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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abcimg</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq Bras Cardiol: Imagem cardiovasc.</abbrev-journal-title></journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name></publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abcimg.20240009i</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20240009i</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Review Article</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>My Approach to Assess Cardiac Sympathetic Activity</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9310-3580</contrib-id>
<name><surname>de Brito</surname><given-names>Adriana Soares Xavier</given-names></name><role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>acquisition of data</role>
<role>analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<role>statistical analysis</role>
<role>writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5799-606X</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Leite</surname><given-names>Jessica Costa</given-names></name><role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>acquisition of data</role>
<role>analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<role>statistical analysis</role>
<role>writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Brandão</surname><given-names>Simone Cristina Soares</given-names></name><role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>acquisition of data</role>
<role>analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<role>statistical analysis</role>
<role>writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup></xref></contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Nacional de Cardiologia</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Instituto Nacional de Cardiologia, Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Instituto D&apos;Or de Pesquisa e Ensino</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Instituto D&apos;Or de Pesquisa e Ensino, Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>3</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Faculdade de Ciencias Medicas da Paraiba</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Joao Pessoa</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">PB</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Ciencias Medicas da Paraiba, Joao Pessoa, PB – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff4">
<label>4</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Pernambuco</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Recife</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">PB</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, PB – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Adriana Soares Xavier de Brito •</bold> Instituto Nacional de Cardiologia. Rua das Laranjeiras, 374. Postal code: <postal-code>22240-006</postal-code>. Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brazil E-mail: <email>adrijsoares@hotmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><p><bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold></p>
<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><p>Editor responsible for the review: Marcelo Dantas Tavares de Melo</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>27</day>
<month>03</month>
<year>2024</year></pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2024</year></pub-date>
<volume>37</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
<elocation-id>e20240009</elocation-id>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>15</day>
<month>02</month>
<year>2024</year>
</date>
<date date-type="rev-recd">
<day>22</day>
<month>02</month>
<year>2024</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>23</day>
<month>02</month>
<year>2024</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>Sympathetic innervation plays a crucial role in regulating blood flow, chronotropism, dromotropism, lusitropism, and myocardial inotropism. In several cardiac and neurodegenerative disorders, the autonomic nervous system (ANS) undergoes alterations. Cardiac neuronal imaging can aid in understanding the pathophysiology, diagnosis, and prognosis of these conditions. This article provides a clear and objective overview of the step-by-step procedure for mIBG-I123 scintigraphy, which assesses cardiac sympathetic activity in primary clinical practice settings.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords</title>
<kwd>123-metaiodobenzylguanidine</kwd>
<kwd>Heart Rate</kwd>
<kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
<kwd>Parkinson Disease</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="12"/>
<table-count count="2"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="28"/>
</counts>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introduction</title>
<p>The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is functionally subdivided into sympathetic (SNS) and parasympathetic (PNS) systems, which collaborate to control homeostasis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> The control of the cardiac ANS is a dynamic process, and its dysfunction can arise from either intrinsic or extrinsic factors. The first results from diseases directly impacting the autonomic nerves, such as diabetes mellitus and autonomic failure syndromes. The second one manifests as a secondary condition to cardiac or systemic diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
<p>Heart disease can lead to both anatomical (primary) and functional (secondary) changes in the autonomic function of the heart. These changes can contribute to the progression of heart disease and/or be involved in the development of arrhythmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Additionally, some neurodegenerative diseases can affect the ANS. In such a context, cardiac neuronal imaging can aid in understanding the pathophysiology, diagnosis, and prognosis of these diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> This article provides a clear and objective overview of the step-by-step procedure for scintigraphy using metaiodobenzylguanidine labeled with iodine-123 (mIBG-I123) to assess cardiac sympathetic activity in the primary clinical practice scenarios (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Central Illustration</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f1">
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-01-e20240009-gf01.tif"/>
<p>SPECT: Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography; WR: washout rate.</p>
</fig>
<sec>
<title>Cardiac Scintigraphy with mIBG-I123</title>
<p>The normal heart is densely innervated by the SNS, allowing for the non-invasive assessment of cardiac adrenergic activity through cardiac scintigraphy with mIBG-I123, a false neurotransmitter analog of guanethidine.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> mIBG was initially discovered in the early 1980s during research on adrenal gland tumors due to its molecular structure being similar to norepinephrine (NE). Additionally, mIBG utilizes the same uptake-1 and storage mechanisms as NE in the neurosecretory vesicles of cardiac presynaptic nerve endings.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p>After adrenergic stimulation, mIBG is released into the cardiac synaptic cleft. However, unlike NE, it is not metabolized by monoamine oxidase and catechol-ortho-methyltransferase enzymes, exhibits low affinity for postsynaptic receptors, and lacks pharmacological action (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 1</xref>). Studies have shown that in vivo cardiac mIBG uptake correlates with NE concentration, reflecting the innervation of the cardiac SNS under both physiological and pathological conditions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> mIBG-I123 enables the visualization of global and regional sympathetic innervation of the left ventricular (LV) myocardium through the acquisition of cardiac scintigraphic images, including planar and tomographic images (SPECT — Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography).</p>
<fig id="f2">
<label>Figure 1</label>
<caption><title>Representative image of the uptake and release of mIBG in cardiac synaptic nerve terminals by uptake-1 receptors similar to NE</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-01-e20240009-gf02.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>How Is the Exam Performed?</title>
<p>The intravenous administration of mIBG-123I is performed at rest, at least 30 minutes after the oral intake of potassium iodide syrup or an iodine-containing solution, to block and protect the thyroid. Medications that might interfere with catecholamine uptake, such as antidepressants, antipsychotics, and certain calcium channel blockers, should be discontinued before the examination.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> However, beta-blockers, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACE inhibitors or ACEI), and/or angiotensin receptor blockers do not need to be discontinued.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<p>The procedure is typically conducted using tomographic gamma cameras equipped with high-resolution, low-energy parallel-hole collimators, using a 20% symmetric window centered on the iodine-123 photopeak of 159 keV and a 128 × 128 matrix. Approximately 15 to 20 minutes and 3 to 4 hours after the administration of mIBG-123I (at 185 to 370 MBq or 5 to 10 mCi), planar images in the anterior projection as well as tomographic (SPECT) images of the chest are acquired with the patient lying supine and the left arm raised above the chest.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> While not mandatory, SPECT images can aid in assessing regional myocardial sympathetic activity, which can be compared with myocardial perfusion scintigraphy images to evaluate perfused but denervated areas (mismatch), which are more susceptible to arrhythmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
<p>In anterior planar chest images, the relationship of mIBG-I123 uptake between the heart and mediastinum (H/M) and the myocardial washout rate (WR) were evaluated. The early and late H/M ratio is calculated by averaging counts per pixel in regions of interest drawn in the superior mediastinum (7×7 pixels) and over the entire heart (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 2</xref>). The early H/M ratio represents the integrity of presynaptic nerve terminals and the density of β-adrenergic receptors. The late H/M ratio combines information on neural function, including uptake, NE release and storage in presynaptic vesicles. In turn, the WR reflects cardiac adrenergic tone.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> The radiotracer WR is calculated using the following formula: WR = [(H - early M) - (H - late M)]/(H - early M) × 100 (%), which can be corrected by the iodine-123 decay factor (1.21 factor if the interval time between early and late images is 3 hours and 45 minutes, for example).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f3">
<label>Figure 2</label>
<caption><title>123I-mIBG cardiac scintigraphy. In A: late planar image of the anterior chest demonstrating a normal pattern of mIBG-I123 uptake in the left ventricular (LV) myocardium, with areas of interest drawn over the LV (circle) and the superior mediastinum (rectangle) to calculate the heart/mediastinum (C/M) ratio; in B: image of a patient with heart failure (HF) with marked reduction in 123I-mIBG uptake in LV topography (circle) and greatly reduced C/M index, indicative of cardiac sympathetic hyperactivity.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-01-e20240009-gf03.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Normal values for the H/M ratio range from 1.8 to 2.8, with an approximate average of 2.2 ± 0.3 on late images. The average WR value of normal controls is about 10 ± 9%. The intra- and inter-observer variability of these measurements is less than 5%. It is worth noting that the lower the H/M ratio and the higher the WR, the worse the cardiac sympathetic activity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<p>Tomographic images (SPECT) are obtained with 60 projections, each lasting 30 seconds, covering a 180° arc and stored in a 64 × 64 matrix. These images are used for analysis and quantification of the global and segmental distribution of mIBG-I123 in the LV myocardium, of semiquantitative visual form in the three tomographic axes (short axis, vertical long axis and horizontal long axis).</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Clinical applications</title>
<p>Cardiac scintigraphy with mIBG-123I can be useful in several clinical settings (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>), being most frequently used in cases of heart failure (HF) and to help diagnose neurodegenerative diseases.</p>
<table-wrap id="t1">
<label>Table 1</label>
<caption><title>Main clinical applications of 123I-mIBG cardiac scintigraphy.</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="none">
<colgroup width="33%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874;">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Clinical scenarios</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Established</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Potential</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>HFrEF</bold></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Risk stratification, independent of other parameters, assessment of HF progression, arrhythmic events and total cardiac mortality up to 2 years. <break/>Identification of a subgroup at low risk for cardiac events and death. <break/>Clinical follow-up of medical therapies indicated in the guidelines.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Identify patients most likely to benefit from CRT or LVAD. <break/>Guide the treatment of patients with LVAD: bridge to transplant, possible explant. <break/>Surrogate marker to assess the benefit of new medical therapies and devices.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">HFpEF</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Subanalyses of larger studies show risk stratification capabilities similar to that seen in patients with HFrEF.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Identify patients who may be at higher risk than those clinically apparent.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">HF-associated Arrhythmias</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Risk stratification for lethal or potentially lethal ventricular arrhythmias up to 2 years. <break/>Identification of patients at very low risk of lethal arrhythmic events for up to 2 years.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Refine indication criteria for patients who will benefit from ICD. <break/>Help identify patients who will no longer require ICD, who are at the end of their battery life or who are suffering from device infection.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Primary arrhythmic conditions</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Identification of patients at risk for worse outcomes, including arrhythmic events and total mortality.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Improve understanding of primary arrhythmic conditions pathophysiology. <break/>Guide management of patients with primary arrhythmic conditions.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Heart transplant</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Monitor cardiac reinnervation after transplantation.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Identify patients most likely to have complications after transplantation, including rejection and transplantation due to CADs.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Ischemic heart disease</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Assessment of the risk area in patients with acute coronary syndromes. <break/>Risk stratification of patients with hibernating myocardium.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Guide management of patients with acute coronary syndromes. <break/>Guide patient management after an ischemic event. <break/>Ischemic memory.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Diabetes mellitus</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Identification of cardiac autonomic abnormalities, including patients without extracardiac manifestations.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Identify patients at greater clinical risk than apparent, aiding diagnosis and guiding appropriate management.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Chemotherapy cardiotoxicity</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Identify and quantify cardiac injury in patients undergoing these treatments.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Guide chemotherapy conduct. <break/>Improve understanding of drug toxicity pathophysiology.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Neurodegenerative diseases</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Differential diagnosis of tremors (parkinsonism). <break/>Help in the diagnosis of PD and the differentiation between Alzheimer&apos;s and Lewy body dementia. <break/>Identify and quantify cardiac autonomic injury.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Definition of conduct.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Chagas disease</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Identify and quantify cardiac autonomic injury. <break/>Identification of patients at risk for worse outcomes, including arrhythmic events and total mortality.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Guide treatment.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Takotsubo syndrome</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Identify and quantify cardiac autonomic injury.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Guide treatment. <break/>Improve understanding of pathophysiology.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Cardiomyopathies</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Early diagnosis. <break/>Cardiovascular risk stratification.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Guide treatment. <break/>Improve understanding of the pathophysiology.</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN1"><p>ICD: implantable cardioverter-defibrillator; CAD: coronary artery disease; LAVE: left ventricular assist device; HF: heart failure; HFpEF: HF with preserved ejection fraction; HFrEF: HF with reduced ejection fraction; mIBG-123I: metaiodobenzylguanidine labeled with iodine-123; CRT: cardiac resynchronization therapy; PD: Parkinson&apos;s disease. Adapted from the JCS Joint Working Group and the Brazilian nuclear cardiology guideline.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Use in HF</title>
<p>In patients with HF, chronic exposure to high concentrations of circulating NE leads to a dysfunction in the response of β-adrenergic agonist receptors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> This phenomenon can be attributed to several mechanisms, including the downregulation of β-adrenergic receptors, impaired coupling of β-receptor subtypes, upregulation of the enzyme β-adrenoreceptor kinase, increased activity of G proteins, and decreased activity of adenylcyclase. Ventricular remodeling, characterized by NE-induced hypertrophy and apoptosis of myocytes, is associated with the re-expression of fetal genes and subsequent downregulation of adult genes. These findings highlight the cardiotoxic effects of direct chronic adrenergic stimulation of β-adrenergic receptors in myocytes and fibroblasts, contributing to various biochemical and structural changes in HF (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 3</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f4">
<label>Figure 3</label>
<caption><title>Late planar images of 123I-mIBG cardiac scintigraphy shows marked low uptake of the radiotracer in the left ventricle (circle). The late heart/ mediastinum ratio was 1.21 and the washout rate was 42%, indicating cardiac sympathetic hyperactivity</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-01-e20240009-gf04.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Due to these alterations, cardiac scintigraphy with mIBG-I123 in HF shows reduced myocardial radiotracer uptake and accelerated WR compared to healthy individuals.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Several studies have shown that the decreased heart-to-mediastinum (H/M) ratio and increased WR are independent predictors of adverse cardiac outcomes, including death, HF progression, and ventricular arrhythmias, in patients with LV dysfunction. These predictors are even more significant than LV ejection fraction (LVEF), New York Heart Association (NYHA) functional class, LV size, and plasma NE levels.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
<p>The results of a prospective, multicenter ADMIRE-HF trial revealed that patients with HF, NYHA functional class II or III, with an H/M ratio lower than 1.6 had a cardiac death rate of 19.1% versus 1.8% in the group with values above 1.6, a negative predictive value for these outcomes in two years, reaching 98.8%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
<p>Regarding the therapeutic assessment of ventricular dysfunction, numerous studies using cardiac scintigraphy with mIBG-I123 have demonstrated that the use of beta-blockers, ACE inhibitors and spironolactone can significantly improve cardiac SNS activity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Studies have also proven that using carvedilol in patients with HF improved cardiac uptake and WR of mIBG-I123, LVEF, LV systolic and diastolic volumes, functional class, and significantly reduced brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) levels. These results suggest that carvedilol can improve adrenergic dysfunction and ventricular remodeling.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
<p>Regarding cardiac implantable devices, research has shown that biventricular resynchronization therapy (CRT) resulted in an increased uptake of early and late mIBG-I123, as evidenced by a significant improvement in cardiac SNS activity in HF patients after such device implantation. These findings suggest that such a device can be the potential mechanism behind the observed benefits in large studies on morbidity and mortality with CRT.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> A Brazilian study has also suggested that cardiac scintigraphy with mIBG-I123 can refine the indication criteria for CRT. Patients with severe HF and a late H/M ratio below 1.36 are less likely to respond favorably to CRT.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
<p>Furthermore, some authors have linked adrenergic denervation on scintigraphy with sudden death in patients with LV dysfunction, including those with mild dysfunction and NYHA functional class I. Changes in the SNS were also identified as independent predictors of tachycardia recurrence and ventricular fibrillation in patients with a history of these arrhythmias. This suggests that cardiac scintigraphy with mIBG-I123 could be a valuable tool for identifying patients at high risk of sudden death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
<p>In addition to the indications described above, other applications are outlined in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Use in parkinsonism and differential diagnosis of dementia</title>
<p>Parkinson&apos;s disease (PD) is the most prevalent neurodegenerative condition leading to parkinsonism. It is characterized by the degeneration of dopaminergic and non-dopaminergic neurons. It is distinguished by the abnormal aggregation of α-synuclein in the substantia nigra, forming intracytoplasmic neuronal inclusions known as Lewy bodies (DLB). Despite the existence of established diagnostic criteria for PD and other neurodegenerative disorders presenting parkinsonism, such as progressive supranuclear palsy, multiple system atrophy, and corticobasal degeneration, accurately diagnosing these conditions remains a significant challenge for neurologists.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
<p>Studies have shown that cardiac uptake of mIBG-I123 is diminished in patients with Lewy body inclusion diseases like PD<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> and dementia with DLB. Evaluating myocardial sympathetic innervation through cardiac scintigraphy with mIBG-I123 is valuable for distinguishing PD from other causes of parkinsonism, including essential tremors, and for differentiating DLB from Alzheimer&apos;s disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
<p>The α-Synuclein-dependent neurodegeneration in PD affects pre- and post-ganglionic autonomic neurons, impairing cardiac uptake of mIBG-I123. Meanwhile, in other diseases, such as multiple system atrophy, in which insufficiency autonomic function is predominantly preganglionic, cardiac uptake of mIBG-I123 is preserved. A post-mortem study showed that the number of axons immunoreactive for tyrosine hydroxylase, a marker for sympathetic axons of the heart, was significantly reduced in PD and DLB. This finding supported the results that indicate a reduced cardiac uptake of mIBG-I123 in these diseases, presenting very low values of early and late H/M ratios, and demonstrating high sensitivity and specificity of the method (around 90%), even in the early stages of the disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
<p>In a Brazilian study, Leite et al. evaluated patients with new-onset sporadic PD without clinically defined dysautonomia, and observed that cardiac mIBG-I123 uptake on SPECT images was low or absent in all patients, concluding that the examination effectively detected changes in cardiac sympathetic neurotransmission in PD patients, even in the absence of dysautonomia symptoms.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
<p>Cardiac scintigraphy with mIBG-I123 is currently recommended (level A) by the European Federation of Neurological Societies and by the Movement Disorder Society task force for the differential diagnosis of syndromes with parkinsonism.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Clinical Illustrative Examples</title>
<p><bold>Case 1:</bold> Male, 66 years old, HFrEF (NYHA functional class III), ischemic heart disease, reporting tiredness and palpitations. Echocardiogram with LVEF of 37%, BNP of 2180 pg/mL and episodes of non-sustained ventricular tachycardia (NSVT) on the 24-hour Holter monitor. Cardiac scintigraphy was performed with mIBG-I123 (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 3</xref>), indicating a marked impairment of myocardial sympathetic innervation, which led to worse prognosis and greater risk of fatal ventricular arrhythmias. The patient was referred for implantable cardioverter defibrillator (ICD) implantation and received appropriate shocks from the device six months after its implantation.</p>
<p><bold>Case 2:</bold> Female, 42 years old, indeterminate-phase Chagas disease, reporting lipothymia. Echocardiogram with LVEF of 63% (Simpson); 24-hour Holter monitoring showed frequent ventricular ectopias and short episodes of NSVT. Cardiac scintigraphy with mIBG-I123 and myocardial perfusion with sestamibi-Tc99m (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 4</xref>) were performed, revealing denervated myocardial tissue with normal perfusion (mismatch), suggesting a greater risk of potentially fatal ventricular arrhythmias.</p>
<fig id="f5">
<label>Figure 4</label>
<caption><title>123I-mIBG cardiac scintigraphy (lower row) and 99mTc-sestamibi myocardial perfusion (upper row). Short-axis SPECT images show a mismatch perfusion/sympathetic innervation of the left ventricular myocardium, with normal perfusion and marked reduction in 123I-mIBG uptake in the apical, inferior and inferolateral segments (arrows), suggestive of denervated myocardial tissue in these regions.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-01-e20240009-gf05.tif"/>
</fig>
<p><bold>Case 3:</bold> Female, 62 years old, journalist, sought the neurologist&apos;s attention due to mild morning stiffness in her right upper limb. She did not report any other symptoms or chronic illnesses. Referred for cardiac scintigraphy examination with mIBG-I123 (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 5</xref>) to investigate PD. The examination revealed severe impairment of myocardial sympathetic innervation, which is a characteristic finding in PD.</p>
<fig id="f6">
<label>Figure 5</label>
<caption><title>Planar images of 123I-mIBG cardiac scintigraphy show marked low radiotracer uptake in cardiac topography (arrow). The heart/mediastinum ratio was 1.31 (early) and 1.23 (late). The washout rate was 35%. These data suggest severe impairment of myocardial sympathetic innervation, characteristic of Parkinson&apos;s disease.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-01-e20240009-gf06.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Final considerations</title>
<p>The mIBG-I123 scintigraphy provides a comprehensive view of cardiac sympathetic innervation, enhancing cardiovascular risk assessment and enabling early detection of heart disease and neurodegenerative disorders. Nevertheless, enhancing clinical expertise is crucial to enhance the positive and negative predictive values of this technique, leading to a more precise differentiation between individuals with low and high cardiovascular risk. Furthermore, the scarcity of cost-effectiveness data and limited availability in clinical settings represent significant challenges for large-scale implementation.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1"><p><bold>Sources of Funding</bold></p>
<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2"><p><bold>Study Association</bold></p>
<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3"><p><bold>Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate</bold></p>
<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
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<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S01" xml:lang="pt">
<front-stub>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20240009</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject></subj-group></article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Como Eu Faço a Avaliação da Atividade Simpática Cardíaca</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9310-3580</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Brito</surname><given-names>Adriana Soares Xavier de</given-names></name><role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa, obtenção de dados, análise e interpretação dos dados, análise estatística, redação do manuscrito, revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6"><sup>2</sup></xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5799-606X</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Leite</surname><given-names>Jessica Costa</given-names></name><role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa, obtenção de dados, análise e interpretação dos dados, análise estatística, redação do manuscrito, revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7"><sup>3</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Brandão</surname><given-names>Simone Cristina Soares</given-names></name><role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa, obtenção de dados, análise e interpretação dos dados, análise estatística, redação do manuscrito, revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8"><sup>4</sup></xref></contrib>
<aff id="aff5">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeir</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Instituto Nacional de Cardiologia, Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff6">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Instituto D&apos;Or de Pesquisa e Ensino, Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff7">
<label>3</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Joao Pessoa</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">PB</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Ciencias Medicas da Paraiba, Joao Pessoa, PB – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff8">
<label>4</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Recife</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">PB</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, PB – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspondência: Adriana Soares Xavier de Brito</bold> • Instituto Nacional de Cardiologia. Rua das Laranjeiras, 374. CEP: <postal-code>22240-006</postal-code>. Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brasil E-mail: <email>adrijsoares@hotmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><p><bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</bold></p>
<p>Declaro não haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><p>Editor responsável pela revisão: Marcelo Dantas Tavares de Melo</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<abstract>
<title>Resumo</title>
<p>A inervação simpática desempenha um papel crucial na regulação do fluxo sanguíneo, cronotropismo, dromotropismo, lusitropismo e inotropismo miocárdico. Em várias doenças cardíacas e neurodegenerativas, observam-se alterações no sistema nervoso autonômico. A imagem neuronal cardíaca pode ajudar no entendimento fisiopatológico, no diagnóstico e prognóstico dessas doenças. Neste artigo, apresentamos, de forma clara e objetiva, o passo a passo da cintilografia com mIBG-I123 para avaliação da atividade simpática cardíaca nos principais cenários da prática clínica.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
<title>Palavras-chave</title>
<kwd>123-metaiodobenzilguanidina</kwd>
<kwd>Frequência Cardíaca</kwd>
<kwd>Insuficiência Cardíaca</kwd>
<kwd>Doença de Parkinson</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introdução</title>
<p>O sistema nervoso autônomo (SNA) é funcionalmente subdivido em sistemas simpático (SNS) e parassimpático (SNP) que trabalham juntos no controle da homeostase.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> O controle do SNA cardíaco é um processo dinâmico, e sua disfunção pode ser intrínseca ou extrínseca. A primeira é decorrente de doenças que afetam diretamente os nervos autonômicos, como o <bold>diabetes mellitus</bold> e as síndromes de insuficiência autonômica. A segunda se manifesta como uma condição secundária a uma doença cardíaca ou sistêmica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
<p>A doença cardíaca pode causar alterações tanto anatômicas (primárias) quanto funcionais (secundárias) na função autonômica do coração. Estas alterações, por sua vez, podem contribuir para a progressão da doença cardíaca e/ou estar envolvidas na gênese de arritmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Além disso, algumas doenças neurodegenerativas podem afetar o SNA. Nesse contexto, a imagem neuronal cardíaca pode ajudar no entendimento fisiopatológico, no diagnóstico e prognóstico dessas doenças.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> No presente artigo, apresentamos de forma clara e objetiva o passo a passo da cintilografia com metaiodobenzilguanidina marcada com o iodo-123 (mIBG-I123) para avaliação da atividade simpática cardíaca nos principais cenários da prática clínica (<xref rid="f7" ref-type="fig">Figura Central</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f7">
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-01-e20240009-gf01-pt.tif"/>
<p>SPECT: Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography.</p>
</fig>
<sec>
<title>Cintilografia cardíaca com mIBG-I123</title>
<p>O coração normal é densamente inervado pelo SNS, e a avaliação da atividade adrenérgica cardíaca de forma não invasiva é possível por meio da cintilografia cardíaca com mIBG-I123, um falso neurotransmissor análogo da guanetidina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> O mIBG foi descoberto no início de 1980 durante uma pesquisa em tumores da medula adrenal, devido à sua estrutura molecular semelhante à norepinefrina (NE). Além disso, o mIBG utiliza os mesmos mecanismos de captação (<italic>uptake</italic>-1) e estocagem da NE nas vesículas neurossecretórias das terminações nervosas pré-sinápticas cardíacas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p>Após a estimulação adrenérgica, o mIBG é liberado na fenda sináptica cardíaca. No entanto, diferentemente da NE, ele não é metabolizado pelas enzimas monoamino-oxidase e catecol-orto-metil-transferase, apresenta baixa afinidade pelos receptores pós-sinápticos e não exerce ação farmacológica (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figura 1</xref>). Estudos têm demonstrado que a captação cardíaca de mIBG <italic>in vivo</italic> se correlaciona à concentração de NE, representando a inervação do SNS cardíaco em condições fisiológicas e patológicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> O mIBG-I123 permite a visualização da inervação simpática global e regional do miocárdio ventricular esquerdo através da aquisição de imagens cintilográficas cardíacas, planas e tomográficas (SPECT, do inglês <italic>Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography</italic>).</p>
<fig id="f8">
<label>Figura 1</label>
<caption><title>Imagem representativa da captação e liberação da metaiodobenzilguanidina (mIBG) nas terminações nervosas sinápticas cardíacas pelos receptores uptake-1 de forma similar a norepinefrina (NE). DOPA: L-Dopa; COMT: Catecol-O-Metiltransferasae; MAO: Monoaminoxidase.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-01-e20240009-gf02-pt.tif"/>
<attrib>Fonte: Acervo pessoal dos autores.</attrib>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Como eu faço o exame?</title>
<p>A injeção intravenosa do mIBG-123I é feita em repouso, pelo menos 30 minutos após a administração oral de xarope de iodeto de potássio ou solução contendo iodo, para bloqueio e proteção da tireoide. Os medicamentos que potencialmente podem interferir na captação de catecolaminas, tais como antidepressivos, antipsicóticos e alguns bloqueadores dos canais de cálcio devem ser suspensos antes do exame.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Por outro lado, os betabloqueadores, inibidores da enzima conversora da angiotensina (IECA) e/ou bloqueadores dos receptores da angiotensina não precisam ser descontinuados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<p>O exame é habitualmente realizado em gama-câmaras tomográficas, equipadas com colimadores de furos paralelos, de alta resolução e baixa energia, utilizando uma janela simétrica de 20% centrada no fotopico do iodo-123 de 159 keV e uma matriz de 128 × 128. Cerca de 15 a 20 minutos e 3 a 4 horas após a administração do mIBG-123I (com uma atividade de 185 a 370 MBq ou 5 a 10 mCi), são obtidas imagens planares em projeção anterior, além de tomográficas (SPECT) do tórax, enquanto o paciente permanece em decúbito dorsal, com o braço esquerdo levantado acima do tórax.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Embora as imagens SPECT sejam opcionais, elas auxiliam na avaliação da atividade simpática miocárdica regional e podem ser comparadas com as imagens da cintilografia de perfusão miocárdica para avaliação de áreas perfundidas, mas desnervadas (<italic>mismatch</italic>), que são mais suscetíveis a arritmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
<p>Nas imagens planares anteriores de tórax, avaliamos a relação entre a captação de mIBG-I123 no coração e no mediastino (C/M) e a taxa de clareamento miocárdico (taxa de <italic>washout</italic> - TW). A relação C/M precoce e tardia é calculada através da média de contagens por pixel em regiões de interesse desenhadas no mediastino superior (7x7 pixels) e no coração como um todo (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">Figura 2</xref>). A relação C/M precoce representa a integridade dos terminais nervosos pré-sinápticos e a densidade dos receptores β-adrenérgicos. Já a relação C/M tardia combina informações da função neural, incluindo captação, liberação e estocagem da NE nas vesículas pré-sinápticas. A TW, por sua vez, reflete o tônus adrenérgico cardíaco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> A TW do radiotraçador é calculada através da fórmula: TW = [(C - M precoce) - (C - M tardio)]/(C - M precoce) × 100 (%), que pode ser corrigida pelo fator de decaimento do iodo-123 (fator de 1,21, caso o intervalo de tempo entre as imagens precoces e tardias sejam de 3 horas e 45 minutos, por exemplo).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f9">
<label>Figura 2</label>
<caption><title>Cintilografia cardíaca com mIBG-I123. Em A: imagem planar tardia de tórax anterior demonstrando padrão normal de captação de mIBG-I123 no miocárdio do ventrículo esquerdo (VE), com áreas de interesse desenhadas sobre o VE (círculo) e o mediastino superior (retângulo) para cálculo da relação coração/mediastino (C/M); em B: imagem de um paciente com insuficiência cardíaca (IC) com hipocaptação acentuada de mIBG-I123 em topografia de VE (círculo) e índice C/M muito reduzido, indicativo de hiperatividade simpática cardíaca.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-01-e20240009-gf03-pt.tif"/>
<attrib>Fonte: Acervo pessoal dos autores.</attrib>
</fig>
<p>Os valores normais da relação C/M variam de 1,8 a 2,8, com uma média aproximada de 2,2 ± 0,3 nas imagens tardias. O valor médio da TW de controles normais é cerca de 10 ± 9%. A variabilidade intra e interobservador dessas medidas é inferior a 5%. Vale destacar que, quanto menor a relação C/M e maior a TW, pior é a atividade simpática cardíaca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<p>As imagens tomográficas (SPECT) são obtidas com 60 projeções, cada uma com duração de 30 segundos, cobrindo um arco de 180° armazenadas em matriz 64 × 64. Essas imagens são usadas para análise e quantificação da distribuição global e segmentar do mIBG-I123 no miocárdio ventricular esquerdo, de forma visual semiquantitativa nos três eixos tomográficos (eixo curto, eixo longo vertical e eixo longo horizontal).</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Aplicações clínicas</title>
<p>A cintilografia cardíaca com mIBG-123I pode ser útil em vários cenários clínicos (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 1</xref>), sendo usada com mais frequência na insuficiência cardíaca (IC) e como auxiliar no diagnóstico de doenças neurodegenerativas.</p>
<table-wrap id="t2">
<label>Tabela 1</label>
<caption><title>Principais aplicações clínicas da cintilografia cardíaca com mIBG-I123.</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="none">
<colgroup width="33%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874;">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Cenários clínicos</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Estabelecidos</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Potenciais</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">ICFEr</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Estratificação de risco, independentemente de outros parâmetros, avaliação de progressão de IC, eventos arrítmicos e mortalidade cardíaca total até 2 anos. <break/>Identificação de um subgrupo de baixo risco para eventos cardíacos e morte. <break/>Seguimento clínico de terapias médicas indicadas nas diretrizes.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Identificar os pacientes mais prováveis a se beneficiarem da TRC ou DAVE. <break/>Guiar o tratamento de pacientes com DAVE: ponte para transplante, possível explante. <break/>Marcador substituto para avaliar benefício de novas terapias médicas e dispositivos.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">ICFEp</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Subanálises de estudos maiores mostram capacidade de estratificação de risco similar àquela vista em pacientes com ICFEr.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Identificar pacientes que podem ser de maior risco do que aquele aparentado clinicamente.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Arritmias associadas à IC</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Estratificação de risco para arritmias ventriculares letais ou potencialmente letais até 2 anos. <break/>Identificação de pacientes de muito baixo risco de eventos arrítmicos letais até 2 anos.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Refinar critérios de indicação para pacientes que se beneficiarão de CDI. <break/>Ajudar a identificar pacientes que não mais necessitarão de CDI, em fim de vida da bateria ou com quadro de infecção do dispositivo.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Condições arrítmicas primárias</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Identificação de pacientes de risco a desfechos piores, incluindo eventos arrítmicos e mortalidade total.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Melhorar entendimento da fisiopatologia das condições arrítmicas primárias. <break/>Guiar conduta de pacientes com condições arrítmicas primárias.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Transplante cardíaco</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Acompanhar reinervação cardíaca após transplante.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Identificar pacientes mais prováveis de terem complicações após transplante, incluindo rejeição e transplante por DAC.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Doença cardíaca isquêmica</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Avaliação da área de risco em pacientes com síndromes coronárias agudas. <break/>Estratificação de risco de pacientes com miocárdio hibernante.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Guiar conduta de pacientes com síndromes coronárias agudas. <break/>Guiar conduta de pacientes após evento isquêmico. <break/>Memória isquêmica.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Diabetes mellitus</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Identificação de anormalidades autonômicas cardíacas, incluindo pacientes sem manifestações extracardíacas.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Identificar pacientes de maior risco clínico do que o aparente, auxiliando o diagnóstico e orientando tratamentos apropriados.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Cardiotoxicidade por quimioterápico</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Identificar e quantificar lesão cardíaca em pacientes sob estes tratamentos.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Guiar conduta quimioterápica. <break/>Melhorar entendimento da fisiopatologia de toxicidade por fármacos.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Doenças neurodegenerativas</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Diagnóstico diferencial de tremores (parkinsonismo). <break/>Ajudar no diagnóstico da DP e na diferenciação entre demência de Alzheimer e por corpos de Lewy. <break/>Identificar e quantificar lesão autonômica cardíaca.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Definição de conduta.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Doença de Chagas</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Identificar e quantificar lesão autonômica cardíaca. <break/>Identificação de pacientes de risco a desfechos piores, incluindo eventos arrítmicos e mortalidade total.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Guiar tratamento.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Síndrome de Takotsubo</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Identificar e quantificar lesão autonômica cardíaca.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Guiar tratamento. <break/>Melhorar entendimento da fisiopatologia.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Cardiomiopatias</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Diagnóstico precoce. <break/>Estratificação de risco cardiovascular.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Guiar tratamento. <break/>Melhorar entendimento da fisiopatologia da doença.</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN2"><p>CDI: cardioversor-desfibrilador implantável; DAC: doença arterial coronária; DAVE: dispositivo de assistência ventricular esquerda; IC: insuficiência cardíaca; ICFEp: IC com fração de ejeção preservada; ICFEr: IC com fração de ejeção reduzida; mIBG-123I: metaiodobenzilguanidina marcada com iodo-123; TRC: terapia de ressincronização cardíaca; DP: doença de Parkinson. Adaptada de JCS Joint Working Group e da diretriz brasileira de cardiologia nuclear.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Seu uso na IC</title>
<p>O coração do paciente com IC, quando exposto cronicamente a concentrações elevadas de NE circulante, tende a desenvolver um bloqueio na função responsiva dos receptores agonistas β-adrenérgicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Diversos mecanismos podem contribuir para esse fenômeno, como o <italic>downregulation</italic> dos receptores β-adrenérgicos, não acoplamento dos subtipos de β-receptores, <italic>upregulation</italic> da enzima β-adrenoreceptor quinase, aumento da atividade da proteína G e redução da atividade da adenilciclase. O próprio remodelamento ventricular, que envolve hipertrofia e apoptose dos miócitos provocados pela NE, está associado à reexpressão dos genes fetais com consequente <italic>downregulation</italic> dos genes adultos. Isto demonstra que a estimulação adrenérgica crônica direta dos receptores β-adrenérgicos nos miócitos e fibroblastos é cardiotóxica, contribuindo para diversas mudanças bioquímicas e estruturais na IC (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figura 3</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f10">
<label>Figura 3</label>
<caption><title>Imagem planar tardia da cintilografia cardíaca com mIBG-I123. Observa-se hipocaptaçao acentuada do radiotraçador em topografia do ventrículo esquerdo (círculo). A relação tardia da captação de mIBG-I123 entre o coração e o mediastino foi de 1,21 e a taxa de washout de 42%, indicando hiperatividade simpática cardíaca.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-01-e20240009-gf04-pt.tif"/>
<attrib>Fonte: Acervo pessoal dos autores.</attrib>
</fig>
<p>Devido a essas mudanças, a cintilografia cardíaca com mIBG-I23 na IC é caracterizada pela captação miocárdica reduzida do radiotraçador e aceleração da TW quando comparada à de indivíduos saudáveis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Vários estudos têm demonstrado que a relação C/M diminuída, bem como a TW elevada, são fatores preditivos independentes de desfechos adversos cardíacos, como morte, progressão da IC e arritmia ventricular, em pacientes com disfunção ventricular esquerda. Esse prognóstico é ainda mais robusto que a fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo (FEVE), a classe funcional pela <italic>New York Heart Association</italic> (NYHA), o tamanho do ventrículo esquerdo (VE) e os valores de NE plasmática.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
<p>Os resultados do ensaio clínico ADMIRE-HF, prospectivo e multicêntrico, revelaram que os pacientes portadores de IC com classe funcional II ou III da NYHA, com relação C/M inferior a 1,6 apresentaram uma taxa de morte cardíaca de 19,1% em comparação com 1,8% no grupo com valores acima de 1,6, um valor preditivo negativo para esses desfechos em dois anos, atingindo 98,8%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
<p>No que tange à avaliação terapêutica da disfunção ventricular, numerosas pesquisas que utilizaram a cintilografia cardíaca com mIBG-I123 demonstraram que o uso de betabloqueadores, IECA e espironolactona podem melhorar expressivamente a atividade do SNS cardíaco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Estudos também evidenciaram que o uso de carvedilol nos pacientes com IC resultou em melhorias na captação cardíaca e a TW de mIBG-I123, a FEVE, os volumes sistólico e diastólico do VE, a classe funcional, e na redução significativa dos níveis de peptídeo natriurético cerebral (BNP). Esses resultados sugerem que o uso de carvedilol pode contribuir para a melhoria da disfunção adrenérgica e do remodelamento ventricular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
<p>Em relação ao uso de dispositivos intracardíacos, uma pesquisa demonstrou que a terapia de ressincronização biventricular (TRC) resultou em um aumento na captação precoce e tardia de mIBG-I123, evidenciando uma melhora significativa na atividade do SNS cardíaco em pacientes com IC após o implante desse tipo de marca-passo. Essa descoberta sugere que este pode ser o mecanismo potencial dos benefícios observados nos grandes estudos sobre morbidade e mortalidade na TRC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Além disso, um estudo brasileiro destacou que a cintilografia cardíaca com mIBG-I123 pode auxiliar no refinamento dos critérios de indicação para a TRC. Pacientes com IC grave e uma relação C/M tardia inferior a 1,36 apresentaram menor probabilidade de resposta favorável à TRC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
<p>Alguns autores também correlacionaram a denervação adrenérgica na cintilografia à morte súbita em pacientes com disfunção ventricular esquerda, mesmo naqueles com disfunção leve e classe funcional I da NYHA. As alterações do SNS também foram identificadas como preditores independentes de recorrência de taquicardia e fibrilação ventricular nos pacientes com história prévia destas arritmias. Conclui-se, portanto, que a cintilografia cardíaca com mIBG-I123 pode ser uma boa opção para <italic>screening</italic> de pacientes com alto risco de morte súbita.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
<p>Além das indicações acima descritas, outras aplicações estão destacadas na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 1</xref>.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Seu uso no parkinsonismo e no diagnóstico diferencial do tipo de demência</title>
<p>A doença de Parkinson (DP) é a doença neurodegenerativa mais comum que causa parkinsonismo. Caracteriza-se pelo acometimento de neurônios dopaminérgicos e não dopaminérgicos, evidenciando-se pela agregação anormal de α-sinucleína na substância negra compacta, formando inclusões intracitoplasmática neuronal, conhecidas como corpos de Lewy. Apesar de já existirem critérios diagnósticos consensuais para DP e outras doenças neurodegenerativas que apresentam parkinsonismo, como a paralisia supranuclear progressiva, atrofia de múltiplos sistemas e degeneração corticobasal, um diagnóstico preciso desses distúrbios continua a ser um grande desafio para os neurologistas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
<p>Pesquisas têm demonstrado uma redução na captação cardíaca de mIBG-I123 em pacientes afetados por doenças com inclusão de corpos de Lewy, como a DP<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> e a própria demência por corpos de Lewy (DLB). A avaliação da inervação simpática miocárdica pela cintilografia cardíaca com mIBG-I123 é útil em diferenciar DP de outras causas de parkinsonismo, incluindo os tremores essenciais, bem como diferenciar a DLB da doença de Alzheimer.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
<p>A neurodegeneração dependente da α-sinucleína na DP afeta os neurônios autonômicos pré e pós-ganglionares, prejudicando a captação cardíaca de mIBG-I123. Em contrapartida, em outras doenças como a atrofia de múltiplos sistemas, em que a insuficiência autonômica é predominantemente pré-ganglionar, a captação cardíaca de mIBG-I123 permanece preservada. Um estudo <italic>post-mortem</italic> mostrou uma significativa diminuição no número de axônio imunorreativos da tirosina hidroxilase, um marcador para axônios simpáticos do coração, na DP e na DLB. Esse achado corroboram com os resultados que indicam uma redução na captação cardíaca de mIBG-I123 nessas doenças, apresentando valores muito baixos dos índices C/M precoce e tardia, e demonstrando alta sensibilidade e especificidade do método (em torno de 90%), mesmo nos estágios iniciais da doença.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
<p>Em um estudo brasileiro, Leite et al. avaliaram pacientes com DP de início esporádico, sem disautonomia clinicamente definida, e observaram que a captação cardíaca de mIBG-I123 nas imagens SPECT foi baixa ou ausente em todos os pacientes, concluindo que o exame foi capaz de identificar alterações da neurotransmissão simpática cardíaca em pacientes com DP, mesmo sem sintomas de disautonomia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
<p>Atualmente a cintilografia cardíaca com mIBG-I123 já é recomendada (nível A) pela <italic>European Federation of Neurological Societies</italic> e pela força-tarefa da <italic>Movement Disorder Society</italic> para o diagnóstico diferencial das síndromes com parkinsonismo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Exemplos ilustrativos da prática clínica</title>
<p><bold>Caso 1:</bold> Homem, 66 anos, ICFER (classe funcional III da NYHA), cardiopatia isquêmica, com queixa de cansaço e palpitações. Ecocardiograma com FEVE de 37%, BNP de 2180 pg/mL e com episódios de taquicardia ventricular não sustentada (TVNS) ao holter de 24 horas. Realizou cintilografia cardíaca com mIBG-I123 (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figura 3</xref>) que indicou um comprometimento acentuado da inervação simpática miocárdica, denotando pior prognóstico e maior risco de arritmias ventriculares fatais. O paciente foi encaminhado para implante de cardiodesfibrilador implantável (CDI) e, seis meses após o procedimento, recebeu choques apropriados do dispositivo.</p>
<p><bold>Caso 2:</bold> Mulher, 42 anos, doença de Chagas na fase indeterminada, com queixa de lipotimia. Ecocardiograma com FEVE de 63% (Simpson); holter de 24h que mostrou ectopias ventriculares frequentes e episódios curtos de TVNS. Realizou cintilografia cardíaca com mIBG-I123 e de perfusão miocárdica com sestamibi-Tc99m (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11">Figura 4</xref>) que revelou tecido miocárdico denervado com perfusão normal (<italic>mismatch</italic>), sugerindo maior risco de arritmias ventriculares potencialmente fatais.</p>
<fig id="f11">
<label>Figura 4</label>
<caption><title>Cintilografia cardíaca com mIBG-I123 (fileira inferior) e de perfusão miocárdica com sestamibi-Tc99m (fileira superior). As imagens SPECT do curto eixo mostram um padrão mismatch entre perfusão/inervação simpática do miocárdio ventricular esquerdo, com perfusão normal e hipocaptaçao acentuada do mIBG-I123 nos segmentos apicais, inferiores e inferolaterais (setas), sugestivo de tecido miocárdico denervado nestas regiões.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-01-e20240009-gf05-pt.tif"/>
<attrib>Fonte: Acervo pessoal dos autores.</attrib>
</fig>
<p><bold>Caso 3:</bold> Mulher, 62 anos, jornalista, procurou o neurologista devido a leve rigidez matinal do membro superior direito. Negava outros sintomas ou doenças crônicas. Encaminhada para o exame de cintilografia cardíaca com mIBG-I123 (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f12">Figura 5</xref>) para investigação de DP. O exame revelou grave comprometimento da inervação simpática miocárdica, achados característicos na DP.</p>
<fig id="f12">
<label>Figura 5</label>
<caption><title>Imagem planar da cintilografia cardíaca com mIBG-I123. Observa-se hipocaptaçao acentuada do radiotraçador em topografia cardíaca (seta). A relação da captação de mIBG-I123 entre o coração e o mediastino foi de 1,31 (precoce) e 1,23 (tardia). A taxa de washout foi 35%. Esses dados sugerem comprometimento grave da inervação simpática miocárdica, característicos na doença de Parkinson.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-01-e20240009-gf06-pt.tif"/>
<attrib>Fonte: Acervo pessoal dos autores.</attrib>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Considerações finais</title>
<p>A cintilografia com mIBG-I123 proporciona uma perspectiva detalhada sobre o estado da inervação simpática cardíaca, refinando a estratificação do risco cardiovascular e facilitando o diagnóstico precoce de cardiopatias e doenças neurodegenerativas. No entanto, aprimoramentos na experiência clínica são essenciais para otimizar os valores preditivos positivos e negativos deste método, o que permitirá uma melhor distinção entre pacientes de baixo e alto risco cardiovascular. Além disso, a escassez de dados sobre custo-efetividade e a limitada disponibilidade em ambientes clínicos representam desafios significativos para sua implementação em larga escala.</p>
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<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn5"><p><bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold></p>
<p>O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6"><p><bold>Vinculação Acadêmica</bold></p>
<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn7"><p><bold>Aprovação Ética e Consentimento Informado</bold></p>
<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p></fn>
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