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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abcimg</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq Bras Cardiol: Imagem cardiovasc.</abbrev-journal-title></journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name></publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abcimg.20240024i</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20240024i</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Case Report</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Post-infarction Left Ventricular Pseudoaneurysm Treated with Percutaneous Transcatheter Occlusion: A Case Report</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2283-1385</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Galizzi Fae</surname><given-names>Isabela</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>acquisition of data</role>
<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<role>writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0000-1745-8382</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Kuchenbecker Soares</surname><given-names>Carolina</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>assistance in obtaining and editing images</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0570-4368</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Wang</surname><given-names>Ricardo</given-names></name>
<role>acquisition of data</role>
<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3661-5595</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Brandão de Oliveira</surname><given-names>Gustavo</given-names></name>
<role>acquisition of data</role>
<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8801-1828</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Nunes</surname><given-names>Maria Carmo Pereira</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0003-1990-056X</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Cristina da Silva</surname><given-names>Glaucia</given-names></name>
<role>acquisition of data</role>
<role>writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3441-5653</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Rausch</surname><given-names>Rochelle Coppo Militão</given-names></name>
<role>acquisition of data</role>
<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0000-4272-4363</contrib-id>
<name><surname>de Ataide Castro</surname><given-names>Luiz Ricardo</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0002-3921-5554</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Leite</surname><given-names>Anderson Ferreira</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<role>writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital das Clínicas da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital das Clínicas da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG – Brazill</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><bold>Correspondência: Isabela Galizzi Fae</bold> • Hospital das Clinicas da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais. Av Prof Alfredo Balena, 110. CEP: <postal-code>30130-100</postal-code>. Bairro Santa Efigênia, Belo Horizonte MG – Brasil E-mail: <email>isabela.galizzi@gmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><p>Editor responsável pela revisão: Marcelo Tavares</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><p><bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold></p>
<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>25</day>
<month>04</month>
<year>2024</year></pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2024</year></pub-date>
<volume>37</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<elocation-id>e20240024</elocation-id>
<history>
<date date-type="received"><day>18</day><month>03</month><year>2024</year></date>
<date date-type="rev-recd"><day>18</day><month>03</month><year>2024</year></date>
<date date-type="accepted"><day>18</day><month>03</month><year>2024</year></date>
</history>
<permissions>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>Left ventricular pseudoaneurysm (LVPSA) is a rare complication after myocardial infarction (MI) with a significant risk of rupture if untreated. Given the elevated surgical risk in this context, alternative treatments are emerging. This case describes a percutaneous closure of an LVPSA after extensive MI with delayed revascularization.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords</title>
<kwd>Myocardial Infarction</kwd>
<kwd>False Aneurysm</kwd>
<kwd>Percutaneous Coronary Intervention</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="12"/>
<table-count count="0"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="7"/>
</counts>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<sec>
<title>History of presentation</title>
<p>A 57-year-old male patient sought medical attention at the Urgent Care Center of a Public Hospital in Brazil experiencing squeezing chest pain alongside sweating and dyspnea. His electrocardiogram showed extensive anterior ST-segment elevation with a right bundle-branch block.</p>
<p>The acute coronary syndrome (ACS) protocol and thrombolysis were performed without meeting reperfusion criteria. Rescue angioplasty was unavailable and, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the patient could only be transferred to a referral hospital the next day. He was admitted to a quaternary hospital with hypertension and in Killip III. The high-sensitive cardiac troponin dosage was 442,000 ng/mL (the upper threshold was 12 ng/mL).</p>
<p>His angiogram revealed severe occlusion (90%) in the left anterior descending artery (LAD) ostium (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>), moderate occlusion (40%) in the circumflex artery, and diffuse discrete atherosclerosis in other coronary arteries. Percutaneous coronary intervention with a pharmacological stent in the left main coronary artery (LMCA) towards LAD was performed.</p>
<fig id="f1">
<label>Figure 1</label>
<caption><title>Angiogram showing severe occlusion in the LAD ostium (yellow arrow).</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-02-e20240024-gf01.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Transthoracic echocardiogram (TTE) revealed a left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) of 38% with akinesia of the apex and mid anteroseptal wall, along with hypokinesia of the basal anteroseptal and inferoseptal walls. Moreover, there was an outpouching in the apical segment of the inferior LV wall with an abrupt transition from normal myocardium, suggesting left ventricular pseudoaneurysm (LVPSA) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f2">
<label>Figure 2</label>
<caption><title>TTE showing an outpouching in myocardial wall, suggesting LVPSA (yellow arrow).</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-02-e20240024-gf02.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Past medical history</title>
<p>The patient&apos;s medical history included hypertension, dyslipidemia, obesity (body mass index of 37 kg/m<sup>2</sup>), and family history of coronary heart disease.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Differential diagnosis</title>
<p>The most important differential diagnosis of LVPSA is true LV aneurysm, both mechanical complications after a transmural myocardial infarction (MI). While the former is an outpouching created by myocardial free wall rupture contained by the adjacent pericardium, the latter involves all layers of the LV wall. True LV aneurysm classically has wide necks and are often located in the apical wall, whereas LVPSA typically has narrow necks, are located in the inferior or lateral walls, and are associated with a pericardial enhancement in cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> imaging due to inflammation of the pericardium and adjacent structures.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
<p>In true LV aneurysm, the dyskinetic and fibrotic area is generally resistant to rupture, with a 5-year survival of 71% if treated conservatively.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> In contrast, LVPSA carries a higher risk of rupture, requiring rapid intervention.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Investigation</title>
<p>Cardiac computerized tomography angiography (CCTA) and CMR (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>) were performed to confirm the diagnosis of LV pseudoaneurysm, distinguish it from true aneurysm, and evaluate anatomy for planning intervention.</p>
<fig id="f3">
<label>Figure 3</label>
<caption><title>CMR (A) and CCTA (B) with LVPSA detached in yellow arrows.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-02-e20240024-gf03.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>The CCTA revealed a patent stent in LMCA towards LAD and a myocardial thinning in the apical segment of the inferior wall. In CMR, there was an extended area of transmural late gadolinium enhancement and an LVPSA with neck dimensions of 0.924 cm x 1.150 cm x 1.481 cm in length, width, and depth, respectively (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 4</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f4">
<label>Figure 4</label>
<caption><title>Pseudoaneurysm dimensions on CMR.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-02-e20240024-gf04.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Management</title>
<p>The patient&apos;s preoperative risk was moderate to high (Euroescore II 7,2%). He had recently suffered extensive MI with late reperfusion and developed heart failure with reduced LVEF and functional class NYHA III. Thus, surgical repair was dismissed, and he underwent percutaneous transcatheter closure with a prosthesis used for atrial septal defect closure (Amplatzer), guided by TTE. The prosthesis was successfully implanted, with TTE and ventriculography showing no flow inside LVPSA orifice after the procedure (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figures 5</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">6</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f5">
<label>Figure 5</label>
<caption><title>TTE after a well-positioned prosthesis occluding pseudoaneurysm.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-02-e20240024-gf05.tif"/>
</fig>
<fig id="f6">
<label>Figure 6</label>
<caption><title>Ventriculography before (A) and after (B) percutaneous closure of pseudoaneurysm (yellow arrows).</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-02-e20240024-gf06.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="discussion">
<title>Discussion</title>
<p>LVPSA is a rare complication after MI, with a reported incidence of 0.2 to 0.3% of cases,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> which carries a high risk of rupture if left untreated (30–45% of the cases).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> The main risk factors for its development are older age, hypertension, poor collateral circulation, late presentation of MI, and delayed revascularization.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
<p>The clinical presentation is highly nonspecific.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> The most common symptoms are chest pain, heart failure, and arrhythmia, although more than 10% are asymptomatic.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> A murmur is detected in around 70% of the cases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Electrocardiogram usually shows nonspecific ST-segment alterations and 20% have ST-segment elevation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p>Ventricular angiography was considered the ‘gold standard’ for the diagnosis,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> but it is invasive, time-consuming, and carries a risk of LVPSA rupture due to LV catheter entrapment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p>TTE is the first tool nowadays and the pathognomonic feature is a narrow neck at the site of rupture with an abrupt transition from normal myocardium to aneurysmatic scar tissue.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Continuous and turbulent flow signals can be seen in color Doppler through the neck of the cavity of LVPSA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p>CCTA and CMR are the preferred methods, offering enhanced spatial resolution, precise tissue definition, and the ability to differentiate between myocardium, scar tissue, and pericardium.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> A retrospective study with preoperative CCTA or CMR revealed that myocardial cut-off sign, defined as a &gt;50% decrease in aneurysm sac wall thickness measured at 1 cm from the aneurysm neck, was 91% sensitive and 97% specific to distinguish LVPSA from true aneurysm.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
<p>Surgery is considered the first-line treatment for LVPSA<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> and consists of aneurysmectomy and patch closure. Nevertheless, it still carries a high risk of mortality, ranging between 10 to 29%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p>In 2004, Clift <italic>et al.</italic> performed the first percutaneous device closure of a pseudoaneurysm with an Amplatzer occluder in a high-risk patient.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Since then, several case reports described the successful adoption of a variety of closure devices, including Amplatzer septal occluder, ventricular septal defect occluder, and coils,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> all guided by TTE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<p>Given the technical complexity of the percutaneous approach, preoperative evaluation is mandatory to establish the appropriate device selection and access route. Size, morphology, localization, length, depth of the neck, and neighboring anatomical structures are essential to define whether the transcatheter closure is feasible.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Therefore, this approach is particularly useful for smaller lesions, high surgical risk, and those requiring a redo cardiac surgery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
<p>Contraindications to percutaneous transcatheter closure are left atrial thrombus, active endocarditis, and/or the unfavorable anatomy to catheter intervention.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Complications include but are not limited to bleeding, hematoma, infection, embolism of the closure device, arrhythmia, stroke, and/or death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<sec>
<title>Follow-up</title>
<p>The patient was discharged after twenty-one days of his admission with dyspnea NYHA II and good recovery. Although TTEs after discharge presented LVEF of 26% despite optimized medical therapy, the patient was followed periodically without any clinical deterioration. After seven months of ambulatory follow-up, the patient had a sudden cardiac death (SCD) while sleeping and a necropsy could not be performed to establish the cause of death. The Heart Team raised the hypotheses of prosthesis embolism with rupture of LVPSA, new ACS, or ventricular tachycardia (VT). Although embolism can be fatal, it is usually an early complication after prosthesis implantation. Sudden cardiac arrest due to stent thrombosis or stenosis in ostial LAD carries a bad prognosis, leading to SCD. VT can happen due to the scar-reentry phenomenon in patients with reduced LVEF and is prevented by implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD). The current patient could not afford to insert the device, although he was waiting for a judicialization process to implant primary prevention ICD, as the Brazilian public health system only provides ICD for secondary prevention in ischemic heart failure with low eject fraction.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusion</title>
<p>In conclusion, LV pseudoaneurysm is a rare mechanical complication of MI and is prone to rupture and death if left untreated. Clinicians must be aware of this complication to raise diagnostic suspicion despite nonspecific symptoms. Although surgery is the treatment of choice, new alternatives are gaining importance, because of the elevated surgical mortality in patients with poor baseline conditions. Observational studies and case reports show that percutaneous transcatheter closure may be effective and less invasive approach. Nevertheless, randomized trials and longer observation are needed to clarify its safety at a long-term follow-up.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1"><p><bold>Sources of Funding</bold></p>
<p>There were no external funding sources for this study</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2"><p><bold>Study Association</bold></p>
<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3"><p><bold>Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate</bold></p>
<p>This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the COEP da Faculdade de Medicina da UFMG under the protocol number CLM-91-2022. All the procedures in this study were in accordance with the 1975 Helsinki Declaration, updated in 2013. Informed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study.</p>
</fn>
</fn-group>
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</ref-list>
</back>
<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S1" xml:lang="pt">
<front-stub>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20240024</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Relato de Caso</subject></subj-group></article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Pseudoaneurisma de Ventrículo Esquerdo Pós-Infarto Agudo do Miocárdio Tratado com Oclusão Percutânea Transcateter: Um
Relato de Caso</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2283-1385</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Galizzi Fae</surname><given-names>Isabela</given-names></name>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>obtenção de dados</role>
<role>análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
<role>redação do manuscrito</role>
<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0000-1745-8382</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Kuchenbecker Soares</surname><given-names>Carolina</given-names></name>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>obtenção de dados</role>
<role>redação do manuscrito</role>
<role>auxílio na obteção e edição das imagens</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0570-4368</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Wang</surname><given-names>Ricardo</given-names></name>
<role>obtenção de dados</role>
<role>análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3661-5595</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Brandão de Oliveira</surname><given-names>Gustavo</given-names></name>
<role>obtenção de dados</role>
<role>análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8801-1828</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Nunes</surname><given-names>Maria Carmo Pereira</given-names></name>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0003-1990-056X</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Cristina da Silva</surname><given-names>Glaucia</given-names></name>
<role>obtenção de dados</role>
<role>redação do manuscrito</role>
<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3441-5653</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Rausch</surname><given-names>Rochelle Coppo Militão</given-names></name>
<role>obtenção de dados</role>
<role>análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0000-4272-4363</contrib-id>
<name><surname>de Ataide Castro</surname><given-names>Luiz Ricardo</given-names></name>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0002-3921-5554</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Leite</surname><given-names>Anderson Ferreira</given-names></name>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
<role>redação do manuscrito</role>
<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff4">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital das Clínicas da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspondência: Isabela Galizzi Fae</bold> • Hospital das Clinicas da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais. Av Prof Alfredo Balena, 110. CEP: <postal-code>30130-100</postal-code>. Bairro Santa Efigênia, Belo Horizonte MG – Brasil E-mail: <email>isabela.galizzi@gmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><p><bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</bold></p>
<p>Declaro não haver conflito de interesses pertinentes</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><p>Editor responsável pela revisão: Marcelo Tavares</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<abstract>
<title>Resumo</title>
<p>O pseudoaneurisma do ventrículo esquerdo (PAVE) é uma complicação rara após um infarto agudo do miocárdio (IAM), com risco significativo de ruptura se não tratado. Considerando a elevada morbimortalidade cirúrgica nesse contexto, tratamentos alternativos têm ganhado importância. Este caso descreve um fechamento percutâneo de um PAVE após IAM extenso com revascularização tardia.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
<title>Palavras-chave</title>
<kwd>Infarto agudo do miocárdio</kwd>
<kwd>Pseudo-aneurisma</kwd>
<kwd>Intervenção Coronária Percutânea</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<sec>
<title>História da apresentação</title>
<p>Paciente do sexo masculino, 57 anos, deu entrada no pronto-socorro de um hospital público no Brasil relatando dor torácica em aperto associada a sudorese e dispneia. O eletrocardiograma mostrou supradesnivelamento do segmento ST extenso na parede anterior, além de bloqueio do ramo direito.</p>
<p>Foi realizado protocolo de síndrome coronariana aguda (SCA) e trombólise, mas o paciente não atingiu os critérios de reperfusão. A angioplastia de resgate não estava disponível e, devido à pandemia de COVID-19, o paciente só conseguiu ser transferido para um hospital de referência no dia seguinte. À admissão no hospital quaternário, encontrava-se hipertenso e em Killip III. Sua dosagem de troponina cardíaca de alta sensibilidade foi de 442.000 ng/mL (limiar superior foi de 12 ng/mL).</p>
<p>A cineangiocoronariografia do paciente revelou lesão grave (90%) no óstio da artéria descendente anterior (DA) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura 1</xref>), lesão moderada (40%) na artéria circunflexa e aterosclerose discreta difusa em outras artérias coronárias. Foi realizada intervenção coronária percutânea com stent farmacológico no tronco da coronária esquerda (TCE) em direção à DA.</p>
<fig id="f7">
<label>Figure 1</label>
<caption><title>Cineangiocoronariografia mostrando lesão grave em óstio de artéria descendente anterior (seta amarela).</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-02-e20240024-gf01-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>O ecocardiograma transtorácico (ETT) revelou fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo (FEVE) de 38%, com acinesia do ápice e da porção medial da parede anterosseptal, juntamente com hipocinesia da parede inferosseptal e da porção basal da parede anterosseptal. Além disso, havia uma área de ruptura com formação sacular no segmento apical da parede inferior do VE com transição abrupta do miocárdio normal, sugerindo pseudoaneurisma de ventrículo esquerdo (PAVE) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figura 2</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f8">
<label>Figure 2</label>
<caption><title>ETT evidenciando ruptura abrupta da continuidade na parede do miocárdio, sugerindo PAVE (seta amarela).</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-02-e20240024-gf02-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Histórico médico</title>
<p>A história médica do paciente incluía hipertensão, dislipidemia, obesidade (índice de massa corpórea de 37 kg/m<sup>2</sup>) e história familiar de doença coronariana.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Diagnóstico diferencial</title>
<p>O diagnóstico diferencial mais importante do PAVE é o aneurisma verdadeiro do VE, ambas complicações mecânicas após um IAM transmural. Enquanto o primeiro constitui uma bolsa criada pela ruptura da parede livre do miocárdio contida pelo pericárdio adjacente, o segundo refere-se ao afilamento de todas as camadas da parede de determinado local do VE. Classicamente, os aneurismas verdadeiros do VE apresentam colo largo e, muitas vezes, estão localizados na região apical, enquanto os PAVE normalmente têm colo estreito, estão localizados nas paredes inferior ou lateral e estão associados ao realce pericárdico na ressonância magnética cardíaca (RMC),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> devido inflamação do pericárdio e de estruturas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
<p>No aneurisma verdadeiro do VE, a área discinética e fibrótica é geralmente resistente à ruptura, com chance de sobrevida em cinco anos de 71% se tratado conservadoramente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Em contrapartida, o PAVE apresenta maior risco de ruptura, exigindo uma rápida intervenção.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Investigação</title>
<p>Angiotomografia computadorizada cardíaca (ATCC) e RMC (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">Figura 3</xref>) foram realizadas para confirmar o diagnóstico de pseudoaneurisma do VE, distinguí-lo do aneurisma verdadeiro e avaliar a anatomia para planejar a intervenção.</p>
<fig id="f9">
<label>Figure 3</label>
<caption><title>RMC (A) e ATCC (B) com PAVE destacado pelas setas amarelas.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-02-e20240024-gf03-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>A ATCC revelou stent pérvio no TCE em direção à DA, além de afilamento miocárdico com protrusão no segmento apical da parede inferior. Na RMC, havia extensa área de realce tardio transmural com gadolínio e PAVE com dimensões do colo de 0,924 cm x 1,150 cm x 1,481 cm em comprimento, largura e profundidade, respectivamente (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figura 4</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f10">
<label>Figure 4</label>
<caption><title>Dimensões do pseudoaneurisma na RMC.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-02-e20240024-gf04-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Manejo</title>
<p>O risco pré-operatório do paciente foi considerado moderado a alto (Euroescore II 7,2%). Ele havia sofrido IAM extenso recentemente com reperfusão tardia e desenvolveu insuficiência cardíaca com FEVE reduzida e classe funcional NYHA III. Assim, após discussão no <italic>Heart Team</italic>, descartou-se correção cirúrgica e o paciente foi submetido ao fechamento percutâneo transcateter com prótese utilizada para fechamento de comunicação interatrial (Amplatzer), guiado por ETT. A prótese foi implantada com sucesso, com ETT e ventriculografia evidenciando ausência de fluxo no orifício do PAVE após o procedimento (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11">Figuras 5</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f12">6</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f11">
<label>Figure 5</label>
<caption><title>ETT após prótese bem posicionada ocluindo pseudoaneurisma.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-02-e20240024-gf05-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<fig id="f12">
<label>Figure 6</label>
<caption><title>Ventriculografia antes (A) e após (B) oclusão percutânea do pseudoaneurisma (setas amarelas).</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-02-e20240024-gf06-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="discussion">
<title>Discussão</title>
<p>O PAVE é uma complicação rara após um IAM, com incidência relatada de 0,2 a 0,3% dos casos,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> e apresenta alto risco de ruptura se não tratado (30–45%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Os principais fatores de risco para o seu desenvolvimento são idade avançada, hipertensão, má circulação colateral, apresentação tardia do IAM e atraso na revascularização.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
<p>A apresentação clínica é geralmente inespecífica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Os sintomas mais comuns são dor torácica, insuficiência cardíaca e arritmia, embora mais de 10% sejam assintomáticos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Detecta-se sopro em até 70% dos casos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> O eletrocardiograma geralmente mostra alterações inespecíficas do segmento ST e 20% dos pacientes apresentam supradesnivelamento do segmento ST.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p>A ventriculografia foi considerada o ‘padrão-ouro’ para diagnóstico, porém é invasiva, consome mais tempo e pode levar ao risco de ruptura de PAVE devido aprisionamento do cateter na região lesada do VE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p>O ETT é considerado o primeiro exame na investigação. A característica patognomônica é um colo estreito no local da ruptura com uma transição abrupta do miocárdio normal para tecido cicatricial aneurismático.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Ao <italic>Doppler</italic> colorido, podem ser observados sinais de fluxo contínuo e turbulento através do colo da cavidade do PAVE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p>A ATCC e a RMC são os métodos de escolha atualmente, por proporcionarem melhor resolução espacial, definição tecidual mais precisa, e capacidade de diferenciar o miocárdio do tecido cicatricial e do pericárdio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Um estudo retrospectivo com RMC e ATCC pré-operatórios revelou que o sinal de corte do miocárdio, definido como uma diminuição maior que 50% na espessura da parede do saco aneurismático, medida a 1 cm do colo do aneurisma, foi 91% sensível e 97% específico para distinguir o PAVE do aneurisma verdadeiro.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
<p>A cirurgia é considerada o tratamento de primeira linha para PAVE<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> e consiste em aneurismectomia e fechamento da parede. Apesar disso, apresenta altas taxas de mortalidade, girando em torno de 10 a 29%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p>Em 2004, <italic>Clift et al</italic>. realizaram o primeiro fechamento percutâneo de pseudoaneurisma com um dispositivo Amplatzer de oclusão em paciente de alto risco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Desde então, diversos relatos de casos descreveram a adoção bem-sucedida de uma variedade de dispositivos de fechamento, incluindo o oclusor de septo interatrial Amplatzer, o oclusor de defeito do septo interventricular e molas,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> todos guiados por ETT.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<p>Dada a complexidade técnica da abordagem percutânea, a avaliação pré-operatória é mandatória para estabelecer a seleção adequada do dispositivo e a via de acesso. O tamanho, a morfologia, a localização, o comprimento, a profundidade do colo e as estruturas anatômicas vizinhas são essenciais para definir a viabilidade do fechamento transcateter.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Assim, essa abordagem é particularmente útil para lesões menores, de anatomia favorável, e para pacientes com alto risco cirúrgico ou que já foram submetidos à cirurgia cardíaca prévia.</p>
<p>As contraindicações ao fechamento percutâneo transcateter são trombo atrial esquerdo, endocardite ativa e/ou anatomia desfavorável à intervenção do cateter.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> As complicações mais frequentes são sangramento local, hematoma no sítio de punção, infecção, embolia do dispositivo de fechamento, arritmia, acidente vascular encefálico e/ou morte.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<sec>
<title>Acompanhamento</title>
<p>O paciente recebeu alta após 21 dias de internação com dispneia NYHA II e boa recuperação. Embora os ETT após a alta apresentassem FEVE de 26% a despeito de terapia médica otimizada, o paciente foi acompanhado periodicamente sem qualquer deterioração clínica. Após sete meses de seguimento ambulatorial, o paciente apresentou morte súbita cardíaca (MSC) durante o sono e não foi possível realizar necrópsia para estabelecer a causa do óbito. O <italic>Heart Team</italic> levantou as hipóteses de embolia da prótese com ruptura do PAVE, nova SCA ou taquicardia ventricular (TV). Embora a embolia possa ser fatal, ela costuma ser uma complicação mais precoce após o implante da prótese. A parada cardíaca súbita devido a trombose ou estenose de stent em TCE e óstio de DA cursam com mau prognóstico, podendo levar à MSC. A TV pode ocorrer devido ao fenômeno de reentrada cicatricial em pacientes com FEVE reduzida e é prevenida pelo cardioversor-desfibrilador implantável (CDI). O paciente em questão não tinha condições financeiras para adquirir o dispositivo e aguardava processo de judicialização para implantar o CDI como prevenção primária, uma vez que o sistema público de saúde brasileiro só oferece CDI para prevenção secundária na insuficiência cardíaca com FEVE reduzida.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusão</title>
<p>Concluindo, o pseudoaneurisma do VE é uma complicação mecânica rara após IAM, propenso a ruptura e morte se não tratado. Os médicos devem estar cientes dessa complicação para levantar a suspeita diagnóstica, apesar dos sintomas inespecíficos. Embora a cirurgia seja o tratamento de escolha, novas alternativas têm ganhado importância, devido à elevada mortalidade cirúrgica em pacientes com condições basais ruins. Estudos observacionais e relatos de casos mostram que o fechamento percutâneo transcateter pode ser uma abordagem eficaz e menos invasiva. No entanto, estudos randomizados e observações mais prolongadas são necessários para esclarecer a sua segurança a longo prazo.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn4"><p><bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold></p>
<p>O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn5"><p><bold>Vinculação Acadêmica</bold></p>
<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6"><p><bold>Aprovação Ética e Consentimento Informado</bold></p>
<p>Este estudo foi aprovado pelo Comitê de Ética do COEP da Faculdade de Medicina da UFMG sob o número de protocolo CLM-91-2022. Todos os procedimentos envolvidos nesse estudo estão de acordo com a Declaração de Helsinki de 1975, atualizada em 2013. O consentimento
informado foi obtido de todos os participantes incluídos no estudo.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
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