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<article article-type="review-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" xml:lang="en" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">
	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abcimg</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq Bras Cardiol: Imagem cardiovasc.</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abcimg.20240056i</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20240056i</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Review Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>My Approach to Echocardiography for the Diagnosis of Amyloidosis</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0001-0207-7867</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Silva</surname>
						<given-names>Liria Lima Maria da</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0056-4378</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Vilela</surname>
						<given-names>Andrea de Andrade</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2535-4342</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Paladino</surname>
						<given-names>Antonio Tito</given-names>
						<suffix>Filho</suffix>
					</name>
					<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5153-8420</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Assef</surname>
						<given-names>Jorge Eduardo</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3">
				<label>3</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Beneficência Portuguesa de São Paulo</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Beneficência Portuguesa de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff4">
				<label>4</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Vila Nova Star</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Vila Nova Star, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01">
					<label>Mailing Address</label>: Liria Lima Maria da SilvaHospital Israelita Albert Einstein. Avenida Dante Pazzanese, 500. CEP: 04012-909. Vila Mariana, São Paulo, SP - Brasil E-mail: <email>liriamlima@gmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by">
					<p>Editor responsible for the review: Marcelo Tavares</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p>Potential Conflict of Interest</p>
					<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>27</day>
				<month>08</month>
				<year>2024</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<month>08</month>
				<year>2024</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>37</volume>
			<issue>3</issue>
			<elocation-id>e20240056</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>12</day>
					<month>06</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>14</day>
					<month>06</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>17</day>
					<month>06</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
				<abstract>
				<title>Abstract</title>
				<p>Cardiac amyloidosis (CA) is a multisystemic, infiltrative disease characterized by the deposition of insoluble proteins, known as amyloid fibrils, in the interstitial space of different tissues, such as the heart, nervous system, gastrointestinal tract, and eyes. In the heart, it is characterized by a progressive myocardial thickening, evolving into a restrictive pattern. CA is being diagnosed with increasing frequency, probably due to the greater dissemination of related information and advances in diagnostic methods and therapies that modify its course. Echocardiography is the first-line examination for diagnostic screening, monitoring, and differentiation from phenocopies.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<kwd>Amyloidosis</kwd>
				<kwd>Echocardiography</kwd>
				<kwd>Global Longitudinal Strain</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="14"/>
				<table-count count="4"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="15"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
				<p>
					<fig id="f01">
						<label>Central Illustration</label>
						<caption>
							<title>: My Approach to Echocardiography for the Diagnosis of Amyloidosis</title>
							<p>Classic echocardiographic findings of CA resulting from the deposition of amyloid fibrils in the heart: (A and B) normal-sized ventricles, enlarged atria, increased myocardial thickness with a granular sparkling appearance; thickening of the interatrial septum, atrial walls, and heart valves with mild pericardial effusion; (C) restrictive pattern of mitral inflow, tissue Doppler with reduced medial and lateral mitral annulus velocities, which may present the “5-5-5 sign” (e’, a’, s’ wave velocity &lt; 5 cm/s); (D) bull’s eye image showing apical sparing: reduced myocardial deformation in the basal and middle segments and preserved deformation in the apical segments. (Source: the author).</p>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240056-gf01.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introduction</title>
			<p>In cardiac amyloidosis (CA), deposition of insoluble amyloid fibrils in the interstitial space results in thickening of the ventricular and atrial walls and interatrial septum, in addition to infiltration of the conduction system. It can evolve into restrictive cardiomyopathy and arrhythmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup>Of the more than 30 types of amyloid fibrils, 2 are responsible for 98% of CA cases: immunoglobulin light chain, which is related to monoclonal gammopathy or multiple myeloma, and transthyretin, which is related to transthyretin amyloidosis and can be hereditary or wild-type.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
			<p>When there is an unexplained increase ≥ 12 mm in left ventricular (LV) myocardial thickness, associated with 1 or more of the signs in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>, CA must be considered.</p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t1">
					<label>Table 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>– Summary of red flags for suspected CA<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref>
						</title>
					</caption>
					<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
						<colgroup width="100%">
							<col/>
						</colgroup>
						<tbody>
							<tr>
								<td>HF with preserved EF in patients aged &gt; 60 years (ATTR)</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Low-flow/low-gradient aortic stenosis, increased wall thickness at age &gt; 60 years (ATTR)</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Unexplained HF with hepatomegaly, macroglossia, and periorbital purpura (AL)</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Men aged &gt; 50 years with bilateral carpal tunnel syndrome (ATTR)</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Spinal stenosis and spontaneous biceps rupture (ATTR)</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Unexplained HF associated with sensorimotor polyneuropathy and neuropathic pain of unknown origin (ATTR)</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Autonomic dysfunction, orthostatic hypotension, and erectile dysfunction (ATTR/AL)</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Hypotension or normotension in previously hypertensive patients (ATTR/AL)</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Vitreous opacity and corneal dystrophy</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>BNP disproportionately elevated to HF stage</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Persistently elevated troponin level</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>ECG with low voltage, pseudoinfarction pattern and AV conduction disturbances</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Discrepancy between ECG findings (no signs of LV overload) and imaging methods with increased myocardial thickness).</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN1">
							<p>AL: immunoglobulin light chain amyloidosis; ATTR: transthyretin amyloidosis; HF: heart failure; EF: ejection fraction; AS: aortic stenosis; BNP: brain natriuretic peptide; ECG: electrocardiogram; LV: left ventricle.</p>
						</fn>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
			<p>Echocardiographic findings correlated with “stiff heart” syndrome were published in the mid-1970s. Since then, echocardiography has become a fundamental tool for diagnosing and monitoring these patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
			<p>The echocardiographic patterns of CA depend on the type of cardiac involvement. In the initial phase of the disease, changes are more discreet, characterized by increased LV wall thickness (12-15 mm), mild diastolic dysfunction, and preserved ejection fraction (EF).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
			<p>As the disease progresses to the intermediate stage, signs of increased myocardial thickness (“hypertrophic” stage) are observed, characterized by marked thickening of the LV wall (&gt; 15 mm), right ventricle (RV) (≥ 5 mm), interatrial septum (&gt; 5 mm), and heart valves (&gt; 5 mm), in addition to biatrial dilation and progression of diastolic dysfunction to a restrictive pattern, including mild pericardial effusion but preserved EF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
			<p>In the advanced stage of the disease, all forms converge into infiltrative restrictive cardiomyopathy associated with biventricular systolic dysfunction and heart failure symptoms refractory to medical therapy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
			<sec>
				<title>Main echocardiographic findings</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Unexplained increase in LV wall thickness</title>
					<p>The most striking feature of CA is the unexplained increase in LV wall thickness (≥ 12 mm) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figure 1</xref>). The increased myocardial thickness in CA is, in reality, a ‘pseudohypertrophy’ caused by the progressive infiltration of amyloid protein into the extracellular space. Therefore, the term “hypertrophy” is incorrectly applied in this case, since the condition is due to extracellular deposition of amyloid protein and not to an increase in cardiomyocytes (which occurs as a physiological mechanism during intense physical activity or post-loading).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup>,</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f02">
							<label>Figure 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Typical CA findings: (A and B) parasternal longitudinal and short axis sections at the level of the papillary muscles, diffuse increase in myocardial thickness, with a granular, shimmering appearance of the LV and discrete pericardial effusion; (C, D, and E) apical 4-chamber, 2-chamber, and 3-chamber views: ventricles of normal dimensions with increased thickness, dilation of the atria, and increased thickness of the heart valves and interatrial septum. (Source: the author).</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240056-gf02.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>Amyloid protein is deposited during the early stages, predominantly in the basal segments but subsequently progressing to apical segments of the LV. The posterobasal portion of the interventricular septum is the region of initial deposition, which mimics hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, making differential diagnosis challenging in some cases. As the disease progresses, deposition becomes more widespread and ventricular walls thickness increases in a symmetrical and concentric pattern, with a relative wall thickness &gt; 0.42.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Although the increased thickness is concentric and diffuse, some cases may present with an asymmetric pattern, thus asymmetry does not exclude CA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
					<p>The myocardium of these patients often has a granular, “sparkling” appearance, resulting from the greater echogenicity of the amyloid protein in relation to the surrounding myocardium. Since shifting from fundamental to harmonic imagery can confuse this phenotype, the fundamental image is preferable to the harmonic image for correct identification.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Although it is considered a very suggestive finding, it is not a pathognomonic sign of CA, since its specificity is 81% and its sensitivity is 36% and the phenomenon can also be found in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, chronic renal failure, and other storage diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
					<p>LV thickness and mass are greater in wild-type ATTR than other forms of CA, probably due to longer accumulation of amyloid protein than in immunoglobulin light chain amyloidosis or hereditary ATTR. Patients with immunoglobulin light chain amyloidosis may present a favorable clinical picture when there is a slight increase in myocardial thickness, which is explained by the cardiotoxic effect of light chain proteins. However, these subtypes cannot be differentiated by echocardiographic findings (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figure 1</xref>)..<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>RV free wall thickness ≥ 5 mm</title>
					<p>The RV is frequently affected, especially in advanced stages of the disease, which is also suggestive of infiltrative cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> It must be measured in the subcostal plane at end diastole.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> In addition to RV thickness, systolic function parameters must be analyzed, such as tricuspid annular displacement velocity (s’ wave), tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion, and fractional area change (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figure 2</xref>). Dysfunction indicates a worse prognosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f03">
							<label>Figure 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– (A) apical 4-chamber view focused on the RV; (B and C) subcostal view and M-mode at the tip of the leaflets in diastole to measure the RV free wall; increased thickness of the RV free wall and interatrial septum.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240056-gf03.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Interatrial septum th&gt; 5 mm</title>
					<p>Thickening of interatrial septum may occur as a result of deposition of amyloid fibrils.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Falk et al. demonstrated that a combination of increased myocardial echogenicity and increased interatrial septum thickness has 60% sensitivity and 100% specificity for diagnosing CA<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figures 1C</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">2B</xref>).</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Valve involvement</title>
					<p>Thickening of the heart valves (&gt; 5 mm) can also occur due to amyloid deposition, resulting in insufficiency or stenosis. Moderate-to-severe insufficiency of the tricuspid and mitral valves and increased pulmonary pressure indicate more advanced heart disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> It is estimated that up to 15% of individuals with severe aortic stenosis and up to 30% of those with the low-flow low-gradient subtype have associated CA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Most patients have low cardiac output, which is explained by cavity reduction and mitral insufficiency, leading to reduced stroke volume. This finding explains reduced aortic transvalvular velocity in the presence of significant stenosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Ventricular diastolic dysfunction</title>
					<p>Diastolic dysfunction of varying degrees is almost always present in both ventricles and is considered the earliest echocardiographic sign (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figure 3</xref>). The severity of diastolic dysfunction is related to the degree of amyloid infiltration in the myocardium.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> In the early stages of the disease, an abnormal relaxation pattern is found (grade I diastolic dysfunction). This stage is similar to the ventricular filling patterns found in hypertension and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f04">
							<label>Figure 3</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Apical 4-chamber view of the atria and use of pulsed Doppler and tissue Doppler: (A) dilation of the atria with increased thickness; (B) restrictive LV filling pattern; (C) 5-5-5 sign; reduction in e’, a’ and s’ wave speeds (&lt; 5 cm/s).</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240056-gf04.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>At advanced stages, the ventricles become increasingly rigid and less compliant, with a significant pressure increase and little diastolic filling volume (restrictive physiology). The following will be found in the LV: short deceleration time (&lt; 150 ms), E/A ratio &gt; 2, increase in E wave, marked reduction in A wave, the “5-5-5” sign in tissue Doppler (ie, reduction of all velocities &lt; 5 cm/s, which is highly suggestive of advanced stage CA), E/e’ ratio &gt; 14, left atrial (LA) dilation and dysfunction (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figure 3</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
					<p>The following will be found in the RV: E/e’ ratio &gt; 6, right atrial dilation with increased systolic pressure in the pulmonary artery and increased diameter of the inferior vena cava.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Spontaneous contrast will be noted in the atria, in addition to a propensity for thrombus formation, even in sinus rhythm.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>LV systolic function</title>
					<p>EF remains within normal values for nearly the entire course of the disease. Decreased EF is a marker of advanced disease, but reduced longitudinal contractile function occurs early.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Therefore, LV systolic function should be assessed with additional methods, such as mitral annular systolic velocity (abnormal when s’ wave &lt; 6 cm/s) and the Tei index (abnormal &gt; 0.40).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup>As described above, reduced end-systolic volume index may be an early predictor of decreased systolic function independent of EF, and should also be evaluated.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
					<p>In all patients with suspected CA, myocardial deformation should be assessed through speckle tracking, since it provides a more sensitive assessment of LV systolic function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Global longitudinal strain is useful for diagnosing incipient myocardial dysfunction in CA. When it is abnormal (generally &lt; 13%) it reflects contractile dysfunction:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> the lower and closer to 0% it becomes, the more advanced the disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Such a tool should also be used to assist in differential diagnosis of other pathologies involving increased myocardial thickness.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
					<p>In polar mapping, reduced myocardial deformation in the middle and basal segments is associated with preserved deformation in the apical regions, known as apical sparing or “cherry on top” pattern (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figure 4</xref>). This finding, which is due to greater deposition of amyloid protein in the basal and middle myocardial segments, is frequent but not pathognomonic.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f05">
							<label>Figure 4</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– (A) parametric representation in bull’s eye format and LV longitudinal strain curves showing apical preservation (cherry-on-top) pattern: reduced deformation in the middle and basal segments (light red) with preserved apical segments (dark red) and reduced global longitudinal strain (absolute value 7.7%); (B) longitudinal 4-chamber image with reduced deformation in the middle and basal segments and preserved deformation in the apical segments; (C) polar map with estimated myocardial work.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240056-gf05.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>Apical sparing can be determined visually or by dividing the average strain of the apical segments by the average strain of the middle plus basal segments. Values &gt; 1 are suggestive of CA and can be found in earlier stages of the disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> An <underline>apical sparing index</underline> &gt; 1 allows differentiation of patients with CA from other causes of increased ventricular thickness (sensitivity 93%, specificity 82%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
					<p>The relationship between EF and global longitudinal strain is called <underline>the EF strain ratio</underline>. This echocardiographic parameter has the highest sensitivity (91.7%) and specificity (89.7%) for diagnosing CA. Values &gt; 4.1 can differentiate CA from hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, aortic stenosis, and systemic arterial hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
					<p>The <underline>septal apical/basal ratio</underline> is the ratio of apical to basal strain in the septum. When &gt; 2.1, it can help differentiate other causes of increased myocardial thickness.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Myocardial work, a modern tool for assessing myocardial systolic function, integrates afterload into strain analysis to estimate intraventricular pressure during the cardiac cycle. Global constructive work, global work index, and global work efficiency values are lower in CA than in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, being associated with increased all-cause mortality (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figure 4C</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Strain assessment should include the RV and LA. Reduced RV strain, especially in the free wall (average of the 3 segments with absolute values &lt; 17%) is associated with worse prognosis, and an apical preservation pattern can be found.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> The reduction in LA strain is greater than in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and is associated with reduced LV systolic and diastolic function<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06">Figures 5</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f07">6</xref>).</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f06">
							<label>Figure 5</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Apical 4-chamber view of the RV: reduced RV free wall strain (average of the 3 segments). RV: right ventricle.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240056-gf06.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f07">
							<label>Figure 6</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Apical 4-chamber view to assess LA strain.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240056-gf07.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Pericardial effusion</title>
					<p>Pericardial effusion, present in &gt; 50% of cases, is often mild, and may be mild-to-moderate, but rarely progresses to cardiac tamponade. However, when present, it is associated with a worse prognosis. Pleural effusion is also common<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figure 1A</xref>).</p>
					<p>
						<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref> presents echocardiographic findings highly suggestive of CA (see <xref ref-type="other" rid="f08a">Videos 1-3</xref>
						<xref ref-type="other" rid="f08b"/>
						<xref ref-type="other" rid="f09"/>).</p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t2">
							<label>Table 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Echocardiographic findings indicative of CA</title>
							</caption>
							<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
								<colgroup width="100%">
									<col/>
								</colgroup>
								<thead>
									<tr>
										<th align="left">Highly suggestive:</th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td>• Increased LV and/or RV wall thickness</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>• Increased LV mass with relative posterior wall thickness &gt; 0.6</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>• Normal or small ventricles and atrial dilation</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>• Granular, sparkling appearance associated with interatrial septal thickening</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>• Restrictive fill pattern</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>• E/e’ ratio &gt; 11</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>• Global longitudinal strain ≤ 13% (absolute value)</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>• Typical longitudinal LV deformation with apical preservation</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>• Septal apical/basal longitudinal strain &gt; 2.1</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>• E’, a’ and s’ wave velocities of the septal or lateral mitral annulus &lt; 5 cm/s (DT)</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>• Small mitral A wave (&lt; 30 cm/s) in sinus rhythm</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>• Mild pericardial and/or pleural effusion</td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
							<table-wrap-foot>
								<fn id="TFN2">
									<p>LV: left ventricle; RV: right ventricle; DT: Tissue Doppler. Adapted from Expert Consensus Recommendations<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
								</fn>
							</table-wrap-foot>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
					<p>
						<media id="f08a" mime-subtype="mp4" mimetype="video" xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240056-m01.mp4">
							<label>Videos 1 and 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Parasternal longitudinal section and short axis in the papillary muscle plane: normally-sized ventricles, LA dilation, diffuse increase in wall thickness with a granular sparkling appearance, and slightly impaired contractility. Link vídeo 1: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2024/3703/2024-0056_AR_video_1.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2024/3703/2024-0056_AR_video_1.mp4</ext-link>
								</title>
							</caption>
						</media>
					</p>
					<p>
						<media id="f08b" mime-subtype="mp4" mimetype="video" xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240056-m02.mp4">
							<label>Videos 1 and 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Parasternal longitudinal section and short axis in the papillary muscle plane: normally-sized ventricles, LA dilation, diffuse increase in wall thickness with a granular sparkling appearance, and slightly impaired contractility. Link vídeo 2: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2024/3703/2024-0056_AR_video_2.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2024/3703/2024-0056_AR_video_2.mp4</ext-link>
								</title>
							</caption>
						</media>
					</p>
					<p>
						<media id="f09" mime-subtype="mp4" mimetype="video" xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240056-m03.mp4">
							<label>Video 3</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Apical 4-chamber view with normally-sized ventricles, significant dilation of the LA, diffuse increase in myocardial wall thickness with a granular sparkling appearance in both ventricles, the interatrial septum, and the heart valves, as well as mild impairment of myocardial contractility. Link: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2024/3703/2024-0056_AR_video_3.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2024/3703/2024-0056_AR_video_3.mp4</ext-link>
								</title>
							</caption>
						</media>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Differential diagnosis</title>
					<p>The main differential diagnoses must be considered for diseases involving myocardial thickening that mimic hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, also known as phenocopies. These range from hypertensive cardiomyopathy (most common) to rarer diseases, such as sarcomeric hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, Anderson-Fabry disease, Friedreich’s ataxia, PRKAG2, and Danon disease. Recognizing the main clinical characteristics, in association with echocardiography findings and myocardial deformation assessment, allows clearer identification of these pathologies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusions</title>
			<p>Through transthoracic echocardiography with longitudinal strain analysis, the main findings of CA can be identified, allowing early diagnosis, prognosis, and better monitoring of these patients.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
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		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<label/>
				<p>Study Association</p>
				<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<label/>
				<p>Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate</p>
				<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
				<p>Sources of Funding</p>
				<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRpt" xml:lang="pt">
		<front-stub>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20240056</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Como Eu Faço o Ecocardiograma para o Diagnóstico de Amiloidose</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">009-0001-0207-7867</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Silva</surname>
						<given-names>Liria Lima Maria da</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2002"><sup>2</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3002"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0056-4378</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Vilela</surname>
						<given-names>Andrea de Andrade</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2002"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2535-4342</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Paladino</surname>
						<given-names>Antonio Tito</given-names>
						<suffix>Filho</suffix>
					</name>
					<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4002"><sup>4</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5153-8420</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Assef</surname>
						<given-names>Jorge Eduardo</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1002">
				<label>1</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2002">
				<label>2</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3002">
				<label>3</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Beneficência Portuguesa de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff4002">
				<label>4</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Vila Nova Star, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01002">
					<label>Correspondência</label>: Liria Lima Maria da Silva Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein. Avenida Dante Pazzanese, 500. CEP: 04012-909. Vila Mariana, São Paulo, SP - Brasil E-mail: liriamlima@gmail.com </corresp>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by">
					<p>Editor responsável pela revisão: Marcelo Tavares</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</p>
					<p>Declaro não haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumo</title>
				<p>A amiloidose cardíaca (AC) é uma doença multissistêmica e infiltrativa, caracterizada pelo depósito de proteínas insolúveis conhecidas como fibrilas de amiloide no interstício (espaço extracelular) de diferentes tecidos, como coração, sistema nervoso, trato gastrointestinal e olhos. No coração, caracteriza-se por aumento progressivo da espessura miocárdica, evoluindo para um padrão restritivo.</p>
				<p>Atualmente, apresenta diagnóstico cada vez mais frequente, provavelmente decorrente de maior informação sobre o tema associada aos avanços dos métodos diagnósticos e das terapias modificadoras do curso evolutivo da doença. O ecocardiograma é o exame de primeira linha para o rastreio diagnóstico, acompanhamento e diferenciação com outras fenocópias.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<kwd>Amiloidose</kwd>
				<kwd>Ecocardiografia</kwd>
				<kwd>Deformação Longitudinal Global</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<p>
					<fig id="f01002">
						<label>Figura Central</label>
						<caption>
							<title>: Como Eu Faço o Ecocardiograma para o Diagnóstico de Amiloidose</title>
							<p>Achados ecocardiográficos clássicos de AC decorrente do depósito das fibrilas de amiloide no coração: ventrículos de tamanhos normais; átrios aumentados; aumento da espessura miocárdica com aspecto granular, “cintilante”; espessamento do septo interatrial (SIA), das paredes atriais e das válvulas cardíacas; com derrame pericárdico discreto (A e B). Padrão restritivo de influxo mitral, Doppler tecidual com redução das velocidades do anel mitral medial e lateral, podendo apresentar o “sinal 5-5-5” (redução da velocidade das ondas e’, a’ e s’ &lt; 5 cm/s) (C). Imagem do bulls’ eye com aspecto de “apical sparing”: redução da deformação miocárdica dos segmentos basal e médio, com preservação da deformação nos segmentos apicais (D). (Fonte: acervo pessoal dos autores)</p>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240056-gf01-pt.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introdução</title>
				<p>A amiloidose cardíaca (AC) é o envolvimento do coração pelo depósito de fibrilas de amiloides insolúveis no interstício (espaço extracelular), resultando no aumento da espessura das paredes ventriculares, das paredes atriais e do septo interatrial (SIA), havendo também infiltração do sistema de condução, evoluindo para cardiomiopatia restritiva e arritmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Existem mais de 30 tipos de fibrilas de amiloides; duas, em particular, são responsáveis por 98% dos casos de AC: a imunoglobulina de cadeia leve (AL) relacionada a gamopatia monoclonal ou mieloma múltiplo e a transtirretina relacionada a amiloidose transtirretina (ATTR), podendo apresentar-se nas formas hereditária (ATTRh) e selvagem (ATTRs).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Na presença de aumento inexplicado da espessura miocárdica do ventrículo esquerdo (VE), quando ≥ 12 mm e associado a um ou mais dos sinais demonstrados na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1002">Tabela 1</xref>, devemos sempre pensar em AC.</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t1002">
						<label>Tabela 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Resumo dos sinais de alerta (“<italic>red flags</italic>”) para suspeita de AC<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref>
							</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup width="100%">
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td>IC com FE preservada em pacientes com idade &gt; 60 anos (ATTR)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>EAo baixo fluxo e baixo gradiente, aumento da espessura da parede com idade &gt; 60 anos (ATTR)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>IC inexplicada com hepatomegalia, macroglossia e púrpura periorbital (AL)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Sexo masculino, &gt; 50 anos com síndrome do túnel do carpo bilateral (ATTR)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Estenose espinal e ruptura espontânea do bíceps (ATTR)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>IC inexplicada associada a polineuropatia sensitivo-motora e dor neuropática de origem desconhecida (ATTR)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Disfunção autonômica, hipotensão ortostática e disfunção erétil (ATTR/AL)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Hipotensão ou normotensão em pacientes previamente hipertensos (ATTR/AL)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Opacidade vítrea e distrofia corneana</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>BNP desproporcionalmente elevado ao grau de IC</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Troponina persistentemente elevada</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>ECG com baixa voltagem, padrão de pseudoinfarto e distúrbios de condução AV</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Discrepância entre os achados do ECG (sem sinais de sobrecarga de VE) e dos métodos de imagem com aumento da espessura miocárdica</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN1002">
								<p>IC: insuficiência cardíaca; FE: fração de ejeção; EAo: estenose aórtica; BNP: peptídeo natriurético cerebral; ECG: eletrocardiograma; AC: amiloidose cardíaca; VE: ventrículo esquerdo; AL: imunoglobulina de cadeia leve; ATTR: transtirretina relacionada a amiloidose transtirretina; AV: atrioventricular.</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>Os achados ecocardiográficos e sua correlação com a síndrome do coração rígido foram publicados em meados da década de 1970. Desde então, a ecocardiografia tornou-se ferramenta fundamental para o diagnóstico e acompanhamento desses pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
				<p>As características do envolvimento cardíaco na AC determinam diferentes padrões ecocardiográficos. Na fase inicial da doença, as alterações são mais discretas, caracterizadas pelo aumento da espessura da parede do VE (12-15 mm), disfunção diastólica leve e fração de ejeção (FE) preservada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
				<p>No estágio intermediário, com a progressão da doença, observam-se sinais de aumento da espessura miocárdica (estágio “hipertrófico”), caracterizado por espessamento acentuado das paredes do VE (&gt; 15 mm), aumento da espessura do ventrículo direito (VD) (≥ 5 mm), aumento do septo interatrial (SIA) (&gt; 5 mm) e das valvas (&gt; 5 mm) e dilatação biatrial, com progressão da disfunção diastólica para padrão restritivo, apresentando derrame pericárdico discreto, mas ainda com FE do VE..<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Na fase avançada da doença, todas as formas confluem para uma cardiomiopatia restritiva infiltrativa associada a disfunção sistólica biventricular e sintomas de insuficiência cardíaca (IC) refratários à terapia médica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
				<sec>
					<title>Principais achados ecocardiográficos</title>
					<sec>
						<title>Aumento inexplicado da espessura miocárdica do VE</title>
						<p>A característica mais marcante da AC é o aumento inexplicado da espessura da parede ventricular esquerda (≥ 12 mm) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02002">Figura 1</xref>). O aumento da espessura miocárdica na AC é, na realidade, uma “pseudo-hipertrofia” causada pela infiltração progressiva de amiloide no espaço extracelular. Sendo assim, o termo “hipertrofia” está erroneamente aplicado neste caso, pois tal achado se deve ao depósito extracelular da proteína amiloide, e não ao aumento dos cardiomiócitos (que ocorre como mecanismo fisiológico na atividade física intensa ou na vigência de pós-carga elevada).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
						<p>
							<fig id="f02002">
								<label>Figura 1</label>
								<caption>
									<title>– Achados típicos da AC. Em A e B: Cortes paraesternal longitudinal e eixo curto ao nível dos músculos papilares. Aumento difuso da espessura miocárdica, com aspecto granular e cintilante do VE e derrame pericárdico discreto. Em C, D e E: Cortes apicais em quatro câmaras (4C), duas câmaras (2C) e três câmaras (3C): ventrículos de dimensões normais com aumento de sua espessura, dilatação dos átrios, aumento da espessura das valvas cardíacas e do SIA. (Imagens de arquivo pessoal dos autores).</title>
								</caption>
								<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240056-gf02-pt.tif"/>
							</fig>
						</p>
						<p>O depósito de proteína amiloide nas fases iniciais é predominante nos segmentos basais, progredindo posteriormente para os segmentos apicais do VE. A região de depósito inicial é a porção posterobasal do septo interventricular, mimetizando a cardiomiopatia hipertrófica (CMH) e tornando desafiadora a diferenciação dessas duas condições em alguns casos. Com a progressão da doença, o depósito torna-se mais disseminado e passa a haver padrão de aumento simétrico e concêntrico da espessura das paredes ventriculares, com espessura relativa de parede (ERP) &gt; 0,42.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Apesar de o aumento da espessura ser concêntrico e difuso, alguns casos podem se apresentar com padrão assimétrico; portanto, a presença de assimetria não exclui AC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
						<p>Com frequência, o miocárdio desses pacientes tem aspecto granular e “cintilante” (<italic>sparkling</italic>), decorrente da maior ecogenicidade da proteína amiloide em relação ao miocárdio circundante. A mudança da imagem fundamental à harmônica confundiu esse fenótipo. Assim, a utilização da imagem fundamental é preferível à imagem harmônica para a correta identificação desse achado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Embora seja considerado um achado bastante sugestivo, não é um sinal patognomônico de AC, pois apresenta especificidade de 81% e sensibilidade de 36%, também encontradas na cardiomiopatia hipertrófica (CMH), na insuficiência renal crônica e em outras doenças de depósito.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
						<p>A espessura e a massa do VE são maiores na ATTRs do que nas outras formas de AC, provavelmente devido ao maior tempo de acúmulo de proteína amiloide em comparação com AL e ATTRh. Pacientes com AL podem apresentar quadro clínico exuberante na vigência de pouco aumento da espessura miocárdica, explicado pelo efeito cardiotóxico das proteínas de AL. Porém, os achados ecocardiográficos não permitem a diferenciação entres esses subtipos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02002">Figura 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Aumento da espessura da parede livre do VD ≥ 5 mm</title>
						<p>O VD é frequentemente afetado, principalmente nas fases avançadas da doença, sendo também um achado sugestivo de cardiomiopatia infiltrativa ou de depósito (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03002">Figura 2</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Sua medida deve ser feita no plano subcostal no final da diástole.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Além da avaliação da espessura do VD, os parâmetros de avaliação da função sistólica como velocidade de deslocamento do anel tricúspide (onda s’), excursão sistólica do plano do anel tricúspide (TAPSE) e variação de área fracionada (FAC) devem ser analisados. A presença de disfunção tem pior prognóstico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
						<p>
							<fig id="f03002">
								<label>Figura 2</label>
								<caption>
									<title>– Em A: Corte apical quatro câmaras focado no VD. Em B e C: Corte subcostal e modo M na ponta das cúspides, em diástole para medida da parede livre do VD. Achados de aumento da espessura da parede livre do VD e da espessura do SIA.</title>
								</caption>
								<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240056-gf03-pt.tif"/>
							</fig>
						</p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Aumento da espessura do SIA &gt; 5 mm</title>
						<p>O espessamento do SIA pode ocorrer como resultado da deposição das fibrilas de amiloides.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> O trabalho original de Falk et al. demonstrou que a combinação do aumento da ecogenicidade miocárdica com o aumento da espessura do SIA tem 60% de sensibilidade e 100% de especificidade para o diagnóstico de AC<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02002">Figuras 1C</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03002">2B</xref>).</p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Acometimento valvar</title>
						<p>O espessamento das valvas cardíacas (&gt; 5 mm) também ocorre por depósito de amiloide resultando em insuficiência ou estenose. A presença de insuficiência moderada a grave das valvas tricúspide e mitral, bem como o aumento das pressões pulmonares, indica doença cardíaca mais avançada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Estima-se que até 15% dos indivíduos com estenose aórtica (EAo) grave e até 30% daqueles com o subtipo baixo fluxo baixo gradiente apresentem AC associada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> A maioria dos pacientes tem um estado de baixo débito cardíaco, justificado pela redução da cavidade e insuficiência mitral, o que leva a um volume sistólico ejetado reduzido. Tal achado explica a velocidade transvalvar aórtica reduzida na vigência de estenose importante.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Disfunção diastólica ventricular</title>
						<p>A disfunção diastólica em graus variados de ambos os ventrículos está quase sempre presente, sendo considerada a alteração ecocardiográfica mais precoce (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04002">Figura 3</xref>). A gravidade da disfunção diastólica está relacionada ao grau de infiltração amiloide no miocárdio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Nas fases iniciais da doença, é encontrado um padrão de relaxamento anormal (disfunção diastólica grau I). Esse estágio é semelhante aos padrões de enchimento do ventrículo encontrados na hipertensão e na CMH.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
						<p>
							<fig id="f04002">
								<label>Figura 3</label>
								<caption>
									<title>– Corte apical de quatro câmaras focado nos átrios e uso do Doppler pulsátil e Doppler tecidual. A: Dilatação dos átrios com aumento de sua espessura. B: Padrão de enchimento do VE restritivo. C: Sinal 5-5-5: redução das velocidades das ondas e’, a’ e s’ &lt; 5 cm/s.</title>
								</caption>
								<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240056-gf04-pt.tif"/>
							</fig>
						</p>
						<p>Na doença avançada, os ventrículos tornam-se cada vez mais rígidos e pouco complacentes e apresentam aumento significativo de pressão com pouco volume de enchimento diastólico (fisiologia restritiva). É encontrado no VE: tempo de desaceleração curto (&lt; 150 ms), relação E/A &gt; 2, aumento da onda E, redução acentuada da onda a, ao Doppler tecidual o sinal “5-5-5” (redução de todas essas velocidades &lt; 5 cm/s, altamente sugestivo de AC em fase avançada), relação E/e’ &gt; 14 e dilatação e disfunção do átrio esquerdo (AE) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04002">Figura 3</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
						<p>Na disfunção diastólica do VD, encontramos: relação E/e’ &gt; 6, dilatação atrial direita com elevação da pressão sistólica da artéria pulmonar e aumento do diâmetro da veia cava inferior.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Nota-se contraste espontâneo no interior dos átrios e propensão para a formação de trombos mesmo em ritmo sinusal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Função sistólica do VE</title>
						<p>A FE permanece dentro dos valores de normalidade em quase todo o curso da doença. A queda representa um marcador de doença avançada, porém há redução da função contrátil longitudinal precocemente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Dessa forma, recomenda-se avaliar a função sistólica do VE com outros métodos adicionais, por exemplo velocidade sistólica do anel mitral (anormal quando onda s’ &lt; 6 cm/s) e índice de Tei (anormal &gt; 0,40).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Conforme já descrito, a redução do volume sistólico ejetado indexado pode ser um preditor precoce de diminuição da função sistólica independente da FE, devendo também ser avaliado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
						<p>A análise da deformação miocárdica com a técnica de <italic>speckle tracking</italic> deve ser realizada em todos os pacientes com suspeita de AC, pois fornece uma avaliação mais sensível da função sistólica do VE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> O <italic>strain</italic> longitudinal global (SLG) é útil para diagnosticar a disfunção miocárdica incipiente na AC. Quando é anormal, geralmente &lt; 13% refletem disfunção contrátil<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> e quanto mais reduzido e próximo de 0%, mais avançada é a doença.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Tal ferramenta também deve ser usada para auxiliar no diagnóstico diferencial de outras patologias que cursam com aumento da espessura miocárdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
						<p>O padrão de deformação miocárdica do mapa polar com redução da deformação nos segmentos médios e basais associado a preservação da deformação nas regiões apicais, conhecido como <italic>apical sparing</italic> ou “cereja do bolo” (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05002">Figura 4</xref>), é um achado frequente, mas não patognomônico. Tal achado é decorrente de maior deposição da proteína de amiloide nos segmentos miocárdicos basais e médios.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
						<p>
							<fig id="f05002">
								<label>Figura 4</label>
								<caption>
									<title>– A: Representação paramétrica em bull’s eye e das curvas do strain longitudinal do VE com padrão de preservação apical ou cereja do bolo: redução da deformação dos segmentos médios e basais (vermelho-claro) com preservação dos segmentos apicais (vermelho-escuro) e redução do SLG (valor absoluto de 7,7%). B: Imagem longitudinal quatro câmaras com redução da deformação dos segmentos médios e basais e preservados nos segmentos apicais. C: Mapa polar com a estimativa do trabalho miocárdico</title>
								</caption>
								<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240056-gf05-pt.tif"/>
							</fig>
						</p>
						<p>A presença de “<italic>apical sparing</italic>” pode ser determinada visualmente ou através do cálculo da relação entre a média do <italic>strain</italic> dos segmentos apicais pela média do <italic>strain</italic> dos segmentos médios + a média do <italic>strain</italic> dos segmentos basais. Valores acima de 1 são sugestivos de AC, podendo ser encontrados em fases mais iniciais da doença.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> O <underline>índice de <italic>apical sparing</italic></underline> com valor maior que 1 permite diferenciar os pacientes com AC de outras causas de aumento da espessura ventricular, com sensibilidade de 93% e especificidade de 82%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
						<p>A relação entre a FE e o SLG, denominada de <underline>índice de FE/<italic>Strain</italic></underline>, é o parâmetro ecocardiográfico com maior sensibilidade (91,7%) e especificidade (89,7%) para o diagnóstico de AC. Um valor &gt; 4,1 foi capaz de diferenciar AC da CMH, EAo e hipertensão arterial sistêmica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
						<p>A <underline>relação septal apical/basal</underline> (SAB), calculada pela relação do <italic>strain</italic> do segmento apical do septo pelo <italic>strain</italic> do segmento basal do septo, quando &gt; 2,1, também ajuda na diferenciação de outras causas de aumento da espessura miocárdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
						<p>O trabalho miocárdico (“<italic>myocardial work</italic>”) é uma ferramenta moderna para estudar a função sistólica miocárdica, integrando a pós-carga com a análise da deformação e refletindo a estimativa da pressão intraventricular durante o ciclo cardíaco. Valores de trabalho construtivo (GCW), de índice de trabalho global (GWI) e do trabalho efetivo (GWE) são menores na AC em comparação com a CMH. Tais achados também estão associados ao aumento da mortalidade por todas as causas<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05002">Figura 4c</xref>).</p>
						<p>A avaliação do <italic>strain</italic> deve ser estendida para o VD e o AE. A redução do <italic>strain</italic> do VD, preferencialmente da parede livre (média dos três segmentos), com valores absolutos &lt; 17% é associada a um pior prognóstico, podendo ser encontrado o padrão de preservação apical.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> O <italic>strain</italic> do AE apresenta maior redução do que encontrada na CMH e se associa à redução da função sistólica e diastólica do VE<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06002">Figuras 5</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f07002">6</xref>).</p>
						<p>
							<fig id="f06002">
								<label>Figura 5</label>
								<caption>
									<title>– Apical quatro câmaras focado no VD: strain da parede livre do VD (média dos três segmentos) reduzido. VD: ventrículo direito.</title>
								</caption>
								<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240056-gf06-pt.tif"/>
							</fig>
						</p>
						<p>
							<fig id="f07002">
								<label>Figura 6</label>
								<caption>
									<title>– Apical de quatro câmaras para avaliação do strain do AE.</title>
								</caption>
								<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240056-gf07-pt.tif"/>
							</fig>
						</p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Derrame pericárdico</title>
						<p>Está presente em mais de 50% casos, frequentemente de grau leve, podendo ser discreto a moderado, raramente evoluindo para tamponamento cardíaco. Quando presente, está associado a pior prognóstico. Derrame pleural também é frequente<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02002">Figura 1A</xref>).</p>
						<p>Na tabela a seguir, descrevemos, de forma sucinta e didática, os principais achados ecocardiográficos da AC (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2002">Tabela 2</xref>).</p>
						<p>
							<table-wrap id="t2002">
								<label>Tabela 2</label>
								<caption>
									<title>– Achados ecocardiográficos altamente sugestivos de AC (<xref ref-type="other" rid="f08a002">Vídeos 1-3</xref>
										<xref ref-type="other" rid="f08b002"/>
										<xref ref-type="other" rid="f09002"/>)</title>
								</caption>
								<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
									<colgroup width="100%">
										<col/>
									</colgroup>
									<thead>
										<tr>
											<th align="left">Altamente sugestivo:</th>
										</tr>
									</thead>
									<tbody>
										<tr>
											<td>• Aumento da espessura da parede do VE e/ou VD</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td>• Aumento da massa do VE com ERP &gt; 0,6</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td>• Ventrículos de tamanhos normais ou reduzidos e dilatação dos átrios</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td>• Aspecto granular e cintilante associado a espessamento do SIA</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td>• Padrão de enchimento restritivo</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td>• Relação E/e’ &gt; 11</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td>• SLG ≤ 13% (valor absoluto)</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td>• Deformação longitudinal típica do VE com preservação apical</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td>• Strain longitudinal septal ápice/septal base &gt; 2,1</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td>• Velocidades das ondas e’, a’ e s’ do anel mitral septal ou lateral &lt; 5 cm/s (DT)</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td>• Onda A mitral pequena (&lt; 30 cm/s) em ritmo sinusal</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td>• Derrames pericárdicos e/ou pleurais leves</td>
										</tr>
									</tbody>
								</table>
								<table-wrap-foot>
									<fn id="TFN2002">
										<p>AC: amiloidose cardíaca; VE: ventrículo esquerdo; VD: ventrículo direito; SIA: septo interatrial; SLG: strain longitudinal global; ERP: Espessura relativa de parede; DT: Doppler tecidual. Adaptado de Recomendações de Consensos de Especialistas<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
									</fn>
								</table-wrap-foot>
							</table-wrap>
						</p>
						<p>
							<media id="f08a002" mime-subtype="mp4" mimetype="video" xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240056-m01-pt.mp4">
								<label>Vídeos 1 e 2</label>
								<caption>
									<title>– Corte paraesternal longitudinal e eixo curto no plano dos músculos papilares. Ventrículos de dimensões normais, dilatação do AE, aumento difuso das espessuras de suas paredes de aspecto cintilante com leve acometimento da contratilidade difusa. Vídeo 1 em: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2024/3703/2024-0056_AR_video_1.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2024/3703/2024-0056_AR_video_1.mp4</ext-link>
									</title>
								</caption>
							</media>
						</p>
						<p>
							<media id="f08b002" mime-subtype="mp4" mimetype="video" xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240056-m02-pt.mp4">
								<label>Vídeos 1 e 2</label>
								<caption>
									<title>– Corte paraesternal longitudinal e eixo curto no plano dos músculos papilares. Ventrículos de dimensões normais, dilatação do AE, aumento difuso das espessuras de suas paredes de aspecto cintilante com leve acometimento da contratilidade difusa. Vídeo 2 em: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2024/3703/2024-0056_AR_video_2.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2024/3703/2024-0056_AR_video_2.mp4</ext-link>
									</title>
								</caption>
							</media>
						</p>
						<p>
							<media id="f09002" mime-subtype="mp4" mimetype="video" xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240056-m03-pt.mp4">
								<label>Vídeo 3</label>
								<caption>
									<title>– Corte apical de quatro câmaras. Ventrículos de dimensões normais, dilatação importante dos átrios esquerdos, aumento difuso da espessura das paredes miocárdicas de aspecto cintilante de ambos os ventrículos, do SIA e das válvulas cardíacas e leve comprometimento da contratilidade miocárdica. Em: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2024/3703/2024-0056_AR_video_3.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2024/3703/2024-0056_AR_video_3.mp4</ext-link>
									</title>
								</caption>
							</media>
						</p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Diagnóstico diferencial</title>
						<p>Os principais diagnósticos diferenciais devem ser considerados nas doenças que cursam com aumento da espessura miocárdica, que mimetizam a CMH, também chamadas de fenocópias. Elas são representadas desde a cardiomiopatia hipertensiva (mais comumente vista) até doenças mais raras como a própria CMH sarcomérica, doença de Anderson-Fabry, ataxia de Friedreich, PRKAG2 e doença de Danon. O reconhecimento das principais características clínicas, associadas a achados da ecocardiografia com a avaliação da deformação miocárdica, permite o maior reconhecimento dessas patologias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Conclusão</title>
				<p>O ecocardiograma transtorácico com a análise do <italic>strain</italic> longitudinal possibilita a identificação dos principais achados da AC, permitindo um diagnóstico precoce, a determinação de dados prognósticos e o auxílio no acompanhamento desses pacientes.</p>
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				<fn fn-type="other">
					<p>Vinculação Acadêmica</p>
					<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<p>Aprovação Ética e Consentimento Informado</p>
					<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
			<fn-group>
				<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
					<p>Fontes de Financiamento</p>
					<p>O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
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	</sub-article>
</article>