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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abcimg</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq Bras Cardiol: Imagem cardiovasc.</abbrev-journal-title></journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name></publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20240041i</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abcimg.20240041i</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Review Article</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>My Approach To Manage Valve Prosthetic Dysfunction: What is the Role of Tomography?</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3418-3226</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Torreão</surname><given-names>Jorge Andion</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>acquisition of data</role>
<role>analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<role>statistical analysis</role>
<role>obtaining financing</role>
<role>writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Santa Izabel</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital Santa Izabel, Salvador, BA – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><label>Mailing Address:</label> <bold>Jorge Andion Torreão</bold> • Hospital Santa Izabel. Praça Conselheiro Almeida Couto Nazaré, 500. Postal Code: <postal-code>40295-010</postal-code>. Salvador, BA – Brazil E-mail: <email>jatorreao@hotmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><label>Editor responsible for the review:</label> <p>Marcelo Tavares</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><label>Potential Conflict of Interest</label>
<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>13</day>
<month>09</month>
<year>2024</year></pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2024</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>37</volume>
<issue>3</issue>
<elocation-id>e20240041</elocation-id>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>03</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2024</year>
</date>
<date date-type="rev-recd">
<day>07</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2024</year></date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>08</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2024</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
<license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p></license></permissions>
<abstract>
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>The prevalence of valvular heart disease remains significant worldwide, as does the resulting use of valve replacement devices. Currently, mechanical valve prostheses (MVP), biological valve prostheses (BVP), and transcatheter valve prostheses are available. Computer tomography (CT) provides excellent spatial resolution and plays a critical role in the diagnostic process for prosthetic valve dysfunction (PVD). CT allows proper visualization of leaflet calcification/thickening (biological) or leaflet motion and angulation (mechanical). CT plays a fundamental role in the diagnosis of pannus and/or thrombus and in the characterization of paravalvular complications (e.g., dehiscence, fistula, leak, abscess, and pseudoaneurysm). Finally, CT has an established role as a necessary tool for planning percutaneous (valve-in-valve [VIV]) or surgical interventions to replace dysfunctional biological prostheses (Central Figure).</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords</title>
<kwd>Heart Valve Diseases</kwd>
<kwd>Emission-Computed Tomography</kwd>
<kwd>Heart Valve Prosthesis Implantation</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="12"/>
<table-count count="8"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="19"/>
</counts>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<fig id="f6">
<caption>
<title>Utility of CT in Valve Prosthesis Dysfunction. BVP: Biological valve prosthesis, MVP: Mechanical valve prosthesis, VIV: Valve-in-valve; CT: computed tomography</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240041-gf06.tif"/>
</fig>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introduction</title>
<p>In 2014, the global prevalence of valvular heart disease in the U.S. was 33 million, with approximately 120,000 valve replacement procedures performed at a total cost of approximately $5.7 billion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Prosthetic valve dysfunction (PVD) is a significant challenge in clinical practice because it is associated with high morbidity and mortality and is often difficult to diagnose. In PVD, the difficulty of establishing a correct relationship between clinical symptoms and observed functional and morphological changes is widely recognized. Therefore, complementary imaging modalities are often required to assess stenosis, regurgitation, endocarditis, thrombosis, or paravalvular complications, for example. Transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) is the initial modality of choice, but it is sometimes necessary to expand the diagnostic armamentarium with advanced imaging modalities such as transesophageal echocardiography (TEE), computed tomography (CT), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).</p>
<p>Currently, there are three types of prostheses in our therapeutic armamentarium. Mechanical valve prostheses (MVPs) are made of durable synthetic materials and are designed to resist wear over time. One of the major challenges with mechanical prostheses is the risk of thrombosis and the need for lifelong anticoagulation. Biological valve prostheses (BVPs), currently the most used, are made from biological tissues, such as bovine or porcine pericardium or preserved human heart valves. BVPs generally have a lower risk of thrombosis, but are known to degenerate, often requiring replacement after 10 to 15 years. An advantage of these prostheses is the ability to use the metal ring from stented models as a support for transcatheter implant prostheses in a valve-in-valve (VIV) procedure. Transcatheter heart valve (THV) prostheses are biological prostheses with metallic stent-like support structures and offer a minimally invasive alternative for patients with heart valve disease. The procedure for implanting THV VIV prostheses requires careful planning, including CT to select the appropriate prosthesis size and to better define other aspects related to the procedure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
<sec>
<title>CT</title>
<p>Cardiac-gated CT provides high spatial resolution and four-dimensional (4D) volumetric imaging of the prosthesis and ventricles, which can be combined with complete images of the cardiac cycle, allowing both functional and anatomical assessment. If there are no contraindications, beta-blockers can be administered to reduce heart rate to a target of 65 beats per minute to minimize motion artifacts<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>). The main indication for CT is when PVD is detected on TTE, but the etiology is unclear and more detailed morphologic evaluation is needed or structural intervention (surgical or VIV) is planned. Noncontrast imaging can help detect calcifications and postoperative changes, and in mechanical prostheses, it can adequately visualize the mobility and morphology of the intervertebral discs. Therefore, it is routinely recommended to perform an initial noncontrast acquisition, a standard contrast-enhanced acquisition, and reconstruction of the cardiac phases. An additional late phase acquisition (60-90 seconds) may be useful in evaluating abscesses and thrombi. Recently, surgeons have increasingly requested preprocedural CT angiography for valve replacement, similar to TAVI, to improve surgical prosthesis selection with respect to the valve annulus and adjacent structures. This approach helps to mitigate problems such as mismatch, leakage, dehiscence as well as allows for the selection of prostheses suitable for future percutaneous interventions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<table-wrap id="t1">
<label>Table 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Suggested protocol for tomography</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="50%">
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<tbody style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Heart rate control</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Ideally, HR &lt; 65 bpm. If contraindicated (significant aortic stenosis, severe asthma, significant LV dysfunction), beta-blockers should be avoided.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Early phase noncontrast acquisition</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Cardiac synchronization. No need for reconstruction, consider prospective acquisition.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Main phase acquisition</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Cardiac synchronization. Retrospective with functional assessment (0%-90% or 5%-95%),<break/> intervals of 10%.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Dose of contrast</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Dose of 1.0-1.5 mL/kg of nonionic, organo-iodinated contrast.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Use of contrast</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Biphasic injection: 5.0-6.0 mL/s flow, followed by a 40-50 mL bolus of 0.9% saline.<break/> Triphasic injection (protocol for right-sided prostheses):
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>First phase: Half the contrast dose</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Second phase: The other half of the contrast plus 0.9% saline</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Third phase: Bolus with 40 mL of 0.9% saline</p></list-item>
</list></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Contrast trigger</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">ROI positioned in the descending aorta<break/> Automatic trigger when density reaches 100 HU</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>FOV</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Usually, the FOV is the same as for coronary CT angiography.<break/> Expand the FOV to include the entire aorta if endocarditis is suspected.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Radiation</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Acquisition without dose modulation if a reasonable effective radiation level can be achieved.<break/> Tube voltage: 120-140 kV</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Reconstruction</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Cardiac cycle reconstruction with a minimum of 10 phases<break/> A minimum thickness of 0.9 mm and an increment of 0.45 mm.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Late phase acquisition</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Cardiac synchronization. No need for reconstruction, consider prospective acquisition.<break/> 60-90 seconds after original acquisition if abscess and/or thrombus is suspected.</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN1">
<p>References (2, 3, 7). HR: heart rate; LV: left ventricle; ROI: region of interest; HU: Hounsfield units; FOV: field of view; CT: computed tomography.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Mismatch</title>
<p>Mismatch refers to a situation where the prosthesis is too small relative to the patient&apos;s size, causing flow acceleration and gradient, which can also occur in low-flow patients without high gradient.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Diagnosis depends on the correct measurement of the effective orifice area (EOA), indexed to the patient&apos;s body surface area, combined with confidence the prosthesis does not have significant structural changes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>PVD</title>
<p>CT allows evaluation of valve morphology, structural abnormalities, stenotic orifices, regurgitant orifices, annular complications, and paravalvular complications with equivalent quality in both mitral and aortic positions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> The accuracy of contrast-enhanced CT is comparable to 3D TEE for cardiac prostheses and may be superior for mechanical aortic and pulmonary valves<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref>). In MVPs with two normally functioning leaflets, the opening is because of the pendular movement of these leaflets caused by the pressure gradient difference, forming three opening orifices. The mobility of the discs and accurately measure the opening angles between them and in relation to the prosthetic annulus plane. The opening angle between the discs should be less than 30° (in most prostheses it is less than 20°), while the closing angle is about 120°. Relative to the prosthetic annulus, the opening angle should vary between 75° and 90°. Differences in angle values indicate impaired valve function, typically caused by thrombosis and/or pannus, as discussed below. Different prostheses have different normal ranges.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> BVPs have three thin &quot;biological&quot; leaflets with typical motion. In cases of dysfunction, contrast-enhanced imaging allows detailed evaluation of prosthesis morphology with special attention to leaflet degeneration, providing a clear view of thickening, calcification, and motion as well as calcification of the bioprosthetic annulus.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Direct measurement of EOA (stenosis) and effective regurgitant orifice area is possible.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<table-wrap id="t2">
<label>Table 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Imaging methods</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="20%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874;">
<th align="left" valign="middle"/>
<th align="center" valign="middle">TC</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">RM</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">ETT</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">ETE</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">BVP Morphology</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">+++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++++</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle">BVP Stenosis</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">+++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++++</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">BVP Regurgitation</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">+</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++++</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle">MVP Morphology</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">N/A</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">+</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++ (VM 4+)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">MVP Stenosis</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">+++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">+++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++ (VM 3+)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle">MVP Regurgitation</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">N/A</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">+++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++++</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Thrombi × Pannus</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">+</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">+</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">+++</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Dehiscence</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++++</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Endocarditis</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">+</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">+++</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Abscess</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">+++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">+++</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Pseudoaneurysm</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">+++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">+++</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle">VIV</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">+</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">+++</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN2">
<p>Reference (2). VIV: valve-in-valve; CT: computed tomography; MRI: magnetic resonance imaging; TTE: transthoracic echocardiography; TEE: transesophageal echocardiography; BVP: biological valve prostheses; MVP: mechanical valve prostheses.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Thrombosis and pannus</title>
<p>The incidence of thrombus in heart valve prostheses is approximately 0.3%-0.8% and is much higher in mechanical prostheses, with right-sided prostheses being more affected than left-sided prostheses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Pannus is an abnormal layer of fibrovascular tissue or granulation tissue growth over the prosthesis structure (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>). Detecting and potentially differentiating between thrombosis and pannus as the underlying cause of limited motion is one of the major contributions of this method. CT has similar accuracy to TEE and is superior to TTE in this context.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> A recent study suggested a cutoff point greater than or equal to 145 Hounsfield units (HU) has a sensitivity of 87.5% and a specificity of 95.5% for differentiating pannus from thrombus and reported thrombi with attenuation less than 90 HU have a high probability of complete lysis with anticoagulation. Thrombi with attenuation between 90 and 145 HU are unlikely to achieve complete lysis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> The possibility of mixed involvement with both thrombosis and pannus, which accounts for nearly 10% of cases,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> should be considered and adds another layer of complexity to this differential diagnosis (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 3</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f1">
<label>Figure 1</label>
<caption>
<title>A 27-year-old female patient, status post valve replacement with a mechanical prosthesis in the aortic position, with reduced mobility of the posterior leaflet and an image consistent with the density and morphology of pannus. (A) Systole. (B) Diastole.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240041-gf01.tif"/>
</fig>
<table-wrap id="t3">
<label>Table 3</label>
<caption>
<title>Differential diagnosis</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="33%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874;">
<th align="left" valign="middle"/>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Pannus</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Thrombus</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Time after surgery</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">From 12 months<break/> Typically after 5 years</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">It can happen at any time.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Anticoagulation</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">No response</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">It responds well when &lt; 90 HU</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Location</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">More common in the mitral valve and then the aortic valve</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Mainly in the tricuspid valve. Equal prevalence in mitral and aortic valves.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Relationship to the prosthesis</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Involvement of annulus and suture<break/> Ventricular side of the prosthesis</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Involvement of annulus and suture with extension to the intervertebral discs<break/> Projection to the aortic and mitral surfaces of the prosthesis</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Morphology</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Small, central growth with more regular margins. Calcification may be present.</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Larger than pannus, irregular edges,<break/> Greater mobility and independence from valve motion</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Density (HU)</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">&gt; 200 UH<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">*</xref><break/> &gt; 145 UH<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN4">**</xref></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">&lt; 200 UH<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">*</xref><break/> &lt; 145 UH<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN4">**</xref></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN3">
<label>*</label>
<p>= REF 3,</p></fn>
<fn id="TFN4">
<label>**</label>
<p>= REF 7. HU: Hounsfield units.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Subclinical thrombosis</title>
<p>Subclinical thrombosis is easily detected by CT in the leaflets of THV and BVP bioprostheses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> This finding, often observed in asymptomatic patients, has attracted considerable interest due to the uncertain risk of clinical events and the potential indication for anticoagulation. These findings have been standardized to facilitate understanding and potential clinical implications, with two important concepts: hypoattenuated leaflet thickening (HALT), which suggests the presence of leaflet-attached thrombosis (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>), and reduced leaflet motion (RELM). The grading of HALT should be performed by looking at each leaflet sagittally and quantifying the hypoattenuated thickening of the leaflet from its proximal segment to the tip, divided into four segments (0%-25% of the most proximal segment only, 25%-50% up to the second proximal segment, 50%-75% up to the third segment, and greater than 75% if the entire leaflet is involved). The grading of RELM follows the same segment description pattern as HALT but using the leaflet mobility change. The combination of HALT and RELM determines hypoattenuation affecting motion (HAM), which appears to be the finding most related to clinical outcomes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f2">
<label>Figure 2</label>
<caption>
<title>A 72-year-old female patient, status post aortic TAVI, with reduced anterior leaflet mobility and an image consistent with HALT (50% to 75%).</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240041-gf02.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Paravalvular dysfunction</title>
<sec>
<title>Endocarditis (vegetation, abscess)</title>
<p>CT has excellent sensitivity for detecting vegetations larger than 10 mm but struggles with those smaller than 4 mm. Vegetations appear as small, hypodense, mobile masses adhering to the prosthesis leaflets. An abscess seen on CT appears as a closed collection with fluid density content adjacent to the prosthesis (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>) and may show peripheral enhancement in the late acquisition phase. The presence of attenuation compatible with gas is rare but highly suggestive when present. Surrounding areas of the prosthesis should be examined for evidence of inflammation and/or degeneration associated with infection.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f3">
<label>Figure 3</label>
<caption>
<title>Paravalvular dysfunction. A, B: 71-year-old patient with a bioprosthesis in the aortic position with paravalvular abscess extending to the mitral-aortic intervalvular fibrosa, pseudoaneurysm, and vegetation on the bioprosthetic leaflet. C, D: Metal prosthesis in aortic position with misalignment associated with a paravalvular leak (3 o&apos;clock), suspected dehiscence, and small pseudoaneurysms in the right and left sinuses of Valsalva.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240041-gf03.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Paravalvular regurgitation (&quot;leak&quot;)</title>
<p>Paravalvular regurgitation is caused by improper positioning of the prosthesis relative to the valve annulus. This can result from dehiscence of the anastomotic suture, endocarditis, or natural degeneration of the annulus.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> CT provides critical information about the location and characteristics of the paravalvular leak, including measurements of the orifices on the ventricular and atrial/aortic surfaces as well as the morphology and length of the cavity. The position of the leak in relation to the prosthetic valve annulus should be described using a clock model to guide fluoroscopic visualization during the percutaneous closure procedure. In the mitral position, 12 o&apos;clock represents the surface adjacent to the aortic valve, 9 o&apos;clock represents the left atrial appendage, 3 o&apos;clock represents the atrial septum, and 6 o&apos;clock represents the posterior surface. In the aortic position, 12 o&apos;clock represents the surface adjacent to the mitral valve; 9 o&apos;clock, the noncoronary sinus of Valsalva; 3 o&apos;clock, the left coronary sinus of Valsalva; and 6 o&apos;clock, the right coronary sinus of Valsalva.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Pseudoaneurysm</title>
<p>Pseudoaneurysms usually occur when an abscess ruptures into adjacent cavities, most commonly in the aorta. Traumatic or idiopathic lesions may occur but are rare. CT has excellent accuracy in diagnosing pseudoaneurysms, which present as saccular or fusiform lesions filled with contrast material and continuous with another cavity. Pseudoaneurysms typically have a narrow neck and may expand and contract during the cardiac cycle. CT can also evaluate associated complications such as coronary compression, thromboembolism, and rupture. To differentiate a pseudoaneurysm from a periprosthetic abscess, an abscess does not communicate with a cardiac chamber and does not show early opacification with contrast.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Fistula</title>
<p>Fistula is a rare complication resulting from the rupture of an abscess or pseudoaneurysm into adjacent cavities. Fistulas most commonly occur between the right coronary sinus and the right ventricle (RV). CT provides better quality detection and characterization of fistulas compared to TEE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Dehiscence</title>
<p>Dehiscence occurs when there is a loss of continuity between the prosthesis suture and the tissue annulus. Static CT can detect gaps between the valve annulus and the prosthesis (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>). Retrospective volumetric acquisition with reconstruction of cardiac function and cycle helps to identify the rocking motion of the prosthesis in relation to the annulus axis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Evaluation of right-sided prostheses and congenital heart disease (CHD)</title>
<p>To adequately evaluate right ventricular prostheses, it is recommended that the entire cardiac cycle be imaged with proper opacification of the right atrium (RA) and RV, preferably with no contrast mixing artifacts. This requires the use of a triphasic contrast injection protocol and timing of acquisition to opacify the right heart rather than the left heart (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>). CT may be useful for precise localization and sizing of prosthetic and periprosthetic lesions in the right valves. In cases of right-sided BVP, CT may characterize their location, length, and width to facilitate planning of potential percutaneous procedures. There are specific scenarios in CHD in which cardiac CT is useful for evaluating prostheses outside their usual location. These situations include the assessment of valvular stent fractures, valved conduits (e.g., Rastelli valved conduit), or percutaneously implanted prostheses (e.g., Melody valve). CT characterizes the morphology of these conduits, describes the presence of thrombi and calcifications, and identifies concomitant subvalvular or supravalvular stenosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>VIV planning</title>
<p>Advances in noninvasive imaging have been fundamental to the growth and maturation of percutaneous structural interventions. CT is advantageous for preprocedural planning of THV implantation in BVP, including the VIV procedure, as it is less affected by metal-induced artifacts. The virtual THV is a three-dimensional representation of the prosthesis to be implanted percutaneously, created using postprocessing imaging software based on measurements of the original BVP annulus.</p>
<p>The morphology and size of the left ventricular outflow tract (LVOT) must be carefully evaluated when planning a VIV implantation in the mitral position, as there is a significant risk of obstruction, especially with thickened interventricular septum and large prostheses. The neo-LVOT represents the remaining area of the native LVOT after mitral prosthesis implantation. We can acceptably estimate the future neo-LVOT by using postprocessing to position the virtual THV in the mitral position (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 4</xref>). Areas smaller than 189-170 mm<sup>2</sup> represent an increased risk of outflow obstruction after implantation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> For aortic VIV procedures, the distance between the virtual THV annulus and the coronary ostia can also be estimated using postprocessing to position the virtual THV in the aortic position. Patients with large, heavily calcified prosthetic leaflets and a short distance between the virtual THV annulus and the coronary ostia are at higher risk (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 4</xref>). Values below 4 mm indicate an increased risk of coronary occlusion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f4">
<label>Figure 4</label>
<caption>
<title>VIV. A, B: Virtual THV in mitral position and neo-LVOT to assess the risk of LVOT obstruction. B: Virtual THV and distance to the coronary sinus to assess the risk of coronary artery occlusion. C: Virtual THV and distance to coronary sinuses to assess the risk of coronary artery occlusion.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240041-gf04.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>CT can also determine the risk of annular injury and provide an estimate of the coplanar fluoroscopic angle to be used during the procedure. Other advantages of CT include evaluation of the access route and vascular pathway (including alternative accesses such as subclavian and carotid), determination of the risk of complete atrioventricular block (CAVB) after the procedure (by measuring the membranous septum). CT acquisition protocols for planning aortic and mitral CABG procedures differ little from those already established, with the additional step of obtaining CT angiography of the thoracic and abdominal aorta and pelvic arteries if peripheral arterial access is required (for aortic CABG and occasionally for mitral CABG).</p>
<p>The evaluation of aortic VIV in a stentless prosthesis uses the same measurements of the aortic valve annulus and adjacent structures as recommended for conventional TAVI:</p>
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>Characterization of the aortic valve annulus (dimensions, area, and perimeter)</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Coronary sinus height (&lt;12 mm, higher risk of coronary occlusion)</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Assessment of sinuses of Valsalva (risk of coronary occlusion)</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Assessment of aortic valve (grade of stenosis, if possible)</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>LVOT calcification (risk of annular rupture)</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Measurement of the membranous septum (risk of CAVB)</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>When evaluating aortic VIV in a prosthesis with a metal ring, the following measurements are performed:</p>
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>Evaluation of the aortic prosthesis metal ring (dimensions, area, and perimeter)</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Coronary sinus height (&lt;12 mm, higher risk of coronary occlusion)</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Projection of the virtual THV (risk of coronary occlusion) in the aortic position</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Distance from the virtual THV to the coronary ostium (VTC)</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>The evaluation of mitral VIV in a prosthesis with a metal ring includes the following measurements:</p>
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>Evaluation of the metallic ring of the mitral prosthesis (dimensions, area, and perimeter)</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>CT projection of virtual THV in mitral position</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Assessment of risk of LVOT obstruction based on virtual THV projection (neo-LVOT)</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Distance from the ostium of the left atrial appendage to the circumflex artery (risk of circumflex artery obstruction)</p></list-item>
</list>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Ancillary testing</title>
<p>The protocol for contrast-enhanced synchronized CT, as recommended for the evaluation of prosthetic valves, differs little from that traditionally used to evaluate the coronary arteries. Therefore, as an added benefit of CT, we can detect new or monitor existing coronary obstructions, taking advantage of its excellent accuracy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> In addition, CT allows for the assessment of the thoracic aorta, pericardium, pulmonary artery, ventricles, ventricular function, and other ancillary findings.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Limitations</title>
<p>CT has some technical limitations since blooming and beam hardening artifacts from the valve ring or disk can affect the evaluation. These metallic artifacts can be reduced by using a higher tube voltage. CT does not allow for hemodynamic assessment and uses organo-iodinated contrast media. The protocol recommended herein uses higher doses of ionizing radiation (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 4</xref>).</p>
<table-wrap id="t4">
<label>Table 4</label>
<caption>
<title>Summary of advantages and disadvantages of ct in pvd<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="100%">
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874;">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Advantages</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Excellent spatial resolution</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Good visualization of leaflet or annulus motion, pannus or thrombus, and leaflet calcification/thickening regardless of valve position.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Identification of paravalvular complications (dehiscence, abscess, pseudoaneurysm)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Useful in the context of multiple prosthetic valves where artifacts can affect the quality of TEE.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#C58874;">
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Disadvantages</bold></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Lack of hemodynamic assessment</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle">The severity of regurgitation is determined by the anatomical defect; mild regurgitation or shunts may not be detected.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Beam hardening artifacts, especially in mechanical valves, can interfere with the identification of vegetation, thrombi, pannus, dehiscence, etc.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Organo-iodine contrast is required for angiography (non-contrast CT can be used to assess mechanical valve motion).</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Full R-R acquisitions and multiple acquisitions contribute to higher radiation dose.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Temporal resolution may be limited.</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN5">
<p>PVD: prosthetic valve dysfunction; CT: computed tomography; TEE: transesophageal echocardiography.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusion</title>
<p>CT provides detailed, high-resolution anatomical and structural images that reveal information on many significant, potentially fatal complications of prosthetic heart valves. CT is particularly indicated for evaluating prosthetic valve morphology and paravalvular complications when TTE has limitations such as acoustic window limitations, interobserver variability, or discrepancies between echocardiographic findings and the patient&apos;s clinical presentation. CT may also be considered a second-line imaging modality for identifying the etiology of prosthetic dysfunction in mechanical or bioprosthetic valves (surgical or percutaneous) in the aortic, tricuspid, or pulmonary position (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 5</xref>). CT provides valuable noninvasive information to guide clinical management and appropriate therapeutic decisions. As such, it represents a significant advancement in the care of patients with PVD (Central Figure).</p>
<fig id="f5">
<label>Figure 5</label>
<caption>
<title>Suggested flowchart for the indication of CT in the diagnosis of prosthetic heart valve dysfunction. CT may be incorporated into the flow for complementary diagnostic purposes as well as for planning new valve replacement or percutaneous VIV procedures. PVD: prosthetic valve dysfunction; CT: computed tomography; TEE: transesophageal echocardiography; MRI: magnetic resonance imaging.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240041-gf05.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn1">
<label>Sources of Funding</label>
<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
<label>Study Association</label>
<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
<label>Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate</label>
<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
<glossary>
<title>Abbreviations:</title>
<def-list>
<def-item><term id="G1">CT:</term>
<def><p>Computed tomography</p></def></def-item>
<def-item><term id="G2">TTE:</term>
<def><p>Transthoracic echocardiography</p></def></def-item>
<def-item><term id="G3">TEE:</term>
<def><p>Transesophageal echocardiography</p></def></def-item>
<def-item><term id="G4">MRI:</term>
<def><p>Magnetic resonance imaging</p></def></def-item>
<def-item><term id="G5">PVD:</term>
<def><p>Prosthetic valve dysfunction</p></def></def-item>
<def-item><term id="G6">THV:</term>
<def><p>Transcatheter heart valve</p></def></def-item>
<def-item><term id="G7">BVP:</term>
<def><p>Biological valve prosthesis</p></def></def-item>
<def-item><term id="G8">MVP:</term>
<def><p>Mechanical valve prosthesis</p></def></def-item>
<def-item><term id="G9">TAVI:</term>
<def><p>Transcatheter aortic valve implantation</p></def></def-item>
<def-item><term id="G10">EOA:</term>
<def><p>Effective orifice area</p></def></def-item>
<def-item><term id="G11">HALT:</term>
<def><p>Hypoattenuated leaflet thickening</p></def></def-item>
<def-item><term id="G12">RLM:</term>
<def><p>Reduced leaflet motion</p></def></def-item>
<def-item><term id="G13">HAM:</term>
<def><p>Hypoattenuation affecting motion</p></def></def-item>
<def-item><term id="G14">VIV:</term>
<def><p>Valve-in-valve</p></def></def-item>
<def-item><term id="G15">LVOT:</term>
<def><p>Left ventricular outflow tract</p></def></def-item>
<def-item><term id="G16">VTC:</term>
<def><p>Virtual to coronary ostium</p></def></def-item>
<def-item><term id="G17">HU:</term>
<def><p>Hounsfield units.</p></def></def-item>
</def-list>
</glossary>
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<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S1" xml:lang="pt">
<front-stub>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20240041</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Como Eu Faço Disfunção das Próteses Valvares: Qual o Papel da Tomografia?</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3418-3226</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Torreão</surname><given-names>Jorge Andion</given-names></name>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>obtenção de dados</role>
<role>análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
<role>análise estatística</role>
<role>obtenção de financiamento</role>
<role>redação do manuscrito e revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital Santa Izabel, Salvador, BA – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c2"><label>Correspondência:</label> <bold>Jorge Andion Torreão</bold> • Hospital Santa Izabel. Praça Conselheiro Almeida Couto Nazaré, 500. CEP: <postal-code>40295-010</postal-code>. Salvador, BA – Brasil E-mail: <email>jatorreao@hotmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><label>Editor responsável pela revisão:</label> <p>Marcelo Tavares</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><label>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</label>
<p>Declaro não haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<abstract>
<title>Resumo</title>
<p>A prevalência de doença valvar cardíaca permanece significativa globalmente, assim como a consequente interposição de dispositivos de substituição valvar. Atualmente, contamos com próteses valvares mecânicas (PVM), próteses valvares biológicas (PVB) e próteses valvares de implante transcateter (THV). A tomografia apresenta excelente resolução espacial e destacada participação no fluxo de diagnóstico complementar nas disfunções das próteses valvares. A tomografia computadorizada (TC) permite a adequada visualização de calcificação/espessamento dos folhetos (biológicas) ou movimentação e angulação discos (mecânicas), desempenhando papel fundamental no diagnóstico de <italic>pannus</italic> e/ou trombo, assim como na caracterização das complicações paravalvares (deiscência, fistula, &quot;<italic>leak</italic>&quot;, abscesso, pseudoaneurisma). Por fim, a TC tem papel bem estabelecido como ferramenta necessária para o planejamento de intervenções percutâneas (<italic>valve-in-valve [</italic>VIV]) ou cirúrgicas na substituição de próteses biológicas disfuncionais (Figura Central).</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
<title>Palavras-chave</title>
<kwd>Doenças das Valvas Cardíacas</kwd>
<kwd>Tomografia Computadorizada de Emissão</kwd>
<kwd>Implante de Prótese de Valva Cardíaca</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<fig id="f12">
<caption>
<title>Utilidade da tomografia na disfunção das próteses valvares. PVB: Prótese valvar biológica, PVM: Prótese valvar metálica; VIV: valve-in-valve.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240041-gf06-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introdução</title>
<p>Em 2014, a prevalência global de doença valvular era de 33 milhões nos Estados Unidos, com aproximadamente 120 mil procedimentos de substituição valvar realizados, totalizando um custo aproximado de US$ 5,7 bilhões.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> A disfunção da prótese valvar (DPV) representa um significativo desafio para a prática clínica, pois, além de ocasionar elevada morbidade e mortalidade, é também comumente de difícil diagnóstico. Parece ser amplamente reconhecida a dificuldade em se estabelecer a correta associação entre os sintomas clínicos e as alterações funcionais e morfológicas observadas. É, portanto, frequente a necessidade do uso de métodos complementares de diagnóstico por imagem para avaliar estenoses, regurgitação, endocardite, trombose ou complicações perivalvares, entre outras. O ecocardiograma transtorácico (ETT) é o método inicial de escolha, mas, por vezes, se faz necessária a ampliação do arsenal diagnóstico com uso de novas metodologias avançadas de imagem, como o ecocardiograma transesofágico (ETE), a tomografia computadorizada (TC) e a ressonância magnética (RM).</p>
<p>Atualmente, há três tipos de próteses em nosso arsenal terapêutico. As próteses valvares mecânicas (PVM) são fabricadas com materiais sintéticos duráveis e são projetadas para resistir ao desgaste ao longo do tempo. Um dos principais desafios das PVM é o risco de trombose e a necessidade de anticoagulação vitalícia. As próteses valvares biológicas (PVB), atualmente as mais utilizadas, são compostas por tecido biológico, como pericárdio bovino ou porcino, ou valvas cardíacas humanas preservadas, por isso é sabido que geralmente têm menor risco de trombose, sendo importante destacar o processo de degeneração tecidual, geralmente requerendo substituição após cerca de 10 a 15 anos. Uma vantagem dessas próteses é a possibilidade de se aproveitar o anel metálico dos modelos tipo &quot;<italic>stented</italic>&quot; e usá-los como sustentação para próteses de implante transcutânea &quot;<italic>valve-in-valve</italic>&quot; (VIV). As próteses valvares de implante transcateter (THV, de <italic>transcatheter heart valve</italic>) são próteses biológicas com estruturas de sustentação metálica tipo &quot;<italic>stent</italic>&quot; e representam uma alternativa minimamente invasiva para pacientes portadores de doenças valvares. O procedimento para implante de THV VIV necessita de cuidadoso planejamento, que inclui a TC para a escolha adequada do tamanho da prótese, assim como melhor definição de outros aspectos relacionados ao procedimento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
<sec>
<title>Tomografia</title>
<p>A TC com sincronização cardíaca proporciona alta resolução espacial e imagem volumétrica em quatro dimensões (4D) da prótese valvar e das câmaras cardíacas, podendo ser combinada com imagens completas do ciclo cardíaco, permitindo avaliação funcional e anatômica. Se não houver contraindicações, betabloqueadores podem ser administrados para diminuir a frequência cardíaca para uma meta de 65 batimentos/min para diminuir artefatos de movimento<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">Tabela 1</xref>). A principal indicação da TC ocorre quando a disfunção protética é detectada no ETT, mas sua etiologia não é clara, e uma avaliação morfológica mais detalhada é necessária ou a intervenção estrutural (cirúrgica ou VIV) é planejada. A aquisição sem contraste pode ajudar a detectar calcificações e alterações pós-cirúrgicas, assim como, na PVM, a mobilidade e a morfologia dos discos podem ser adequadamente visualizadas. Então, como rotina, sugere-se uma aquisição inicial sem contraste, uma aquisição padrão com contraste e reconstrução das fases cardíacas. Uma aquisição adicional em uma fase tardia (60-90 segundos) pode ser útil na avaliação de abscesso e trombo. Recentemente, observa-se um aumento das solicitações de angiotomografia pré-cirurgia de troca valvar partindo de cirurgiões, tal qual se observa em implante transcateter de válvula aórtica (TAVI), com o intuito de melhorar a seleção de prótese cirúrgica em relação ao anel valvar e adjacências, mitigando problemas como <italic>mismacth</italic>, <italic>leak</italic> e deiscência, mas também permitindo escolhas de prótese adequadas para futuras intervenções percutâneas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<table-wrap id="t5">
<label>Tabela 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Protocolo sugerido de tomografia</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="50%">
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<tbody style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Controle da frequência cardíaca</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Idealmente FC &lt; 65 bpm. Em caso de contraindicação (estenose aórtica importante, asma grave, disfunção importante do VE), o betabloqueador deve ser evitado.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Aquisição de fase precoce sem contraste</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Sincronização cardíaca. Sem necessidade de reconstrução, cogitar aquisição prospectiva.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Aquisição de fase principal</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Sincronização cardíaca. Retrospectiva com avaliação da função (0-90% ou 5-95%), intervalos de 10%.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Dose do contraste</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Dose de 1,0-1,5 mL/kg de contraste organoiodado não iônico.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Uso do contraste</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Injeção bifásica: 5,0-6,0 mL/s de fluxo, seguido de bolus de 40-50 mL de SF 0,9%.<break/> Injeção trifásica (protocolo para próteses à direita):
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>Primeira fase: Metade da dose do contraste</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Segunda fase: Outra metade do contraste mais SF 0,9%</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Terceira fase: Bolus com 40 mL de SF 0,9%</p></list-item>
</list></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Disparo do contraste</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">ROI posicionado na aorta descendente <break/> Disparo automático quando densidade de 100 UH</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>FOV</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Geralmente FOV igual ao da angioTC coronária<break/> FOV aberto para toda a aorta, se suspeita de endocardite</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Radiação</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Aquisição sem modulação de dose, se possível atingir valor razoável de radiação efetiva<break/> Tensão do tubo: 120-140 kV</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Reconstrução</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Reconstrução do ciclo cardíaco com ao menos 10 fases<break/> Espessura mínima 0,9 mm e incremento de 0,45 mm</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Aquisição de fase tardia</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Sincronização cardíaca. Sem necessidade de reconstrução, cogitar aquisição prospectiva. <break/> 60-90 segundos depois da aquisição original, se suspeita de abscesso e/ou trombo</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN6">
<p>Referências (2, 3, 7). FC: frequência cardíaca; VE: ventrículo esquerdo; SF: solução fisiológica; ROI: região de interesse; angioTC: angiotomografia computadorizada; UH: unidades de Hounsfield; FOV: campo de visão.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Mismatch</title>
<p><italic>Mismatch</italic> se refere a quando a prótese é muito pequena em relação ao tamanho do paciente, ocasionado aceleração de fluxo e gradiente, assim como pode ocorrer em pacientes com baixo fluxo e sem gradiente elevado<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>. O diagnóstico depende da correta medição da área do orifício efetivo (AOE) indexada à superfície corporal do paciente, somada à convicção de que a prótese não apresenta alterações estruturais significativas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>DPV</title>
<p>A TC permite a avaliação da morfologia valvar, de anormalidades estruturais, de orifícios estenóticos, de orifícios regurgitantes, das complicações do anel e das complicações paravalvares com equivalente qualidade tanto na posição mitral quanto aórtica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> A acurácia da TC com contraste está no mesmo nível do ETE 3D para prótese cardíaca e pode ser superior em válvulas mecânicas aórticas e válvulas pulmonares<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">Tabela 2</xref>). Nas PVM, com dois discos normofuncionantes, a abertura se deve ao movimento pendular desses discos pela diferença de gradiente formando três orifícios de abertura. É possível observar a mobilidade dos discos e medir com alta precisão os ângulos de abertura entre eles e em relação ao plano do anel protético. O ângulo de abertura entre os discos deve ser inferior a 30° (na maioria das próteses, é inferior a 20°), enquanto o ângulo de fechamento, em torno de 120°. Em relação ao anel da prótese, o ângulo de abertura deve variar entre 75° e 90°. Valores de ângulos diferentes sugerem comprometimento da função valvar normalmente causado por trombose e/ou <italic>pannus</italic>, que serão detalhados a seguir. Vale ressaltar que diferentes próteses apresentam diferentes valores de normalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> A PVB apresenta três folhetos finos &quot;biológicos&quot; com movimentação habitual. Nos casos de disfunção, a aquisição contrastada permite a avaliação detalhada da morfologia da prótese com especial atenção à degeneração dos folhetos, com boa visualização do espessamento, calcificação e movimentação, bem como calcificação do anel bioprotético.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Existe a possibilidade de mensuração direta da AOE (estenose), assim como a área do orifício regurgitante efetivo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<table-wrap id="t6">
<label>Tabela 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Metodos de imagem</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="20%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874;">
<th align="left" valign="middle"/>
<th align="center" valign="middle">TC</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">RM</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">ETT</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">ETE</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">PVB – Morfologia</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">+++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++++</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle">PVB – Estenose</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">+++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++++</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">PVB – Regurgitação</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">+</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++++</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle">PVM – Morfologia</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">N/A</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">+</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++ (VM 4+)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">PVM – Estenose</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">+++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">+++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++ (VM 3+)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle">PVM – Regurgitação</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">N/A</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">+++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++++</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Trombos x Pannus</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">+</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">+</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">+++</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Deiscência</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++++</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Endocardite</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">+</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">+++</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Abscesso</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">+++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">+++</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Pseudoaneurisma</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">+++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">+++</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle">VIV</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">+</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">++</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">+++</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN7">
<p><italic>Referência (2). TC: tomografia computadorizada; RM: ressonância magnética; ETT: ecocardiograma transtorácico; ETE: ecocardiograma transesofágico; PVB: prótese valvar biológica; PVM: protése valvar mecânica; N/A: não aplicável; VIV:</italic> valve-in-valve; <italic>VM: valva mitral.</italic></p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Trombose e <italic>pannus</italic></title>
<p>A incidência de trombo em prótese valvar cardíaca gira em torno de 0,3 a 0,8%, sendo muito mais comum em próteses mecânicas; as próteses direitas são mais afetadas do que as esquerdas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> <italic>Pannus</italic> é uma camada de crescimento anormal de tecido fibrovascular ou tecido de granulação sobre a estrutura da prótese (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura 1</xref>). A detecção e a potencial diferenciação entre trombose e <italic>pannus</italic> como causa subjacente da restrição de movimento são as principais contribuições desse método. A TC apresenta acurácia semelhante à do ETE e superior ao do ETT nesse cenário.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Um estudo recente sugeriu que um ponto de corte maior ou igual a 145 unidades de Hounsfield (UH) tem sensibilidade de 87,5% e especificidade de 95,5% para diferenciar <italic>pannus</italic> de trombo, assim como informou que trombos com atenuação inferior a 90 UH apresentam grande chance de lise completa por anticoagulação. Em trombos com atenuação entre 90 e 145 UH, a lise completa é improvável.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Vale destacar a possibilidade do acometimento misto com trombose e <italic>pannus</italic>, que pode acontecer em quase 10% dos casos,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> servindo como dificultador adicional no diagnóstico diferencial (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t7">Tabela 3</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f7">
<label>Figura 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Paciente 27 anos, Feminina, pós-operatório tardio (POT) de troca valvar por prótese mecânica em posição aórtica com disco posterior apresentando mobilidade reduzida e imagem compatível com densidade e morfologia de <italic>pannus</italic>. (A) Sístole. (B) Diástole.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240041-gf01-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<table-wrap id="t7">
<label>Tabela 3</label>
<caption>
<title>Diagnóstico diferencial</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="33%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874;">
<th align="left" valign="middle"/>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Pannus</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Trombo</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Tempo pós-cirurgia</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">A partir de 12 meses<break/> Geralmente após 5 anos</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Pode ocorrer a qualquer momento</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Anticoagulação</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Não responde</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Responde bem se &lt; 90 UH</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Localização</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Mais prevalente na valva mitral e depois na aórtica</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Principalmente na valva tricúspide. Igual prevalência entre mitral e aórtica</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Relação com a prótese</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Envolvendo o anel e a sutura<break/> Face ventricular da prótese</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Envolvendo o anel e a sutura e extensão para os discos<break/> Projeção para as faces aórtica e mitral da prótese</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Morfologia</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Pequena, crescimento central, bordas mais regulares. Pode haver calcificação</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Maior que o <italic>pannus</italic>, bordas irregulares<break/> Maior mobilidade e independente do movimento valvar</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Densidade (UH)</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">&gt; 200 UH<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN8">*</xref><break/> &gt; 145 UH<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">**</xref></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">&lt; 200 UH<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN8">*</xref><break/> &lt; 145 UH<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">**</xref></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN8">
<label>*</label>
<p>= REF 3,</p></fn>
<fn id="TFN9">
<label>**</label>
<p>= REF 7. UH: unidades de Hounsfield</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Trombose subclínica</title>
<p>A trombose subclínica é facilmente detectada pela TC nos folhetos das biopróteses THV e PVB.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Esse achado frequente em pacientes assintomáticos tem despertado grande interesse pelo risco ainda incerto de eventos clínicos e pela possível indicação de anticoagulação. Esses achados foram padronizados de forma a facilitar o entendimento e as possíveis repercussões clínicas, com dois conceitos importantes: o espessamento hipoatenuado do folheto (HALT, de <italic>hypo-attenuated leaflet thickening</italic>), que sugere a presença da trombose aderida ao folheto (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figura 2</xref>), e a redução da movimentação dos folhetos (RELM, de <italic>reduced leaflet motion</italic>). A graduação do HALT deve ser feita observando sagitalmente cada folheto, quantificando o espessamento hipoatenuado desse folheto desde o seu segmento proximal até a ponta e subdividindo-o em quatro segmentos (0-25% somente o segmento mais proximal, 25-50% até o segundo segmento proximal, 50-75% até o terceiro segmento e maior que 75% quando está acometido todo o folheto). A graduação da RELM segue o mesmo padrão de descrição dos segmentos de HALT, mas utilizando alteração da mobilidade do folheto. A combinação de HALT e RELM é determinante para a definição de hipoatenuação afetando o movimento (HAM, de <italic>hypo-attenuation affecting motion</italic>), que parece ser o achado composto mais relacionado com desfechos clínicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f8">
<label>Figura 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Paciente de 72 anos, feminina, POT implante de válvula aórtica transcateter (TAVI) aórtica com folheto anterior apresentando mobilidade reduzida e imagem compatível com espessamento de folhetos hipoatenuado (HALT) (50 a 75%).</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240041-gf02-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Disfunção paravalvar</title>
<sec>
<title>Endocardite (vegetação, abscesso)</title>
<p>A TC tem excelente sensibilidade para detectar vegetações maiores que 10 mm e muita dificuldade para detectar aquelas inferiores a 4 mm. As vegetações apresentam-se como pequenas massas hipodensas vegetantes e móveis aderidas aos folhetos protéticos. O abscesso visto pela TC representa uma coleção fechada com conteúdo de densidade líquida nas adjacências da prótese (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">Figura 3</xref>), podendo apresentar realce periférico na aquisição tardia. A presença de atenuação compatível com gás é rara, mas, quando presente, é bem sugestiva. Deve-se observar as áreas circundantes da prótese em busca de evidências de inflamação e/ou degeneração associadas à infecção.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f9">
<label>Figura 3</label>
<caption>
<title>Disfunção paravalvar. A, B: Paciente de 71 anos, com prótese biológica em posição aórtica, com abscesso paravalvar com extensão para a fibrosa intervalvar miotroaórtica, pseudoaneurisma e vegetação no folheto da bioprótese. C, D: Prótese metálica em posição aórtica com desalinhamento associada a <italic>leak</italic> paravalvar (3h), suspeita de deiscência e pequenos pseudoaneurismas nos seios de valsalva direito e esquerdo.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240041-gf03-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Regurgitação paravalvar (&quot;<italic>leak</italic>&quot;)</title>
<p>Trata-se de uma regurgitação paravalvar causada pelo posicionamento inadequado da prótese em relação ao anel valvar, podendo ser causada por deiscência da sutura da anastomose, por endocardite ou por degeneração natural do anel.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> A TC acrescenta informações importantes sobre a posição e as características do <italic>leak</italic> paravalvar, incluindo as medidas dos orifícios das faces ventricular e atrial/aórtica, assim como a morfologia e o comprimento da cavitação. A posição do <italic>leak</italic> (vazamento) em relação ao anel valvar protético deve ser descrita como no modelo de um relógio, para orientar a visualização da fluoroscopia no momento do procedimento da oclusão percutânea. A posição mitral 12 h representa a face adjacente à valva aórtica; 9 h, ao apêndice atrial esquerdo; 3 h, ao septo atrial; e 6 h, à face posterior. Na posição aórtica, utiliza-se 12 h para a face adjacente à valva mitral; 9 h, ao seio de valsalva não coronariano; 3 h, ao seio de valsalva esquerdo; e 6 h, ao seio de valsalva direito.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Pseudoaneurisma</title>
<p>Ocorre usualmente quando um abscesso se rompe em cavidades adjacentes, mais comumente visto na aorta. Lesões de origem traumáticas ou idiopática podem ocorrer, mas são raras. A TC tem excelente acurácia no diagnóstico de pseudoaneurisma, que se apresenta como uma lesão sacular ou fusiforme preenchida por material contrastado, com continuidade para uma outra cavidade, geralmente com colo estreito e podendo apresentar expansão e redução de tamanho durante o ciclo cardíaco. A TC também pode avaliar complicações associadas, como compressão coronária, tromboembolismo e ruptura. Para diferenciar pseudoaneurisma de abscesso em região periprotética, é necessário observar que o abscesso não se comunica com uma câmara cardíaca e não mostra opacificação precoce pelo contraste.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Fístula</title>
<p>A formação de fístula é uma complicação rara e ocorre quando um abscesso ou pseudoaneurisma se rompe em cavidades adjacentes. A fístula ocorre mais comumente entre o seio coronário direito e o ventrículo direito (VD). A TC apresenta melhor qualidade em demonstrar e caracterizar fístulas do que o ETE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Deiscência</title>
<p>Ocorre quando há perda da continuidade da sutura da prótese em relação ao anel tecidual. A TC estática pode detectar afastamento (&quot;<italic>gaps</italic>&quot;) entre o anel e a prótese (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">Figura 3</xref>). A aquisição retrospectiva volumétrica com reconstrução da função e do ciclo cardíaco auxilia a identificar o balanço da prótese em relação ao eixo anular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Avaliação de próteses direitas e cardiopatia congênita (CC)</title>
<p>Para uma adequada avaliação das próteses em câmaras direitas, recomenda-se a realização de imagens do ciclo cardíaco completo com opacificação adequada do átrio direito (AD) e do VD, preferencialmente sem artefato de mistura de contraste. Para tal, é necessária a aquisição com protocolo de injeção de contraste trifásico e o momento de aquisição para opacificação do coração direito em vez do coração esquerdo (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">Tabela 1</xref>). A TC pode ser útil para a localização e o dimensionamento precisos das lesões protéticas e periprotéticas das valvas direitas. Nos casos de PVB à direita, a TC pode caracterizar sua localização, comprimento e largura para permitir o planejamento de possíveis procedimentos percutâneos. Em CC, há cenários específicos nos quais a TC cardíaca é útil para avaliar as próteses além de sua localização habitual, que inclui a avaliação de fratura de <italic>stent</italic> valvar e a avaliação dos condutos valvados (por exemplo, tubo valvado de Rastelli) ou de próteses de implante percutâneo (por exemplo, Melody), caracterizando a morfologia desses condutos, descrevendo a presença de trombos e calcificação e identificando a presença de estenose sub ou supravalvar concomitante.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Planejamento <italic>VIV</italic></title>
<p>O avanço nos métodos de imagem não invasiva tem sido fundamental para o crescimento e a maturação das intervenções estruturais percutâneas. A TC é vantajosa no planejamento pré-procedimento de implante de THV na PVB com o procedimento VIV, pois é menos afetada por artefatos induzidos por metais. A THV virtual é uma representação 3D virtual da prótese que será implantada de forma transcutânea concebida em <italic>softwares</italic> de pós-processamento de imagem, através das medidas do anel da PVB original.</p>
<p>A morfologia e o tamanho da via de saída do ventrículo esquerdo (VSVE) devem ser cuidadosamente investigados no planejamento do implante de VIV em posição mitral, já que há risco considerável de obstrução, especialmente em septos interventriculares espessados e próteses grandes. A nova VSVE representa a área remanescente da VSVE original após a implantação da prótese em posição mitral. Podemos estimar, de forma aceitável, a futura nova VSVE utilizando pós-processamento para interpor a THV virtual estimada na posição mitral (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figura 4</xref>). Áreas inferiores a 189 a 170 mm<sup>2</sup> representam risco aumentado de obstrução da VSVE após o implante.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> No VIV aórtico, a distância entre o anel da THV virtual e os óstios das coronárias pode ser estimada também utilizando pós-processamento para interpor a THV virtual na posição aórtica. Pacientes com folhetos protéticos grandes e fortemente calcificados e uma curta distância entre o plano anular da THV virtual e os óstios das artérias coronárias apresentam maior risco (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figura 4</xref>). Medidas inferiores a 4 mm representam risco aumentado de oclusão coronariana.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f10">
<label>Figura 4</label>
<caption>
<title>VIV. A,B: Prótese valvar de implante transcateter (THV) virtual em posição mitral e nova VSVE para avaliar o risco de obstrução da VSVE. THV virtual e distância para os seios coronários para avaliar o risco de oclusão das artérias coronárias. C: THV virtual e distância para os seios coronários para avaliar o risco de oclusão das artérias coronárias.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240041-gf04-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>A TC também pode determinar o risco de lesão anular, assim como fornecer uma estimativa do ângulo coplanar fluoroscópico a ser usado no procedimento. Outros benefícios da TC também incluem a avaliação do acesso e do trajeto vascular (incluindo acessos alternativos, com a subclávia e carótida) e a determinação do risco de bloqueio atrioventricular total (BAVT) após o procedimento (medida do septo membranoso). A aquisição da TC com o objetivo de programação para os procedimentos de VIV aórtico e mitral pouco diferem daquela já estabelecida acima, com a ressalva de que, no caso da necessidade de acesso vascular arterial periférico (em VIV aórtica e eventualmente em VIV mitral), adicionamos a aquisição da angiotomografia da aorta torácica, abdominal e arterial da pelve.</p>
<p>Na avaliação para VIV aórtico em prótese &quot;<italic>stentless</italic>&quot;, faz-se as mesmas medidas do anel valvar aórtico e suas adjacências preconizadas no TAVI tradicional:</p>
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>Caracterização do anel valvar aórtico (dimensões, área e perímetro)</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Altura dos seios coronários (&lt; 12 mm, maior risco de oclusão coronária)</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Avaliação dos seios de valsalva (risco de oclusão coronária)</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Avaliação da valva aórtica (graduar estenose, se possível)</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Calcificação da VSVE (risco de ruptura anular)</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Medida do septo membranoso (risco de BAVT)</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>Na avaliação para VIV aórtico em prótese com anel metálico, faz-se as seguintes medidas:</p>
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>Avaliação do anel metálico da prótese aórtica (dimensões, área e perímetro)</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Altura dos seios coronários (&lt; 12 mm, maior risco de oclusão coronária)</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Projeção da THV virtual (risco de oclusão coronária) na posição aórtica</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Distância da THV virtual para o óstio coronário (VTC)</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>Na avaliação para VIV mitral em prótese com anel metálico, faz-se as seguintes medidas:</p>
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>Avaliação do anel metálico da prótese mitral (dimensões, área e perímetro)</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Projeção tomográfica da THV virtual na posição mitral</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Avaliação do risco de obstrução da VSVE a partir da projeção da THV virtual (nova VSVE)</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Distância do óstio do apêndice atrial esquerdo para a artéria circunflexa (risco de obstrução da artéria circunflexa)</p></list-item>
</list>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Avaliação adicional</title>
<p>O protocolo da TC sincronizada com contraste, como preconizado para a avaliação de próteses valvares, em pouco difere daquele já tradicionalmente usado na avaliação das artérias coronárias. Portanto, como benefício suplementar desse exame, contamos com a possibilidade de reconhecimento de novas ou acompanhamento de antigas obstruções coronarianas, desfrutando de sua excelente acurácia,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> assim como de avaliação adicional da aorta torácica, do pericárdio, da artéria pulmonar, das cavidades cardíacas, da função ventricular, entre outros achados incidentais.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Limitações</title>
<p>Existem limitações técnicas na TC, pois o <italic>blooming</italic> e os artefatos de endurecimento do feixe do anel valvar ou de disco podem prejudicar a avaliação. Esses artefatos metálicos podem ser reduzidos pelo uso de uma tensão de tubo mais alta. Na TC, não é possível a realização de avaliação hemodinâmica, utiliza-se contraste organoiodado e, no protocolo aqui preconizado, utiliza-se doses maiores de radiação ionizante (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t8">Tabela 4</xref>).</p>
<table-wrap id="t8">
<label>Tabela 4</label>
<caption>
<title>Resumo das vantagens e desvantagens da tc em dpv<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="100%">
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874;">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Vantagens</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Excelente resolução espacial</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Boa visualização do movimento do folheto ou disco, pannus ou trombo e calcificação/espessamento do folheto independentemente da posição da válvula</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Identificação de complicações paravalvares (deiscência, abscesso, pseudoaneurisma)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Útil no contexto de múltiplas válvulas protéticas onde o artefato pode afetar a qualidade do ETE</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#C58874;">
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Desvantagens</bold></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Falta de avaliação hemodinâmica</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle">A gravidade da regurgitação valvar é inferida a partir de defeito anatômico; regurgitação leve ou shunt podem não ser detectados</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Artefato de endurecimento por feixe, particularmente em válvulas mecânicas, podem interferir na identificação vegetações, trombos, pannus, deiscência etc.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Agente contrastante organoiodado necessário para a realização da angiografia (a TC sem contraste pode ser usada para movimento mecânico da válvula)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Aquisições completas de R-R e múltiplas aquisições contribuem para maior dose de radiação</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle">A resolução temporal pode ser limitada</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN10">
<p>TC: tomografia computadorizada; DPV: disfunção da prótese valvar; ETE: ecocardiograma transesofágico.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusão</title>
<p>A TC fornece imagens anatômicas e estruturais detalhadas, de alta resolução, com informações sobre inúmeras complicações significativas e potencialmente fatais das próteses valvares cardíacas. Está especialmente indicada para a avaliação da morfologia da prótese valvar cardíaca e complicações paravalvares, quando o ETT apresenta limitação de janela acústica, variações entre os observadores e incompatibilidades dos achados ecocardiográficos com a clínica do paciente. A TC pode ser considerada o exame de imagem de segunda linha para identificação da etiologia da disfunção protética em valvas mecânicas ou bioprotética (cirúrgicas ou percutâneas) nas posições aórtica, tricúspide ou pulmonar (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11">Figura 5</xref>). A TC entrega informações valiosas e não invasivas para orientar o manejo clínico e a tomada de decisões terapêuticas adequadas. Portanto, representa um avanço significativo no cuidado de pacientes portadores de disfunção de prótese valvares cardíacas (Figura Central).</p>
<fig id="f11">
<label>Figura 5</label>
<caption>
<title>Fluxograma sugerido para indicação de tomografia no diagnóstico de disfunção de prótese valvar cardíaca. A TC pode ser adicionada no fluxo para fins de diagnóstico complementar, mas também com o objetivo de planejamento de nova cirurgia troca valvar ou VIV percutâneo. ETT: ecocardiograma transtorácico; TC: tomografia computadorizada; ETE: ecocardiograma transesofágico; RM: ressonância magnética; VIV: <italic>valve-in-valve</italic>.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-03-e20240041-gf05-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn4"><p><bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold></p>
<p>O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn5"><p><bold>Vinculação Acadêmica</bold></p>
<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6"><p><bold>Aprovação Ética e Consentimento Informado</bold></p>
<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
</back>
</sub-article>
</article>