc summation technique.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240059-gf01.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>After carrying out these measurements, the echocardiography device&apos;s software will calculate the end-diastolic and end-systolic volumes in 4C, 2C, and biplane and estimate the biplane stroke volume and the biplane LV ejection fraction. The normal values for parameters of LV dimensions, volumes, and ejection fraction validated in the ASE/EACVI guidelines and in the most recent published multicenter study, the WASE (World Alliance Societies of Echocardiography) study, are shown in the <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
<table-wrap id="t1">
<label>Table 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Normal values for the global population of the WASE study by gender and compared with the 2015 ASE/EACVI</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="16%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Variable</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle" colspan="3" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">WASE, LLN to ULN</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">Guidelines</th>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="center" valign="middle">Male</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Female</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">P</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Male</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Female</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">LVEDD, mm</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">36 to 56</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">33 to 51</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;.0001</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">42 to 58</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">38 to 52</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Indexed LVEDD, mm/m<sup>2</sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">19 to 30</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">20 to 31</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;.0001</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">22 to 30</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">23 to 31</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">LVESD, mm</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">22 to 37</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">21 to 34</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;.0001</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">25 to 40</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">22 to 35</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Indexed LVESD,  mm/m<sup>2</sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">12 to 20</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">12 to 21</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;.0001</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">13 to 21</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">13 to 21</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">IVSd, mm</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">6 to 12</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">5 to 10</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;.0001</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">6 to 10</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">6 to 9</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">PPd, mm</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">6 to 11</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">5 to 10</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;.0001</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">6 to 10</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">6 to 9</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">LV mass, g</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">74 to 204</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">55 to 148</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;.0001</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">88 to 224</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">67 to 162</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Indexed  LV mass, g/m<sup>2</sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">42 to 101</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">36 to 85</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;.0001</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">49 to 115</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">43 to 95</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">LVEDV, mL</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">61 to 65</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">47 to 122</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;.0001</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">62 to 150</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">46 to 106</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Indexed LVEDV, mL/m<sup>2</sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">34 to 80</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">31 to 70</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;.0001</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">34 to 74</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">29 to 61</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">LVESV, mL</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">21 to 65</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">17 to 47</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;.0001</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">21 to 61</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">14 to 42</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Indexed LVESV, mL/m<sup>2</sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">12 to 32</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">11 to 28</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;.0001</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">11 to 31</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">8 to 24</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">LVEF, %</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">57 to 68</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">58 to 69</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;.0001</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">52 to 72</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">54 to 74</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">LV GLS, %</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−17 to −24</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−18 to −26</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;.0001</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">NTo</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">NTo</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN1">
<p>LVEDD: left ventricular end-diastolic diameter; LVESD: left ventricular end-systolic diameter; IVSd: interventricular septal diastolic diameter; PPd: posterior wall diastolic diameter; LV: left ventricle; LVEDV: left ventricular end-diastolic volume; LVESV: left ventricular end-systolic volume; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; GLS: global longitudinal strain; WASE: World Alliance Societies of Echocardiography; LLN: lower limit of normality; ULN: upper limit of normality.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>Semi-automated software has recently emerged to make these measurements faster and reduce interobserver variability. Nevertheless, these solutions are very dependent on an excellent echocardiographic image and require expertise and training. After acquiring apical 4C and 2C views, the software recognizes the moment of the end diastole (peak of the R wave) from the electrocardiogram. It requires the ventricular basal endocardium next to the mitral annulus and the ventricular apex to be marked. Therefore, it automatically traces the endocardial border, measuring the end-diastolic volume and allowing the necessary fine-tuning after measurement. Subsequently, the software will automatically quantify the end-systolic volume (at the end of the T wave of the electrocardiogram) and calculate the volume-time curve of the LV based on the volumetric variation of the left ventricular cavity based on the tracing of the endocardial border, frame by frame. The trace of the endocardial border can also be fine-tuned at the end of systole. Once the analysis is complete, the software provides information such as biplane end-diastolic and end-systolic volumes, biplane stroke volume, and LV ejection fraction (<xref ref-type="other" rid="f3">Video 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<media id="f3" mime-subtype="mp4" mimetype="video" xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240059-m01.mp4">
<label>Video 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Estimation of LV volumes and ejection fraction by semi-automated software. Link: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2024/3703/2024-0059_AR_video-01.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2024/3703/2024-0059_AR_video-01.mp4</ext-link>.</title></caption>
</media>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Microbubbles as Ultrasound Contrast Agents</title>
<p>In echocardiography laboratories and intensive care or emergency room environments, patients with suboptimal echocardiographic windows are common. This makes it very difficult to estimate LV volumes accurately. In this scenario, the applicability of microbubbles as an ultrasound contrast agent (ARUS) has increased dramatically over the last decade. The most recent ASE guidelines on the use of ARUS recommend that, in cases where 2D resting echocardiography cannot be used to visualize two or more contiguous myocardial segments, microbubble contrast agents should be used to opacify the left ventricular cavity (LVC) and more effectively trace the tissue-blood interface. For this, some adjustments to image acquisition are necessary to prevent microbubbles from being destroyed prematurely and to help microbubbles remain stable. For LVC purposes, a very low mechanical index (&lt; 0.2) is recommended, with harmonic activation using the pulse inversion technique. Most of the most recent echocardiography devices already have presets adjusted for this acquisition modality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<p>Measurements of left ventricular volumes must follow the same recommendations described previously in this document, using the rule for the sum of biplane discs. The advantage of using ARUS is a more effective tracing of the endocardial borders, enabling more accurate measurement of end-diastolic and end-systolic volumes, the detection of thrombi within the left ventricular cavity, and accurate detailing of trabeculations and false tendons. Its disadvantages include the same limitations previously described for the biplane modified Simpson&apos;s rule and acoustic shadowing in the basal segments of the LV when using excess contrast agent (<xref ref-type="other" rid="f4">Video 2</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<media id="f4" mime-subtype="mp4" mimetype="video" xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240059-m02.mp4">
<label>Video 2</label>
<caption>
<title>The use of ARUS that detects the presence of a small thrombus at the apex of the LV in a patient with a suboptimal echocardiographic window. Link: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2024/3703/2024-0059_AR_video-02.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2024/3703/2024-0059_AR_video-02.mp4</ext-link>.</title></caption>
</media>
<p>The use of ARUS allows the measurement of LV volumes with less underestimation when compared to conventional 2D echocardiography, making it possible to estimate volumes with values closer to those obtained with magnetic resonance imaging.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>3D Echocardiography</title>
<p>3D echocardiography has evolved substantially in the 21st century after the emergence of second-generation full-matrix transducers. Although there are still limitations in terms of temporal resolution of the image, the gain in spatial resolution and the use of devices, such as multi-beat acquisition, make this echocardiographic modality the choice for measuring ventricular volumes and ejection fraction. Also, 3D echocardiography is not based on any geometric assumptions and eliminates the shortening bias of the LV apical region.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> In the last decade, with software based on artificial intelligence mathematical algorithms, the time for acquiring 3D blocks and adjusting the images after processing has been significantly reduced, facilitating its routine use in the largest echocardiography centers in the world. Recent studies encourage the use of 3D echocardiography with artificial intelligence for analyzing left ventricular systolic function, which has been shown to be a quick, easy, reproducible, and feasible technique. It is possible to acquire left ventricular volume, stroke volume, and ejection fraction values that are very close to those estimated by the nuclear magnetic resonance imaging, considered as the gold standard technique.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
<p>In conventional 3D echocardiography software, a 3D block should be initially acquired in full-volume acquisition mode, ideally in a layout that demonstrates the orthogonal sections of the block. Also, the entire LV should be centered in the image and inserted inside the 3D block. If the LV is not fully enclosed, the lateral size and elevation width of the block can be adjusted so that the entire LV is included. With an electrocardiogram exam, which must present a signal with clear identification of the P wave, QRS complex, and T wave, and ideally with the patient in a regular rhythm, the multi-beat feature is activated to merge smaller 3D blocks to obtain a 3D block in full-volume acquisition mode with a temporal resolution given by a volume rate greater than 20 Hz. Typically, this can be done safely using a multi-beat acquisition mode starting at four beats. In addition to an electrocardiogram with a good and stable signal, during image acquisition, the patient should hold their breath for the time proportional to the number of beats selected. They should not move so that no linear fusion artifacts are formed between the small blocks, known as stitch artifacts, which can compromise the analysis of the full-volume block that has been acquired (<xref ref-type="other" rid="f5">Video 3</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
<media id="f5" mime-subtype="mp4" mimetype="video" xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240059-m03.mp4">
<label>Video 3</label>
<caption>
<title>Multi-beat full-volume 3D acquisition mode for analyzing LV volumes and ejection fraction. Link: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2024/3703/2024-0059_AR_video-03.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2024/3703/2024-0059_AR_video-03.mp4</ext-link>.</title></caption>
</media>
<p>After the acquisition described above, dedicated 3D software is used to analyze the LV, which may vary according to the equipment brand used. In general, these software solutions initially require confirmation of the exact moment of end-diastole, which has already been previously detected by recognizing the peak of the R wave on the electrocardiogram. After confirming the frame corresponding to this phase of the cardiac cycle, the coronal, sagittal, and transverse planes are aligned. The points corresponding to the ventricular basal endocardium are marked next to the mitral annulus and the LV apex in the coronal and sagittal planes. From there, the software will automatically recognize the compact blood-myocardium interface, with any necessary adjustments being immediately possible after this phase. As in 2D echocardiography, the trabeculae, papillary muscles, and any existing intracavitary thrombi must be included in the volumetric analysis. Subsequently, the software will request confirmation of the exact moment of the end of the systole, which has already been automatically detected by recognizing the end of the T wave on the electrocardiogram. After confirming the condition corresponding to this phase of the cardiac cycle, as well as in the end-diastole, the points corresponding to the ventricular basal endocardium next to the mitral annulus and the LV apex in the coronal and sagittal planes are marked. The software will also automatically recognize the endocardial borders, with the necessary adjustments being immediately possible after these phases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
<p>Based on a sequential analysis of the endocardial borders volume by volume over time, the software measures not only the end-diastolic and end-systolic volumes but also estimates the volumetric measurements throughout the cardiac cycle, creating a volume-time curve for the LV. It is also possible to segment the LV into 17 small, color-coded volumes and determine the volume-time curve for the regional volume of each of these segments, thus evaluating left intraventricular synchrony using the 3D technique.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
<p>At the end of the analysis, the software will provide relevant 3D data on the LV&apos;s volumes and systolic function, such as end-diastolic and end-systolic volumes, stroke volume, ejection fraction, and the absolute and percentage systolic dyssynchrony index from the standard deviation of the time to peak corresponding to the lowest regional volume (time-to-peak) of 16 segments evaluated (<xref ref-type="other" rid="f6">Video 4</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
<media id="f6" mime-subtype="mp4" mimetype="video" xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240059-m04.mp4">
<label>Video 4</label>
<caption>
<title>3D analysis of LV volumes and ejection fraction using conventional software. Link: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2024/3703/2024-0059_AR_video-04.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2024/3703/2024-0059_AR_video-04.mp4</ext-link>.</title></caption>
</media>
<p>With the development of artificial intelligence software based on mathematical algorithms (MBA), it is possible to substantially reduce the acquisition time, post-processing adjustments, and analysis of the results found. It is also possible to measure the same data and even additional data on left ventricular systolic function obtained by conventional software with values very close to those obtained by nuclear magnetic resonance imaging.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
<p>A full-volume 3D block must be acquired in a specific acquisition mode to be analyzed by artificial intelligence, with adjustments to the elevation width and lateral size so that the image volume rate is greater than 20 Hz. In this acquisition mode, care must be taken to ensure that not only the entire LV is included but also the left atrium (LA) because this type of software also analyzes the volume of the LA and its function. After recording the block, it must be evaluated using specific MBA software, which automatically recognizes the endocardial borders at the end of diastole, the end of systole, and throughout the cardiac cycle.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
<p>After the analysis, which lasts 30 seconds on average, the software provides left ventricular data such as end-diastolic volume, end-systolic volume, volume-time curve, stroke volume, end-diastolic and end-systolic cavity lengths, cardiac output, index cardiac, and left ventricular mass. The latter can be calculated because this software also automatically recognizes the epicardial border. The software also allows detailed data to be obtained regarding left atrial function, such as maximum and minimum volumes, volume-time curve, and atrial emptying fraction. Furthermore, the trace of the endocardial and epicardial borders can be easily adjusted using apical views of 4C, 2C, and 3C, derived from the 3D block acquired both in end-diastole and end-systole (<xref ref-type="other" rid="f7">Video 5</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
<media id="f7" mime-subtype="mp4" mimetype="video" xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240059-m05.mp4">
<label>Video 5</label>
<caption>
<title>3D analysis of the LV and LA in fully automated MBA software. Link: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2024/3703/2024-0059_AR_video-05.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2024/3703/2024-0059_AR_video-05.mp4</ext-link>.</title></caption>
</media>
<p>Normal values for the main 3D LV data are already well studied in the literature, such as in the NORRY study (Normal Reference Ranges for Echocardiography) with values described in the <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
<table-wrap id="t2">
<label>Table 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Ventricular volumes and systolic function indices by 3D analysis of the LV</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="12%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Parameters</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Total, Média ± DP</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Intervalo interquartil</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Homem, Média ± DP</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Intervalo interquartil</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Mulher, Média ± DP</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Intervalo interquartil</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="2">P</th>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="center" valign="middle">LVEVD, mL</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">(25%–75%)</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">(25%–75%)</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">LVESV, mL</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">115,6 ± 29,6</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">93,1–132,3</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">133,3 ± 30,5</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">114,2–150,2</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">102,5 ± 20,8</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">87,4–114,2</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;0,001</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">LVEF, %</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">47,1 ± 13,7</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">36,6–55,3</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">55,4 ± 13,9</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">45,4–63,0</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">41,0 ± 9,9</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">33,6–48,5</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;0,001</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Stroke volume, mL</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">59,4 ± 4,6</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">55,9–62,5</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">58,5 ± 4,3</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">54,9–61,6</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">60,1 ± 4,6</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">56,7–63,2</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;0,001</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Indexed LVEDV, mL/m<sup>2</sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">68,5 ± 17,6</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">55,8–77,4</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">78,0 ± 18,6</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">63,7–92,2</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">61,5 ± 13,0</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">53,1–69,3</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;0,001</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Indexed LVESV, mL/m<sup>2</sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">63,9 ± 12,9</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">54,8–72,0</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">68,7 ± 14,0</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">58,6–77,2</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">60,4 ± 10,8</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">52,7–67,1</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;0,001</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Indexed stroke volume, mL/m<sup>2</sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">26,0 ± 6,2</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">21,3–29,7</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">28,5 ± 6,5</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">24,4–32,6</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">24,1 ± 5,3</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">20,4–27,5</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;0,001</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Longitudinal strain, %</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">37,9 ± 7,9</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">32,0–43,0</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">40,1 ± 8,7</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">34,1–46,5</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">36,3 ± 6,9</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">31,4–40,3</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;0,001</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Circumferential strain, %</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−21,0 ± 2,6</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−19,0 a 22,7</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−20,4 ± 2,7</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−18,6 a 22</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−21,4 ± 2,4</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−19,5 a 22,9</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;0,001</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Tangential strain, %</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−30,3 ± 4,0</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−27,4 a 33,0</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−29,7 ± 3,9</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−27,0 a 32,5</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−30,7 ± 4,1</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−27,6 a 33,3</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">0,012</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Radial strain, %</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−36,5 ± 3,9</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−33,8 a 39,2</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−36,0 ± 3,9</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−33,2 a 38,9</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−37,0 ± 3,8</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−34,4 a 39,4</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">0,008</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Strain radial, %</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">43,2 ± 4,5</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">40,0 a 46,2</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">42,1 ± 4,6</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">38,8 a 45,2</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">43,9 ± 4,3</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">40,7–46,7</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;0,001</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN2">
<p>LVEDV: left ventricular end-diastolic volume; LVESV: left ventricular end-systolic volume; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; SD: standard deviation.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>Thus, with the evolution of fully matrix 3D transducers and MBA software, it is currently possible to measure data far beyond the left ventricular ejection fraction in a quick, practical, reproducible way and with values that are very close to those obtained with the gold-standard technique of nuclear magnetic resonance imaging.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Final considerations</title>
<p>Echocardiography is the most widespread diagnostic tool used to estimate the systolic function of the LV. It measures parameters such as ventricular volumes, stroke volume, and ejection fraction in a quick, noninvasive way without the use of radiation, iodinated contrast or gadolinium. Being an expert in the technique is quite important to estimate these parameters accurately. Being able to refine the technique constantly is also important, and this is closely associated with the examiner&apos;s experience and knowledge of the current software solutions.</p>
<p>Methods such as ARUS and 3D echocardiography combined with the development of MBA software have greatly contributed to more accurate measurements, with low interobserver variability and results closer to those obtained by nuclear magnetic resonance imaging but with a much faster execution and analysis time. This is an extremely promising reality that is advancing substantially in major echocardiography centers around the world.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1">
<label>Sources of Funding</label>
<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
<label>Study Association</label>
<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
<label>Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate</label>
<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
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<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S1" xml:lang="pt">
<front-stub>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20240059</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Como Eu Faço a Fração de Ejeção do Ventrículo Esquerdo: Do Bidimensional ao Tridimensional</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0471-4372</contrib-id>
<name><surname>França</surname><given-names>Lucas Arraes de</given-names></name>
<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1028-9568</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Moleta</surname><given-names>Danilo Bora</given-names></name>
<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff4">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital viValle, São José dos Campos, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c2"><label>Correspondência: Lucas Arraes de França</label> • Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein. Av. Albert Einstein, 627/701. CEP: <postal-code>05652-900</postal-code>. São Paulo, SP – Brasil E-mail: <email>lucas.franca81@gmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><p>Editor responsável pela revisão: Marcelo Tavares</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><label>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</label>
<p>Declaro não haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<abstract>
<title>Resumo</title>
<p>A ecocardiografia é o método diagnóstico mais usado para aferição de índices de função sistólica do ventrículo esquerdo (VE), permitindo a estimativa rápida, disponível e não invasiva de parâmetros como volumes ventriculares, <italic>stroke volume</italic> e fração de ejeção. O conhecimento detalhado da técnica é muito importante para estimativa acurada dessas medidas. Também é importante seu refinamento, intimamente associado à experiência do examinador e ao conhecimento dos softwares atuais.</p>
<p>Neste artigo de revisão, será discutido como medir com precisão os volumes do VE e sua fração de ejeção usando técnicas ecocardiográficas bidimensionais e tridimensionais, com dicas e sugestões baseadas nas principais diretrizes de quantificação de câmaras cardíacas americanas e europeias, bem como nos artigos mais recentes da literatura.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
<title>Palavras-chave</title>
<kwd>Volume Sistólico</kwd>
<kwd>Ecocardiografia</kwd>
<kwd>Ecocardiografia Tridimensional</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<fig id="f9">
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240059-gf02-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introdução</title>
<p>Nos primórdios da ecocardiografia, baseada no método unidimensional (modo M), era possível apenas aferir os diâmetros diastólico e sistólico finais do ventrículo esquerdo (VE). Por meio de fórmulas matemáticas fortemente influenciadas por suposições geométricas, calculava-se os volumes diastólico e sistólico finais do VE, o volume sistólico (<italic>stroke volume</italic>) e a fração de ejeção. Além disso, o modo M, apesar de sua ótima resolução temporal, era realizado completamente às cegas, o que frequentemente levava a uma superestimativa dos diâmetros ventriculares e da massa ventricular esquerda.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>Com a evolução da técnica e o uso da ecocardiografia bidimensional (2D), já era possível aferir os diâmetros ventriculares em seu verdadeiro eixo (perpendicular ao eixo longitudinal do VE), reduzindo a variabilidade interobservador de suas medidas. No entanto, a aferição dos volumes ventriculares ainda dependia muito de geometrias pré-determinadas matematicamente. Com o passar dos anos, tornou-se possível aferir os volumes diastólico e sistólico finais do VE por meio de técnicas que delineiam a interface sangue-tecido a partir de cortes apicais de 2 câmaras (2C) e 4 câmaras (4C), como a área-comprimento e a técnica do somatório dos discos biplanar. Apesar de ainda serem baseadas em suposições geométricas e do frequente encurtamento da região apical do VE, essas técnicas são capazes de corrigir distorções geométricas não visibilizadas em um corte paraesternal em eixo longo, permitindo uma análise de um número bem maior de segmentos ventriculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
<p>No início do século XXI, com a incorporação de técnicas avançadas na ecocardiografia, tonou-se possível eliminar grande parte das limitações existentes na aferição dos volumes ventriculares. Com a introdução da ecocardiografia com agentes de realce ultrassonográfico de microbolhas (ARUS), foi possível uma melhor identificação da interface sangue-miocárdio compactado, permitindo delinear com maior precisão as bordas endocárdicas e, assim, aferir volumes com menor subestimativa, obtendo valores mais próximos aos da ressonância nuclear magnética. Sua aplicabilidade com fins de opacificação da cavidade ventricular esquerda (OVE) já foi aprovada pelo Food and Drug Administration (FDA) dos Estados Unidos em 2014 e tem sido usada com frequência em grande parte dos maiores centros de ecocardiografia do mundo em pacientes com janelas ecocardiográficas subótimas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Com a evolução da ecocardiografia tridimensional (3D), tornou-se possível estimar volumes ventriculares esquerdos sem qualquer suposição geométrica, eliminando por completo o viés de encurtamento apical. Estudos robustos na literatura já demonstraram a sua importância para a aferição de volumes ventriculares do VE, massa ventricular esquerda e fração de ejeção, encontrando valores muito próximos aos da técnica padrão-ouro, a ressonância nuclear magnética.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
<p>Nos últimos anos, o uso da inteligência artificial tem crescido substancialmente. Agora, há softwares baseados em algoritmos matemáticos (MBA), que permitem, tanto por meio da ecocardiografia 2D quanto 3D, estimar de maneira fácil, rápida e reprodutível os volumes ventriculares esquerdos, <italic>stroke volume</italic> e fração de ejeção, visando diminuir a variabilidade interobservador, especialmente entre examinadores menos experientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
<p>Neste artigo, será discutido como aferir com precisão os volumes do VE e sua fração de ejeção pelas técnicas ecocardiográficas bidimensionais e tridimensionais, com atenção especial aos principais detalhes que podem levar a erros nas medições.</p>
<sec>
<title>Ecocardiografia 2D</title>
<p>As diretrizes de quantificação de câmaras cardíacas da American Society of Echocardiography (ASE) em conjunto com a European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging (EACVI), apesar de recomendarem a aferição dos diâmetros diastólico e sistólico finais do VE durante o exame ecocardiográfico, não sugerem que esses diâmetros sejam utilizados para a aferição dos volumes ventriculares, principalmente em ventrículos com mudanças em sua geometria e alterações na contratilidade miocárdica segmentar. A técnica baseada na ecocardiografia 2D convencional recomendada para se estimar os volumes do VE, seu <italic>stroke volume</italic> e sua fração de ejeção, é a técnica do somatório dos discos biplanar (regra de Simpson modificada).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p>Por meio dessa técnica, a partir de cortes apicais de 4C e 2C, é possível visualizar 13 dos 17 segmentos do VE, corrigindo possíveis distorções geométricas que possam envolver suas regiões apical e as paredes inferosseptal, anterolateral, anterior e inferior. Além disso, tem a vantagem de aferir volumes que assumem formas menos baseadas em suposições geométricas do que os volumes quantificados a partir de simples diâmetros lineares do VE, como nas técnicas do cubo e Teichholz. Como desvantagem, a técnica do somatório dos discos biplanar não permite a inclusão de alterações de contratilidade miocárdica que afetem as paredes anterosseptal e inferolateral do VE, vistas no corte apical de 3 câmaras, além da limitação do frequente <italic>dropout</italic> endocárdico, que dificulta o delineamento preciso da interface sangue-miocárdico compactado, especialmente em janelas ecocardiográficas subótimas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
<p>Para se realizar a aferição de volumes ventriculares esquerdos pela técnica do somatório dos discos biplanar, deve-se adquirir cortes apicais de 4C e 2C, evitando ao máximo o encurtamento da região apical do VE e otimizando as resoluções espacial e temporal para melhor identificação dos segmentos miocárdicos estudados. Em adultos, opta-se por utilizar ondas de frequência em segunda harmônica para diferenciar melhor as trabéculas miocárdicas da borda endocárdica e reduzir artefatos do tipo &quot;ring-down&quot;. Em indivíduos obesos, deve-se reduzir a frequência para otimizar a imagem adquirida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<p>Após a aquisição dos clipes, com softwares convencionais presentes nos aparelhos de ecocardiografia de diferentes marcas, deve-se congelar a imagem em diástole final, que vai corresponder ao pico da onda R do eletrocardiograma e imediatamente após o fechamento da valva mitral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> A marcação do traçado da borda endocárdica (interface sangue-tecido) deve ser iniciada no anel mitral medial ao longo de toda cavidade ventricular esquerda até o anel mitral lateral, ou vice-versa. Durante esse processo, é importante garantir que a marcação pare no anel mitral e não invada a face ventricular das cúspides valvares mitrais. As trabéculas correspondentes à área não compactada do miocárdico, assim como os músculos papilares e as cordas tendíneas, devem ser incluídas na quantificação volumétrica. Caso existam imagens compatíveis com trombos ou massas no interior do VE, elas também devem ser incluídas na quantificação volumétrica. Após a aferição volumétrica em diástole final, procede-se com a medida do volume sistólico final, que deve ser realizada após a onda T do eletrocardiograma, no momento em que se observa visualmente o menor volume ventricular sistólico. As medidas dos volumes diastólico e sistólico finais do VE devem ser feitas nos cortes apicais de 4C e 2C (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figura 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f8">
<label>Figura 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Aferição dos volumes diastólico e sistólico finais do VE pela regra do somatório dos discos biplanar.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240059-gf01-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Após a realização dessas aferições, o software presente no aparelho de ecocardiografia calculará os volumes diastólico e sistólico finais em 4C, 2C e biplanar, além de estimar o <italic>stroke volume</italic> biplanar e a fração de ejeção biplanar do VE. Os valores de normalidade para parâmetros de dimensões, volumes e fração de ejeção do VE validados nas diretrizes da ASE/EACVI e no mais recente estudo multicêntrico publicado, o estudo WASE (World Alliance Societies of Echocardiography), estão demonstrados na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 1</xref>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
<table-wrap id="t3">
<label>Tabela 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Valores normais para a população global do estudo WASE pelo gênero e comparados com as diretrizes ASE/EACVI 2015</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="16%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Variável</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle" colspan="3" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">WASE, LIN a LSN</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">Diretrizes</th>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Homem</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Mulher</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">P</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Homem</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Mulher</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">DDFVE, mm</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">36 a 56</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">33 a 51</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;,0001</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">42 a 58</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">38 a 52</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">DDFVE indexado, mm/m<sup>2</sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">19 a 30</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">20 a 31</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;,0001</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">22 a 30</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">23 a 31</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">DSFVE, mm</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">22 a 37</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">21 a 34</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;,0001</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">25 a 40</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">22 a 35</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">DSFVE indexado, mm/m<sup>2</sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">12 a 20</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">12 a 21</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;,0001</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">13 a 21</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">13 a 21</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">SIVd, mm</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">6 a 12</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">5 a 10</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;,0001</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">6 a 10</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">6 a 9</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">PPd, mm</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">6 a 11</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">5 a 10</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;,0001</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">6 a 10</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">6 a 9</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Massa do VE, g</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">74 a 204</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">55 a 148</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;,0001</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">88 a 224</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">67 a 162</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Massa do VE indexada, g/m<sup>2</sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">42 a 101</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">36 a 85</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;,0001</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">49 a 115</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">43 a 95</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">VDFVE, mL</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">61 a 65</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">47 a 122</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;,0001</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">62 a 150</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">46 a 106</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">VDFVE indexado, mL/m<sup>2</sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">34 a 80</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">31 a 70</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;,0001</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">34 a 74</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">29 a 61</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">VSFVE, mL</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">21 a 65</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">17 a 47</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;,0001</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">21 a 61</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">14 a 42</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">VSFVE indexado, mL/m<sup>2</sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">12 a 32</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">11 a 28</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;,0001</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">11 a 31</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">8 a 24</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">FEVE, %</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">57 a 68</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">58 a 69</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;,0001</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">52 a 72</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">54 a 74</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">SGL do VE, %</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−17 a −24</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−18 a −26</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;,0001</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">NA</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">NA</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN3">
<p>DDFVE: diâmetro diastólico final do ventrículo esquerdo; DSFVE: diâmetro sistólico final do ventrículo esquerdo; SIVd: diâmetro diastólico do septo interventricular; PPd: diâmetro diastólico da parede posterior; VE: ventrículo esquerdo; VDFVE: volume diastólico final do ventrículo esquerdo; VSFVE: volume sistólico final do ventrículo esquerdo; FEVE: fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo; SGL: strain global longitudinal; WASE: World Alliance Societies of Echocardiography; LIN: limite inferior da normalidade; LSN: limite superior da normalidade.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>Softwares semiautomatizados têm surgido recentemente para acelerar essas medidas e reduzir a variabilidade interobservador, embora dependam muito de uma imagem ecocardiográfica de alta qualidade e exijam conhecimento e treinamento. Após a aquisição de cortes apicais de 4C e 2C, o software reconhece o momento da diástole final pelo eletrocardiograma (pico da onda R) e exige a marcação dos pontos do endocárdio basal ventricular junto ao anel mitral e do ápice ventricular. Dessa forma, ele realiza um delineamento automático da borda endocárdica, aferindo o volume diastólico final e permitindo ajustes finos necessários ao final da medida. Dando continuidade, o software realizará o processamento para quantificação automática do volume sistólico final (ao final da onda T do eletrocardiograma) e, também, o cálculo da curva volume-tempo do VE, com base na variação volumétrica da cavidade ventricular esquerda a partir do delineamento da borda endocárdica, <italic>frame</italic> a <italic>frame</italic>. Também é possível realizar o ajuste fino do delineamento da borda endocárdica ao final da sístole. Ao término da análise, o software fornece informações como volumes diastólico e sistólico finais biplanar, <italic>stroke volume</italic> biplanar e fração de ejeção do VE (<xref ref-type="other" rid="f10">Vídeo 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<media id="f10" mime-subtype="mp4" mimetype="video" xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240059-m01.mp4">
<label>Vídeo 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Estimativa dos volumes e fração de ejeção do VE por software semiautomatizado. Link: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2024/3703/2024-0059_AR_video-01.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2024/3703/2024-0059_AR_video-01.mp4</ext-link>.</title></caption>
</media>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>ARUS</title>
<p>É comum, em laboratórios de ecocardiografia e ambientes de terapia intensiva ou sala de emergência, encontrar pacientes com janelas ecocardiográficas subótimas que dificultam significativamente a estimativa precisa dos volumes do VE. Nesse cenário, a aplicabilidade de ARUS tem crescido consideravelmente na última década. As mais recentes diretrizes da ASE sobre o uso de ARUS recomendam que, nos casos em que a ecocardiografia 2D em repouso não consiga visualizar dois ou mais segmentos miocárdicos contíguos, seja considerado o uso de &quot;contraste&quot; de microbolhas com fins de OVE e melhorar o delineamento da interface-sangue tecido. Para isso, são necessários alguns ajustes na aquisição da imagem, visando evitar uma destruição precoce e garantir uma maior estabilidade das microbolhas. Para fins de OVE, recomenda-se utilizar um índice mecânico muito baixo (&lt; 0,2), com ativação da harmônica com técnica de inversão de pulso. A maioria dos aparelhos de ecocardiografia mais recentes já possui <italic>presets</italic> ajustados para essa modalidade de aquisição.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<p>A realização das medidas dos volumes ventriculares esquerdos deve seguir as mesmas recomendações descritas anteriormente neste documento, utilizando a regra do somatório dos discos biplanar. A vantagem do uso de ARUS é o melhor delineamento das bordas endocárdicas, permitindo uma aferição mais precisa dos volumes diastólico e sistólico finais, além de facilitar a detecção de trombos no interior da cavidade ventricular esquerda e o detalhamento preciso de trabeculações e falsos-tendões. Contudo, as desvantagens incluem as limitações mencionadas anteriormente inerentes à regra de Simpson modificada biplanar e a formação de sombra acústica nos segmentos basais do VE com o uso excessivo de &quot;contraste&quot; (<xref ref-type="other" rid="f11">Vídeo 2</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<media id="f11" mime-subtype="mp4" mimetype="video" xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240059-m02.mp4">
<label>Vídeo 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Aplicação de ARUS detectando a presença de pequeno trombo em ápice do VE em paciente com janela ecocardiográfica subótima. Link: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2024/3703/2024-0059_AR_video-02.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2024/3703/2024-0059_AR_video-02.mp4</ext-link>.</title></caption>
</media>
<p>O uso de ARUS permite uma aferição de volumes do VE com menor subestimativa quando comparada à ecocardiografia 2D convencional, sendo possível estimar volumes com valores mais próximos da ressonância nuclear magnética.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Ecocardiografia 3D</title>
<p>A ecocardiografia 3D tem evoluído consideravelmente no século XXI após o surgimento dos transdutores completamente matriciais de segunda geração. Apesar de ainda apresentar limitações em termos de resolução temporal da imagem, o aumento em resolução espacial e o uso de artifícios, como a aquisição em <italic>multibeat,</italic> tornam essa modalidade ecocardiográfica a preferida para aferição de volumes ventriculares e fração de ejeção. Além disso, a ecocardiografia 3D não se baseia em suposições geométricas e elimina o viés de encurtamento da região apical do VE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Na última década, com o advento de softwares MBA de inteligência artificial, houve uma significativa redução no tempo de aquisição dos blocos tridimensionais e no ajuste da imagem pós-processamento, o que facilitou seu uso rotineiro nos maiores centros de ecocardiografia do mundo. Estudos recentes encorajam o uso da inteligência artificial com a ecocardiografia 3D para fins de análise da função sistólica ventricular esquerda, mostrando ser uma técnica de uso rápido, fácil, reprodutível e viável. É possível se obter valores de volumes ventriculares esquerdos, <italic>stroke volume</italic> e fração de ejeção muito próximos dos estimados pela ressonância nuclear magnética, considerada a técnica padrão-ouro.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
<p>Em softwares convencionais de ecocardiografia 3D, o estudo deve iniciar-se com a aquisição de um bloco 3D no modo &quot;full volume&quot;, idealmente em um layout que demonstre cortes ortogonais do bloco. Além disso, é essencial que todo o VE esteja centralizado na imagem e incluído no bloco 3D. Caso o VE não esteja totalmente englobado, é possível ajustar o tamanho lateral e a largura da elevação do bloco de forma que todo o VE esteja incluído. Com o uso do eletrocardiograma, que deve apresentar um sinal com nítida identificação da onda P, complexo QRS e onda T, e idealmente com o paciente em ritmo regular, o recurso <italic>multibeat</italic> é ativado para fundir blocos tridimensionais menores, visando a aquisição de um bloco 3D em modo &quot;full volume&quot; com uma resolução temporal com <italic>volume rate</italic> superior a 20 Hz. Habitualmente, isso pode ser feito com segurança utilizando uma aquisição <italic>multibeat</italic> a partir de 4 batimentos. Além de um eletrocardiograma com sinal bom e estável, é fundamental durante a aquisição que o paciente mantenha apneia com tempo proporcional ao número batimentos selecionados e permaneça imóvel, para que não haja a formação de artefatos lineares de fusão entre os pequenos blocos, conhecidos como <italic>stitch artifacts</italic>, que podem comprometer a análise do bloco &quot;full volume&quot; adquirido (<xref ref-type="other" rid="f12">Vídeo 3</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
<media id="f12" mime-subtype="mp4" mimetype="video" xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240059-m03.mp4">
<label>Vídeo 3</label>
<caption>
<title>Modo de aquisição 3D &quot;full volume&quot; com multibeat para análise dos volumes e fração de ejeção do VE. Link: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2024/3703/2024-0059_AR_video-03.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2024/3703/2024-0059_AR_video-03.mp4</ext-link>.</title></caption>
</media>
<p>Após a aquisição descrita acima, utiliza-se softwares tridimensionais dedicados para a análise do VE, que podem variar de acordo com a marca do equipamento utilizado. De uma maneira geral, esses softwares exigem inicialmente a confirmação do momento exato do final da diástole, que já foi detectado previamente pelo reconhecimento do pico da onda R do eletrocardiograma. Após a confirmação do <italic>frame</italic> correspondente a essa fase do ciclo cardíaco, procede-se com o alinhamento dos planos coronal, sagital e transverso. Marcam-se os pontos correspondentes ao endocárdio basal ventricular junto ao anel mitral e ao ápice do VE nos planos coronal e sagital. Em seguida, o software realiza o reconhecimento automatizado da interface sangue-miocárdio compactado, sendo possível realizar os eventuais ajustes necessários de imediato após essa fase. É muito importante salientar que, assim como na ecocardiografia 2D, as trabéculas, músculos papilares e eventuais trombos intracavitários devem ser incluídos na análise volumétrica. Posteriormente, o software solicitará a confirmação do momento exato do final da sístole, que já foi automaticamente detectado pelo reconhecimento do final da onda T no eletrocardiograma. Após a confirmação do quadro correspondente a essa fase do ciclo cardíaco, assim como na diástole final, procede-se com a marcação dos pontos correspondentes ao endocárdio basal ventricular junto ao anel mitral e ao ápice do VE nos planos coronal e sagital. O software também fará o reconhecimento automatizado das bordas endocárdicas, sendo possível realizar os eventuais ajustes necessários de imediato após essas fases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
<p>A partir de uma análise sequencial das bordas endocárdicas volume por volume ao longo do tempo, o software possibilita a aferição não apenas dos volumes diastólico e sistólico finais, mas também estima as medidas volumétricas ao longo do ciclo cardíaco, confeccionando a curva volume-tempo do VE. Além disso, é possível segmentar o VE em 17 pequenos volumes codificados em cores e determinar a curva volume-tempo do volume regional de cada uma desses segmentos, permitindo a avaliação da sincronia intraventricular esquerda pela técnica 3D.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
<p>Ao término da análise, o software fornecerá dados tridimensionais relevantes sobre os volumes do VE e sua função sistólica, incluindo os volumes diastólico e sistólico finais, <italic>stroke volume</italic>, fração de ejeção e, também, o índice sistólico de dissincronia absoluto e percentual a partir do desvio-padrão do tempo para o pico correspondente ao menor volume regional (time-to-peak) de 16 segmentos avaliados (<xref ref-type="other" rid="f13">Vídeo 4</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
<media id="f13" mime-subtype="mp4" mimetype="video" xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240059-m04.mp4">
<label>Vídeo 4</label>
<caption>
<title>Análise 3D dos volumes e fração de ejeção do VE em software convencional. Link: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2024/3703/2024-0059_AR_video-04.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2024/3703/2024-0059_AR_video-04.mp4</ext-link>.</title></caption>
</media>
<p>Com o desenvolvimento de softwares de inteligência artificial MBA, é possível reduzir substancialmente o tempo de aquisição, os ajustes pós-processamento e a análise dos resultados encontrados, permitindo a aferição dos mesmos dados e até dados adicionais da função sistólica ventricular esquerda obtidos pelos softwares convencionais com valores muito próximos aos da ressonância nuclear magnética.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
<p>A obtenção do bloco 3D &quot;full volume&quot; deve ser feita em uma aquisição específica para a análise por inteligência artificial, com ajustes de largura da elevação e tamanho lateral para garantir um <italic>volume rate</italic> da imagem superior a 20 Hz. Durante essa aquisição, é crucial incluir não apenas todo o VE, mas também o átrio esquerdo (AE), pois o software permite análises volumétricas do AE e sua função. Após a gravação do bloco, ele deve ser avaliado em software específico de MBA que, de forma completamente automatizada, faz o reconhecimento das bordas endocárdicas em diástole final, sístole final e durante todo o ciclo cardíaco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
<p>Após a análise, que dura em média cerca de 30 segundos, o software disponibiliza dados do VE, como o volume diastólico final, volume sistólico final, curva volume-tempo, <italic>stroke volume</italic>, comprimentos diastólico e sistólico finais da cavidade, débito cardíaco, índice cardíaco e massa ventricular esquerda. O reconhecimento automatizado da borda epicárdica pelo software permite o cálculo preciso da massa ventricular esquerda. O software também permite a obtenção de dados detalhados a respeito da função atrial esquerda, como volumes máximo e mínimo, curva volume-tempo e fração de esvaziamento atrial. Além disso, os ajustes do delineamento das bordas endocárdicas e epicárdicas podem ser facilmente realizados a partir de cortes apicais de 4C, 2C e 3C, derivados do bloco 3D adquiridos tanto em diástole final quanto em sístole final (<xref ref-type="other" rid="f14">Vídeo 5</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
<media id="f14" mime-subtype="mp4" mimetype="video" xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240059-m05.mp4">
<label>Vídeo 5</label>
<caption>
<title>Análise 3D do VE e do AE em software MBA completamente automatizado. Link: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2024/3703/2024-0059_AR_video-05.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2024/3703/2024-0059_AR_video-05.mp4</ext-link>.</title></caption>
</media>
<p>Valores de normalidade para os principais dados tridimensionais do VE são amplamente estudados na literatura, como visto no estudo NORRY (Normal Reference Ranges for Echocardiography), que apresenta os valores detalhados na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 2</xref>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
<table-wrap id="t4">
<label>Tabela 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Volumes ventriculares e índices de função sistólica por análise 3D do VE</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="12%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Parâmetros</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Total, Média ± DP</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Intervalo interquartil</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Homem,  Média ± DP</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Intervalo interquartil</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Mulher,  Média ± DP</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Intervalo interquartil</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="2">P</th>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="center" valign="middle">(25%–75%)</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">(25%–75%)</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">(25%–75%)</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">VDFVE, mL</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">115,6 ± 29,6</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">93,1–132,3</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">133,3 ± 30,5</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">114,2–150,2</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">102,5 ± 20,8</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">87,4–114,2</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;0,001</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">VSFVE, mL</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">47,1 ± 13,7</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">36,6–55,3</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">55,4 ± 13,9</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">45,4–63,0</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">41,0 ± 9,9</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">33,6–48,5</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;0,001</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">FEVE, %</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">59,4 ± 4,6</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">55,9–62,5</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">58,5 ± 4,3</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">54,9–61,6</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">60,1 ± 4,6</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">56,7–63,2</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;0,001</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Stroke volume, mL</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">68,5 ± 17,6</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">55,8–77,4</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">78,0 ± 18,6</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">63,7–92,2</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">61,5 ± 13,0</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">53,1–69,3</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;0,001</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">VDFVE indexado, mL/m<sup>2</sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">63,9 ± 12,9</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">54,8–72,0</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">68,7 ± 14,0</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">58,6–77,2</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">60,4 ± 10,8</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">52,7–67,1</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;0,001</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">VSFVE indexado, mL/m<sup>2</sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">26,0 ± 6,2</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">21,3–29,7</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">28,5 ± 6,5</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">24,4–32,6</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">24,1 ± 5,3</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">20,4–27,5</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;0,001</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Stroke volume indexado, mL/m<sup>2</sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">37,9 ± 7,9</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">32,0–43,0</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">40,1 ± 8,7</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">34,1–46,5</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">36,3 ± 6,9</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">31,4–40,3</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;0,001</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Strain longitudinal, %</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−21,0 ± 2,6</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−19,0 a 22,7</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−20,4 ± 2,7</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−18,6 a 22</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−21,4 ± 2,4</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−19,5 a 22,9</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;0,001</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Strain circunferencial, %</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−30,3 ± 4,0</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−27,4 a 33,0</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−29,7 ± 3,9</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−27,0 a 32,5</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−30,7 ± 4,1</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−27,6 a 33,3</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">0,012</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Strain tangencial, %</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−36,5 ± 3,9</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−33,8 a 39,2</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−36,0 ± 3,9</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−33,2 a 38,9</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−37,0 ± 3,8</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">−34,4 a 39,4</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">0,008</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Strain radial, %</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">43,2 ± 4,5</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">40,0 a 46,2</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">42,1 ± 4,6</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">38,8 a 45,2</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">43,9 ± 4,3</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">40,7–46,7</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;0,001</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN4">
<p>VDFVE: volume diastólico final do ventrículo esquerdo; VSFVE: volume sistólico final do ventrículo esquerdo; FEVE: fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo; DP: desvio padrão.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>Assim, com a evolução dos transdutores tridimensionais completamente matriciais e de softwares de MBA, agora é possível aferir dados muito além da fração da ejeção do VE de forma rápida, prática, e reprodutível, com valores muito próximos aos obtidos pela ressonância nuclear magnética, considerada a técnica padrão-ouro.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Considerações finais</title>
<p>A ecocardiografia é a ferramenta diagnóstica mais difundida e usada para estimativa da função sistólica do VE, permitindo de maneira rápida, não invasiva e sem uso de radiação, contraste iodado ou gadolínio, aferir parâmetros como volumes ventriculares<italic>, stroke volume</italic> e fração de ejeção. O conhecimento detalhado da técnica é muito importante para estimativa acurada dessas medidas. Também é importante seu refinamento, intimamente associado à experiência do examinador e ao conhecimento dos softwares atuais.</p>
<p>Métodos como o uso de ARUS e a ecocardiografia 3D, combinados com o desenvolvimento de softwares de MBA, são fundamentais para auxiliar na aferição de medidas mais acuradas, com baixa variabilidade interobservador e resultados mais próximos da ressonância nuclear magnética, porém com um tempo de execução e análise reduzido. É uma realidade extremamente promissora que avança a passos largos nos grandes centros de ecocardiografia no mundo.</p>
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<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn4"><label>Fontes de Financiamento</label>
<p>O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn5"><label>Vinculação Acadêmica</label>
<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6"><label>Aprovação Ética e Consentimento Informado</label>
<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
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</article>
