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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abcimg</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq Bras Cardiol: Imagem cardiovasc.</abbrev-journal-title></journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name></publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abcimg.20240007i</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20240007i</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Review Article</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Cardiac Sarcoidosis: The Chameleon of Cardiology</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0006-2710-1671</contrib-id>
<name><surname>De Moura</surname><given-names>Diego Moraes</given-names></name>
<role>Conception</role>
<role>design of the research</role>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<role>Acquisition of data</role>
<role>writing of the manuscript</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-4867-2952</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Monteiro</surname><given-names>Aluísio José De Oliveira</given-names><suffix>Neto</suffix></name>
<role>Acquisition of data</role>
<role>writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>image editing</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8809-8783</contrib-id>
<name><surname>de Melo</surname><given-names>Marcelo Dantas Tavares</given-names></name>
<role>Conception</role>
<role>design of the research</role>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<role>Acquisition of data</role>
<role>writing of the manuscript</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9323-8805</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Fernandes</surname><given-names>Fábio</given-names></name>
<role>Conception</role>
<role>design of the research</role>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<role>Acquisition of data</role>
<role>writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>article lead</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de São Paulo</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Instituto do Coração</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade de São Paulo, Instituto do Coração, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal da Paraíba</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">João Pessoa</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">PB</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal da Paraíba, João Pessoa, PB – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Diego Moraes De Moura</bold> • Universidade de São Paulo, Instituto do Coração, Unidade de miocardiopatias e doenças da aorta; Av. Dr. Enéas Carvalho de Aguiar, 44. Postal code: <postal-code>05403-900</postal-code>. Cerqueira César, São Paulo, SP – Brazil E-mail: <email>moraesdemouradiego@gmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><p><bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold></p>
<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><p>Editor responsible for the review: Marcelo Dantas Tavares de Melo</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>27</day>
<month>03</month>
<year>2024</year></pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2024</year></pub-date>
<volume>37</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
<elocation-id>e20240007</elocation-id>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>14</day>
<month>02</month>
<year>2024</year>
</date>
<date date-type="rev-recd">
<day>22</day>
<month>02</month>
<year>2024</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>23</day>
<month>02</month>
<year>2024</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>Sarcoidosis is a multisystemic granulomatous disease of unknown etiology, characterized by the formation of non-caseating granulomas in multiple organs. Cardiac involvement, an important cause of morbidity and mortality in these patients, has been generating interest in cardiology, because it is a cause of heart failure, atrioventricular blocks, and ventricular arrhythmias with unfavorable prognosis; however, there are specific treatments with the potential to change the natural history of this condition. The main challenge of cardiac sarcoidosis (CS) is diagnosis, given that the gold standard method of endomyocardial biopsy has limited sensitivity due to the focal nature of the pathology.</p>
<p>Accordingly, cardiovascular imaging methods play the role of guiding most diagnoses of CS. In this scenario, knowledge about these methods, their main findings, and their rational use are essential to the diagnosis of this disease with such diverse presentations.</p>
<p>Electrocardiogram and echocardiography are practical and widely available exams; however, they provide greater diagnostic capacity in patients with clinically manifest disease. On the other hand, to identify incipient forms, which are often silent, it is necessary to use advanced imaging methods, such as positron emission tomography with 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose and cardiac magnetic resonance, which primarily identify signs of active inflammatory activity and fibrosis, respectively. Despite the advances in these imaging methods, due to the lack of studies comparing them with the gold standard (endomyocardial biopsy), the diagnosis of CS currently remains a major challenge.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords</title>
<kwd>Sarcoidosis</kwd>
<kwd>Electrocardiography</kwd>
<kwd>Echocardiography</kwd>
<kwd>Positron Emission Tomography Computed Tomography</kwd>
<kwd>X-Ray Computed Tomography</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="8"/>
<table-count count="4"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="48"/>
</counts>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introduction</title>
<p>Sarcoidosis is a multisystemic granulomatous disease of unknown etiology, characterized by the accumulation of T lymphocytes and mononuclear phagocytes with the formation of non-caseating granulomas in various organs. Its genesis is believed to be the consequence of an immune-mediated response from antigenic triggers, which are not yet well understood, in people who are genetically predisposed.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>Its prevalence varies worldwide, with particularities related to regions, ethnic groups, and sex, and descriptions range from 10 to 60 cases per 100,000 individuals.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
<p>Systemic sarcoidosis generally manifests with lung and intrathoracic lymph node involvement, in more than 90% of cases; however, the disease can affect virtually any organ, such as the skin, eyes, heart, nervous system, musculoskeletal system, renal system, and endocrine system.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>The importance of myocardial involvement in cardiac sarcoidosis (CS) is mainly due to its prognostic implications, associated with the fact that there are targeted treatments that are potentially capable of preventing severe complications.</p>
<p>CS is a known cause of ventricular dysfunction, conduction disturbances, and ventricular arrhythmias, which eventually present in the form of sudden death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<p>In several samples, CS appears as one of the main causes of death in individuals with sarcoidosis, accounting for approximately 50% of deaths in a North American sample and up to 85% in an Asian population.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
<p>Despite the severity, the identification of these patients still poses a challenge, since the majority of them have subclinical cardiac involvement. Thus, the prevalence of myocardial involvement described in the literature varies from 5% (considering patients with clinically evident cardiac involvement) to approximately 54%, when advanced imaging methods are used, identifying asymptomatic patients, who are known as subclinical.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
<p>The gold standard for diagnosis is the presentation of a suggestive clinical picture associated with histological evaluation of myocardial tissue showing evidence of a non-caseating granulomatous process, after excluding other potential causes of granuloma formation (especially infectious and neoplastic causes). However, due to the focal nature of the disease (involvement beginning with the formation of granulomas), endomyocardial biopsy has low sensitivity, revealing the presence of non-caseating granulomas in less than 25% of patients who undergo the procedure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p>Therefore, the main guidelines have established an alternative route that is not dependent on myocardial histopathology to diagnose CS. In the case of patients with a histopathological diagnosis of extracardiac sarcoidosis, with myocardial structural changes compatible with the disease that cannot be explained by other etiologies, myocardial involvement due to sarcoidosis is inferred.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<p>Accordingly, the diagnosis of CS, except for cases in which endomyocardial biopsy presents compatible histopathology, depends on the presence of specific cardiac changes observed in complementary exams such as electrocardiogram (ECG), echocardiogram, cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR), and nuclear medicine exams, with emphasis on positron emission tomography (PET) with <sup>18</sup>F-fluorodeoxyglucose (18FDG) combined with computed tomography (CT) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Central Illustration</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f1">
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-01-e20240007-gf01.tif"/>
<p>18F-FDG-PET: positron emission tomography with 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose; ABV: atrioventricular block; CMR: cardiac magnetic resonance imaging; ECG: electrocardiography; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; CS: cardiac sarcoidosis.</p>
</fig>
<p>The objective of this article is to conduct a review about the non-invasive analysis of cardiac involvement due to sarcoidosis, emphasizing the importance of advanced imaging methods in the clinical evaluation of this highly challenging disease.</p>
<sec>
<title>Diagnostic criteria for CS</title>
<p>The first international guideline on the diagnosis of CS was published in 2014, by experts appointed by the Heart Rhythm Society (HRS), with representatives from several other societies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Previously, the diagnostic criteria of the Japanese Ministry of Health and Welfare (JMHW) had been published in 2006.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> They did not include FDG-PET, and they attributed less importance to late gadolinium enhancement (LGE) on CMR, consequently offering less ability to identify these patients. Subsequently, the Japanese Circulation Society (JCS)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> published a new guideline, with recommendations very close to those put forth by the HRS (highlighting the importance of FDG-PET and CMR), while admitting the possibility of diagnosing CS without histopathological documentation of sarcoidosis (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>).</p>
<table-wrap id="t1">
<label>Table 1</label>
<caption><title>Diagnostic guidelines for CS</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="none">
<colgroup width="50%">
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874;">
<th align="center" valign="middle">HRS 2014 Expert Consensus</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">JCS 2016 Guidelines</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="center" valign="top">1. Histological diagnosis of myocardial tissue</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1. Histological diagnosis group</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="center" valign="top">CS is diagnosed in the presence of non-caseating granuloma on histological examination of myocardial tissue with no alternative cause identified (including negative organismal stains, if applicable)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">CS is diagnosed histologically when endomyocardial biopsy or surgical specimens demonstrate non-caseating epithelioid granulomas, and granulomas due to other causes and local sarcoid reactions can be ruled out</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" valign="top">2. Clinical diagnosis based on invasive and non-invasive exams</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">2. Clinical diagnosis group (negative myocardial biopsy findings or patients not undergoing myocardial biopsy)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="center" valign="top"><list list-type="alpha-lower">
<list-item><p>There is diagnosis of extracardiac sarcoidosis</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>One or more of the following are present:</p>
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>Steroid +/− immunosuppressant responsive cardiomyopathy or heart block</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Unexplained decrease in LVEF (40%)</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Unexplained sustained VT (spontaneous or induced)</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Mobitz type II second-degree heart block or third-degree heart block</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Irregular uptake on dedicated cardiac PET (in a pattern consistent with CS)</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Late gadolinium enhancement on CMR (in a pattern consistent with CS)</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Positive gallium uptake (in a pattern consistent with CS)</p></list-item></list></list-item></list></td>
<td align="center" valign="top"><list list-type="order">
<list-item><p>When epithelioid granulomas are found in organs other than the heart, and clinical findings strongly suggestive of cardiac involvement are present</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>When the patient presents clinical findings strongly suggestive of pulmonary or ophthalmic sarcoidosis, and at least 2 of the following 5 laboratory findings characteristic of sarcoidosis:</p>
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>Bilateral hilar lymphadenopathy</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Elevated serum angiotensin-converting enzyme activity or elevated serum lysozyme levels</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Elevated serum soluble interleukin-2 receptor levels</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Significant tracer accumulation in gallium-67 citrate scintigraphy or 18F-FDG-PET</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>A high percentage of lymphocytes with a CD4/CD8 ratio of &gt; 3.5 in BAL fluid</p></list-item></list></list-item></list></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN1"><p>18F-FDG-PET: positron emission tomography with 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose; CMR: cardiac magnetic resonance imaging; CS: cardiac sarcoidosis; HRS: Heart Rhythm Society; JCS: Japanese Circulation Society; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; PET: positron emission tomography; TV: ventricular tachycardia. Adapted from Shrivastav et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>Currently, the most used diagnostic criteria are those developed by the HRS and JCS. Although both include the same complementary exams in their approaches, such as ECG/Holter, echocardiogram, FDG-PET, and CMR, there appears to be low concordance between these criteria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Faced with this diagnostic difficulty, some centers have created multidisciplinary teams to evaluate suspected cases, using the aforementioned criteria as a guide, without being limited to them.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> This type of approach requires experience on the part of the team and a high degree of familiarity with the main alterations in cardiovascular imaging methods associated with CS.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Cardiovascular imaging in the assessment of CS</title>
<p>Among the complementary exams used in the assessment of patients with suspected CS, CMR and FDG-PET/CT stand out, due to the possibility of identifying changes still in the initial phase of the disease, with minimal or absent cardiovascular manifestations,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> which is known as the silent form of CS. ECG and echocardiography, although they are less accurate, can also suggest diagnosis of CS in a probable clinical context, with the advantage of being widely available.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Role of electrocardiography</title>
<p>ECG can assist in the diagnosis of CS, both as a screening tool for cardiac involvement, in patients with a previous diagnosis of non-CS, and by raising the suspicion of sarcoidosis as the etiology of specific cardiac alterations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<p>Several electrocardiographic changes have already been described in patients with CS. Nonspecific changes, when present in individuals with prior diagnosis of sarcoidosis, should raise the suspicion of myocardial involvement. These changes may vary from ventricular or atrial arrhythmias, varying degrees of atrioventricular block (AVB), bundle branch blocks, hemiblocks, QRS fragmentation, and T wave changes, such as inversion, alternation, and increased amplitude.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
<p>Another role of ECG in this pathology is due to the fact that CS is an important cause of advanced AVB and sustained ventricular tachycardia, initially seen as idiopathic in middle-aged adults. In some samples, CS was responsible for up to 30% of idiopathic cases of AVB and sustained ventricular tachycardia in this age group (&lt; 60 years).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> It is worth highlighting that the identification of CS as the cause of AVB has prognostic importance, since immunosuppressive treatment has the potential to reverse the block.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
<p>Another change already described in individuals with CS is the epsilon wave. This change is classically observed in individuals with arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy. There are case reports of patients who met the criteria for arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy according to the task force criteria, but who were subsequently diagnosed with CS after endomyocardial biopsy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Signs such as advanced AVB, important left ventricular dysfunction, septal LGE, absence of family history, and mediastinal lymphadenopathy should raise the suspicion of CS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
<p>In general, patients with CS and cardiovascular symptoms present some degree of electrocardiographic alteration. Nonetheless, a normal ECG does not rule out myocardial involvement, but it reduces the likelihood, especially in patients without cardiovascular symptoms.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Role of echocardiography</title>
<p>Echocardiography, as it is practical and easily accessible, is generally the first imaging test to be requested when screening for CS. It is usually altered in symptomatic patients, but frequently normal in patients with the silent form.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
<p>Its findings vary, including increased ventricular wall thickness (resulting from focal areas of edema or granulomatous infiltration) or, in more advanced phases of the disease, thinning (most commonly septal, in the basal portion), akinesia, dyskinesia, or even aneurysms.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> The most commonly affected regions are the left ventricular free wall and the interventricular septum. The ejection fraction may be reduced or preserved, with varying degrees of diastolic dysfunction. However, unlike reduced ejection fraction, changes in diastolic function have not yet been included in the diagnostic criteria for CS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
<p>Echocardiography has limited sensitivity when compared to advanced imaging exams such as CMR and F-FDG-PET. In a study including 321 patients with a histopathological diagnosis of sarcoidosis, echocardiography showed a sensitivity of less than 30%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Therefore, in patients with extracardiac sarcoidosis and cardiovascular symptoms, even with a normal echocardiogram, clinical investigation with advanced imaging methods is recommended.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<p>More recently, the use of techniques such as speckle tracking appears to have improved the sensitivity of echocardiography in identifying myocardial injury due to sarcoidosis, with some studies showing reduced global longitudinal strain in patients with sarcoidosis, normal ejection fraction, and evidence of myocardial injury on FDG-PET/CT and CMR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> In the evaluation of 23 patients with CS (compared to controls), the global longitudinal strain was −15.9% ± 2.5% versus −18.2% ± 2.7%. Worsening of this parameter was also associated with the development of heart failure and hospital admission.</p>
<p>Furthermore, echocardiography is also a valuable tool for assessing cardiovascular alterations secondary to severe lung disease caused by sarcoidosis, such as pulmonary artery pressure and changes in the right ventricle. These cardiological alterations should not be confused with cardiac involvement caused by the granulomatous infiltration of sarcoidosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Papel do 18F-FDG-PET/CT</title>
<p>18F-FDG is a glucose analogue labeled with radioactive fluorine, which remains inside the cell, contributing to the generation of the PET image. It is frequently used in association with CT for attenuation correction and anatomical correlation.</p>
<p>The rationale behind this method lies in the fact that the inflammatory cells involved in sarcoidosis granuloma have avidity for uptake of glucose and glucose analogues, thus making it possible to identify regions with active inflammation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
<p>The usual pattern of the image generated by FDG in CS is focal and irregular, which can appear as areas of hyper-uptake in a myocardium with physiological uptake completely suppressed or merely reduced; in the latter case, it generates a pattern of focal hyper-uptake in a myocardium with diffuse uptake (focal on diffuse) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f2">
<label>Figure 1</label>
<caption><title>Cardiac 18F-FDG-PET/CT with heterogeneous distribution of FDG in the left ventricular walls, showing focal areas with greater uptake in the inferior wall (middle and basal segment) in a 46-year-old female patient, with endomyocardial biopsy suggestive of CS. Author&apos;s data. 18F-FDG-PET/CT: positron emission tomography with 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose combined with computed tomography.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-01-e20240007-gf02.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Generally, cardiac PET is associated with whole-body PET, assisting in the identification of areas suggestive of extracardiac involvement.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
<p>One of the challenges of this method is that the myocyte is also usually avid for glucose (and consequently FDG) uptake. Therefore, for the exam to be interpretable, preparation must be carried out in order to suppress this physiological uptake of the radiotracer by the myocardium. Protocols may vary between services, but, in general, a high-fat diet restricted in carbohydrates is recommended during the 24 hours preceding the exam, associated with 12 hours of fasting.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> However, in spite of this, in up to approximately 25% of cases, adequate suppression of myocardial FDG uptake does not occur, making it impossible to interpret the exam.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> In some centers, it is also common to administer unfractionated heparin with the aim of increasing the circulation of free fatty acids, which could potentially contribute to suppressing myocyte avidity for glucose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
<p>It is important to remember that myocardial FDG uptake is not synonymous with CS. Other conditions can also generate myocardial uptake of FDG, such as physiological uptake itself (which will normally appear as diffuse uptake), different etiologies of myocarditis, cardiac involvement due to rheumatological diseases, hibernating myocardium, and even some genetic cardiomyopathies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> Therefore, the exam needs to be interpreted within the clinical context, seeking to rule out differential diagnoses, especially ischemic disease. The presence of extracardiac uptake appears to significantly increase the specificity of CS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
<p>Given that F-FDG-PET assesses active inflammation, a normal exam does not rule out the presence of CS; it only indicates that there is no inflammatory process active in the myocardium at that time.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> The intensity of uptake is quantified using the standardized uptake value (SUV), whose calculation considers the concentration of radioactivity in the region of interest, the dose injected, and the patient&apos;s weight.</p>
<p>The sensitivity and specificity described in the literature are approximately a little over 80%. Kim et al., in a meta-analysis with 891 patients from 17 studies, observed a sensitivity of 84% and specificity of 83%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> An important limitation of these data is that they did not use histopathology as a reference method, but rather the JMHW criteria, published in 2006.</p>
<p>In addition to the great usefulness of F-FDG-PET in the diagnostic evaluation of CS, the test also has therapeutic and prognostic implications.</p>
<p>The main guidelines on this topic (HRS and JCS) recommend immunosuppression in patients with clinical manifestations attributed to CS when there are signs of inflammation detected by PET-FDG.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Reduced FDG uptake after immunosuppression seems to be a predictor of improved ejection fraction; thus, this method has also been used as a parameter to evaluate therapeutic response.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
<p>The persistence of FDG uptake in serial exams is strongly associated with worse prognosis, increasing the risk of major cardiovascular events by up to 20-fold in patients who do not respond to immunosuppression.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
<p>Another important predictor of worse prognosis is FDG uptake in the right ventricle, associated with increased mortality, ventricular arrhythmias, and a decline in left ventricular ejection fraction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
<p>Perfusion study, when associated with PET-FDG, also adds prognostic information; thus, patients with myocardial FDG uptake associated with perfusion alterations in these regions (which would be a mismatch) appear to have worse prognosis than those with myocardial inflammation but normal perfusion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> Perfusion studies can be performed by means of PET/CT using radiotracers such as ammonia labeled with nitrogen-13 and rubidium-82, which are rarely used due to their high cost, or with perfusion scintigraphy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
<p>For the future, we expect the use of radiotracers that are not usually captured by the normal myocardium, consequently making dietary preparations unnecessary, for example somatostatin analogues.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Role of cardiac magnetic resonance imaging</title>
<p>CMR is an indispensable exam in the assessment of patients with suspected CS. In addition to assessing morphological and functional details of the right and left ventricles with high accuracy, it also makes it possible to identify signs of inflammation, mainly necrosis and fibrosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
<p>CMR has the advantage of not using radiation and of using gadolinium, which is a contrast material with a low risk of adverse events.</p>
<p>One of the main resources of CMR is LGE analysis, detecting the expansion of the extracellular matrix, which suggests, especially in the more advanced phase of the disease, the presence of fibrosis (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 2</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f3">
<label>Figure 2</label>
<caption><title>CMR showing the presence of mesocardial late enhancement in the inferior wall of a 38-year-old male patient diagnosed with CS. Author&apos;s data. CMR: cardiac magnetic resonance imaging.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-01-e20240007-gf03.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Although there are no pathognomonic findings, the LGE patterns most commonly observed in CS are focal, mesocardial or subepicardial in basal regions of the septum and lateral wall.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> These patterns are not specific and can be found in several other conditions of myocardial injury, especially inflammatory ones. However, even transmural patterns can occur.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
<p>An LGE pattern was recently described that initially appeared to be specific to CS, namely, the hug sign. This is characterized by LGE that extends from the interventricular septum towards the right ventricle, observed in cases of isolated CS with histopathological diagnosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> Nonetheless, this pattern has already been observed in giant cell myocarditis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
<p>CMR can also suggest the presence of myocardial inflammation through the presence of T2 hypersignal, which indicates excess fluid in the myocardium. However, the absence of this alteration does not rule out the presence of inflammation when compared to PET.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> In CMR, it is also possible to estimate diffuse interstitial fibrosis through T1 and T2 maps, suggesting subclinical sarcoidosis, although the clinical usefulness of this parameter is still uncertain.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
<p>The real accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity of imaging tests in CS are still quite debatable, because, in most studies, these methods were not compared with the gold standard of endomyocardial biopsy, but rather with diagnostic criteria, generally those proposed by the HRS<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> and the JMHW.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> These studies describe sensitivities ranging from 75% to 100% and specificities ranging from 77% to 85%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
<p>Thus, in individuals with extracardiac sarcoidosis, the presence of LGE is indicative of probable CS; however, a negative test cannot rule out the presence of heart disease, for instance, still in the initial phase.</p>
<p>To date, no large prospective study has been designed with the objective of comparing the accuracy of CMR and PET in diagnosing CS. Some services, when there is a strong suspicion of CS, suggest that CMR investigation should be started before PET, for some reasons; for example, it does not depend on preparation, and it provides good structural and tissue characterization of the heart. However, the current impression is that these are exams that offer complementary information; PET shows signs of inflammatory activity, and CMR shows fibrosis<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref>).</p>
<table-wrap id="t2">
<label>Table 2</label>
<caption><title>Diagnostic interpretation of combined data from CMR with 18F-FDG-PET</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="none">
<colgroup width="33%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874;">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Interpretation</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">CMR findings</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">18F-FDG-PET findings</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top">Active disease with the presence of scarring and inflammation</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">Presence of LGE</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">18F-FDG uptake observed</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="top">Scarring without active inflammation (inactive)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">Presence of LGE</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">No 18F-FDG uptake observed</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top">Normal (no disease)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">Presence of LGE</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">Lack of 18F-FDG uptake</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="top">Early disease/false positive</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">Presence of LGE</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">18F-FDG uptake observed</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN2"><p>18F-FDG-PET: positron emission tomography with 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose; CMR: cardiac magnetic resonance imaging; LGE: late gadolinium enhancement. Adapted from Shrivastav et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>In addition to its diagnostic usefulness, several studies have observed an important prognostic role. A meta-analysis with 694 patients observed higher cardiovascular mortality, all-cause mortality, and ventricular arrhythmias in patients with CS and LGE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> Specific LGE patterns, such as involvement of the right ventricle and multifocal pattern, also seem to be associated with worse prognosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
<p>Regarding the limitations of this exam, we highlight the at least relative contraindication in patients with glomerular filtration rate &lt; 30 mL/min/1.73 m<sup>2</sup> and the difficulties in image interpretation (due to the presence of artifacts) in patients with cardiac devices, such as pacemakers and implantable cardioverter defibrillators, even though they are compatible with magnetic resonance devices.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Integrating imaging exams in the assessment of patients with suspected CS</title>
<p>When discussing the ideal diagnostic approach for individuals with suspected CS, it is essential to distinguish at least two main scenarios: patients who already have a previous diagnosis of extracardiac sarcoidosis and those who do not.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
<p>In the former case, any cardiovascular symptom or alteration on ECG/echocardiography increases the probability that the myocardium is also affected by sarcoidosis, indicating further investigation with CMR, generally followed by FDG-PET, and, in exceptional cases, endomyocardial biopsy<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 3</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f4">
<label>Figura 3</label>
<caption><title>Diagnostic investigation flowchart for CS in patients diagnosed with extracardiac sarcoidosis. 18F-FDG-PET: positron emission tomography with 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose; CMR: cardiac magnetic resonance imaging; ECG: electrocardiography; SPECT: single-photon emission computerized tomography. Adapted from Montera et al.<sup>49</sup></title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-01-e20240007-gf04.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>The main diagnostic challenge is the second scenario, regarding patients with cardiovascular alterations such as heart failure, advanced AVB, or ventricular arrhythmias, without previous diagnosis of any systemic condition, in which the range of etiologies is immense, and CS is just one among dozens of possibilities. In these cases, the suspicion of CS should be raised mainly in cases of advanced AVB or ventricular tachycardia of unexplained cause in patients under 60 years of age, or even in patients with heart failure not justified by the most prevalent etiologies, especially with the presence of thinning of the basal septum and thinning or thickening of the ventricular wall.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> For these patients, the investigation must include both the characterization of the pattern of myocardial injury, with CMR and cardiac FDG-PET, searching for signs that may suggest CS, as well as whole-body FDG-PET, with the aim of identifying possible signs of extracardiac sarcoidosis. The search for signs of extracardiac sarcoidosis can be refined with ophthalmological, dermatological, and pulmonary evaluation. In selected cases, endomyocardial biopsy will also be recommended.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Take-home messages</title>
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>CS is a complex disease to diagnose.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Generally, diagnosis is made without confirmation of myocardial histology, based on alterations in imaging tests.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Most alterations observed in these tests are nonspecific findings that need to be interpreted in the patient&apos;s clinical context.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>The lack of studies that compare the accuracy of these tests with the gold standard (histopathology) makes it difficult to understand the real diagnostic capacity of each method, reinforcing the importance of using multimodal imaging in the investigation of suspected cases.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>CMR and PET appear to be the imaging tests with the greatest accuracy, providing complementary information regarding the presence and extent of fibrosis and inflammation, respectively.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>CS should always be suspected in the presence of significant rhythm disturbances or heart failure of unexplained cause, especially in middle-aged patients.</p></list-item>
</list>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusion</title>
<p>CS is a disease whose etiology is still little understood. Its diagnosis is challenging, with most diagnoses made without confirmation of myocardial histology, based on alterations in imaging tests. Despite the low prevalence, its identification is of fundamental importance due to its unfavorable prognosis, in addition to the fact that there are treatments with the potential to modify the natural history of this disease. Fortunately, in recent years there has been a major advance in cardiovascular imaging methods, allowing greater understanding of diagnostic and prognostic aspects. Nonetheless, it is still necessary to conduct further studies that involve direct comparison between imaging tests and histopathological findings of myocardia affected by sarcoidosis, in order to usher in a new era of more accurate diagnoses.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1"><p><bold>Sources of Funding</bold></p>
<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2"><p><bold>Study Association</bold></p>
<p>This article is part of the thesis of Doctoral submitted by Diego Moraes de Moura, from Universidade de São Paulo.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3"><p><bold>Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate</bold></p>
<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
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<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
<role>obtenção de dados</role>
<role>redação do manuscrito</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-4867-2952</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Monteiro</surname><given-names>Aluísio José De Oliveira</given-names><suffix>Neto</suffix></name>
<role>obtenção de dados</role>
<role>redação do manuscrito</role>
<role>edição de imagens</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8809-8783</contrib-id>
<name><surname>de Melo</surname><given-names>Marcelo Dantas Tavares</given-names></name>
<role>Concepção</role>
<role>desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
<role>obtenção de dados</role>
<role>redação do manuscrito</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9323-8805</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Fernandes</surname><given-names>Fábio</given-names></name>
<role>Concepção</role>
<role>desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
<role>obtenção de dados</role>
<role>redação do manuscrito</role>
<role>liderança do artigo</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade de São Paulo, Instituto do Coração, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff4">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">João Pessoa</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">PB</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal da Paraíba, João Pessoa, PB – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspondência: Diego Moraes De Moura</bold> • Universidade de São Paulo, Instituto do Coração, Unidade de miocardiopatias e doenças da aorta; Av. Dr. Enéas Carvalho de Aguiar, 44. CEP: <postal-code>05403-900</postal-code>. Cerqueira César, São Paulo, SP – Brasil E-mail: <email>moraesdemouradiego@gmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><p><bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</bold></p>
<p>Declaro não haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><p>Editor responsável pela revisão: Marcelo Dantas Tavares de Melo</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<abstract>
<title>Resumo</title>
<p>A sarcoidose é uma doença granulomatosa multissistêmica de etiologia desconhecida, caracterizada pela formação de granulomas não caseosos em vários órgãos. O envolvimento cardíaco, importante causa de morbimortalidade nestes indivíduos, vem gerando interesse na cardiologia por ser uma causa de insuficiência cardíaca, bloqueios atrioventriculares e arritmias ventriculares de prognóstico reservado, mas que possuem tratamento específico com potencial de mudança da história natural desta condição. O grande desafio da sarcoidose cardíaca é o seu diagnóstico, uma vez que o método padrão ouro, a biópsia endomiocárdica, possui sensibilidade limitada devido à natureza focal da patologia.</p>
<p>Desta forma, cabe aos métodos de imagem cardiovasculares o papel de nortear a maior parte dos diagnósticos de sarcoidose cardíaca. Neste cenário, o conhecimento sobre estes métodos, suas principais alterações e o seu uso racional são imprescindíveis para que esta doença de apresentação tão diversa possa ser diagnosticada.</p>
<p>No eletrocardiograma e na ecocardiografia tem-se exames práticos e de ampla disponibilidade, no entanto com maior capacidade diagnóstica nos pacientes que apresentam a doença clinicamente manifesta. Já para a identificação das formas incipientes, muitas vezes silenciosas, é preciso lançar mão dos métodos de imagem avançada, como tomografia por emissão de pósitrons com o 18F-fluor-2-desoxiglicose e a ressonância magnética cardíaca, que identificam primordialmente indícios de atividade inflamatória ativa e sequelas cicatriciais, respectivamente. Apesar do avanço destes métodos de imagem, a carência de estudos comparando-os com o padrão ouro (a biópsia endomiocárdica) faz o que o diagnóstico da sarcoidose cardíaca ainda seja um grande desafio nos dias atuais.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
<title>Palavras-chave</title>
<kwd>Sarcoidose</kwd>
<kwd>Eletrocardiografia</kwd>
<kwd>Ecocardiografia</kwd>
<kwd>Tomografia por Emissão de Pósitrons combinada à Tomografia Computadorizada</kwd>
<kwd>Tomografia Computadorizada por Raios X</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introdução</title>
<p>A sarcoidose é uma doença granulomatosa multissistêmica de etiologia desconhecida, caracterizada pelo acúmulo de linfócitos T e fagócitos mononucleares com formação de granulomas não caseosos em vários órgãos. Acredita-se que sua gênese seja consequência de uma resposta imunomediada a partir de gatilhos antigênicos ainda não bem compreendidos em pessoas geneticamente predispostas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>Possui prevalência variável ao redor do mundo, com particularidades relacionadas a regiões, grupos étnicos e gêneros, com descrições que variam de 10 a 60 casos por 100 mil indivíduos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
<p>A sarcoidose sistêmica geralmente manifesta-se com envolvimento pulmonar e de linfonodos intratorácicos, em mais de 90% dos casos, no entanto, a doença pode acometer virtualmente qualquer órgão, como pele, olhos, coração, sistema nervoso, musculoesquelético, renal e endócrino.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>A importância do envolvimento miocárdico na sarcoidose cardíaca (SC) se dá sobretudo pelas suas implicações prognósticas, associado ao fato de existir tratamento direcionado potencialmente capaz prevenir complicações graves.</p>
<p>A SC é sabidamente causa de disfunção ventricular, distúrbios de condução e arritmias ventriculares, que eventualmente apresentam-se na forma de morte súbita.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<p>Em várias casuísticas, a SC aparece como uma das principais causas de morte em indivíduos com sarcoidose, sendo responsável por cerca de 50% dos óbitos em uma amostra norte-americana, e por até 85% em população asiática.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
<p>A despeito da gravidade, a identificação destes pacientes ainda é um desafio, uma vez que a maior parte destes apresentam acometimento cardíaco na forma subclínica, de modo que a prevalência de envolvimento miocárdico descrita na literatura varia de 5% (considerando-se os pacientes com acometimento cardíaco clinicamente evidente) a cerca de 54%, quando se utilizam métodos de imagem avançados, identificando os indivíduos assintomáticos, ditos subclínicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
<p>O padrão ouro para o seu diagnóstico é apresentação de quadro clínico sugestivo associado à avaliação histológica de tecido miocárdico evidenciando processo granulomatoso não caseoso, após exclusão de outras causas potenciais formadoras de granuloma (sobretudo infecciosas e neoplásicas). No entanto, devido à natureza focal da doença (envolvimento a partir da formação de granulomas), a biópsia endomiocárdica (BEM) possui baixa sensibilidade, revelando presença de granulomas não caseosos em menos de 25% dos pacientes submetidos ao procedimento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p>Por isso, as principais diretrizes estabelecem uma via alternativa, não dependente de histopatologia miocárdica para diagnosticar a SC: diante de um paciente com diagnóstico histopatológico de sarcoidose extracardíaca, com alterações estruturais miocárdicas compatíveis com esta doença que não possam ser explicadas por outras etiologias, infere-se envolvimento miocárdico pela sarcoidose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<p>Desta forma, o diagnóstico de SC, excetuando-se os casos em que a BEM apresenta histopatologia compatível, depende da presença de alterações cardíacas específicas observadas através de exames complementares tais como: eletrocardiograma, ecocardiograma, ressonância magnética cardíaca (RMC) e estudos de medicina nuclear, com destaque para a tomografia por emissão de pósitrons (PET) com 18F-fluor-2-desoxiglicose (18FDG) combinada com a tomografia computadorizada (TC) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figura Central</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f5">
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-01-e20240007-gf01-pt.tif"/>
<p>18F-FDG-PET: tomografia por emissão de pósitrons com 18F-fluorodesoxiglicose; BAV: bloqueio atrioventricular; ECG: eletrocardiograma; FEVE: fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo; RMC: ressonância magnética cardíaca; SC: sarcoidose cardíaca.</p>
</fig>
<p>O objetivo deste artigo é realizar uma revisão sobre a análise não invasiva de acometimento cardíaco pela sarcoidose, enfatizando a importância dos métodos de imagem avançada na avaliação clínica desta doença tão desafiadora.</p>
<sec>
<title>Critérios diagnósticos de sarcoidose cardíaca</title>
<p>A primeira diretriz internacional sobre diagnóstico de SC foi publicado em 2014, por especialistas indicados pela Heart Rhythm Society (HRS) com representantes de várias outras sociedades.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Antes deste, havia sido publicado em 2006 os critérios diagnósticos da Japanese Ministry of Health and Welfare (JMHW),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> que não contemplavam o FDG-PET e atribuíam menor importância ao realce tardio (RT) observado na RMC, consequentemente apresentando menor capacidade de identificar estes pacientes. Na sequência, a Japanese Circulation Society (JCS)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> publicou uma nova diretriz, com recomendações bem próximas das trazidas pela HRS (destacando a importância do FDG-PET e da RMC), no entanto, admitindo a possibilidade de diagnosticar SC sem documentação histopatológica de sarcoidose (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 1</xref>).</p>
<table-wrap id="t3">
<label>Tabela 1</label>
<caption><title>Diretrizes diagnósticas para sarcoidose cardíaca</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="none">
<colgroup width="50%">
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874;">
<th align="center" valign="middle">HRS 2014 Expert Consensus</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">JCS 2016 Guidelines</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="center" valign="top">1. Diagnóstico histológico do tecido miocárdico</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1. Grupo de diagnóstico histológico</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="center" valign="top">A SC é diagnosticada na presença de granuloma não caseoso no exame histológico do tecido miocárdico sem nenhuma causa alternativa identificada (incluindo colorações negativas para organismos, se aplicável)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">A SC é diagnosticada histologicamente quando a biópsia endomiocárdica ou as peças cirúrgicas demonstram granulomas epitelioides não caseosos e quando granulomas devido a outras causas e reações sarcoides locais podem ser descartados</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" valign="top">2. Diagnóstico clínico a partir de estudos invasivos e não invasivos</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">2. Grupo de diagnóstico clínico (achados de biópsia miocárdica negativos ou pacientes não submetidos à biópsia miocárdica)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="center" valign="top"><list list-type="alpha-lower">
<list-item><p>Há diagnóstico histológico de sarcoidose extracardíaca</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Um ou mais dos seguintes estão presentes</p>
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>Cardiomiopatia ou bloqueio cardíaco responsivo a esteroides +/− imunossupressores</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>FEVE reduzida inexplicada (40%)</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>TV sustentada (espontânea ou induzida) inexplicável</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Bloqueio cardíaco Mobitz tipo II de 2° grau ou bloqueio cardíaco de 3° grau</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Captação irregular na PET cardíaca dedicada (em um padrão consistente com SC)</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Realce tardio de gadolínio na RMC (em um padrão consistente com SC)</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Captação opositiva de gálio (em um padrão consistente com SC)</p></list-item>
</list></list-item></list></td>
<td align="center" valign="top"><list list-type="order">
<list-item><p>Quando são encontrados granulomas epitelióides em outros órgãos que não o coração, e estão presentes achados clínicos fortemente sugestivos de envolvimento cardíaco</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Quando o paciente apresenta achados clínicos fortemente sugestivos de sarcoidose pulmonar ou oftálmica e pelo menos 2 dos 5 achados laboratoriais característicos de sarcoidose</p>
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>Linfadenopatia hilar bilateral</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Elevada atividade sérica da enzima conversora da angiotensina (ECA) ou níveis elevados da lisozima sérica</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Níveis séricos elevados de receptor interleucina-2 solúvel (SIL-2R)</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Acúmulo significativo de traçador na cintilografia com citrato de gálio 67 ou com 18-FDG-PET</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Uma elevada percentagem de linfócitos com uma relação CD4/CD8 &gt; 3,5 no líquido LBA</p></list-item></list></list-item></list></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN3"><p>18F-FDG-PET: tomografia por emissão de pósitrons com 18F-fluorodesoxiglicose; FEVE: fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo; HRS: Heart Rhythm Society; JCS: Japanese Circulation Society; PET: tomografia por emissão de pósitrons; RMC: ressonância magnética cardíaca; SC: sarcoidose cardíaca; TV: taquicardia ventricular. Adaptada de Diagnostic Guideline and Criteria for Sarcoidosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>Atualmente os critérios diagnósticos mais utilizados são os elaborados pela HRS e pela JCS. Apesar de ambos contemplarem os mesmos exames complementares em suas abordagens, como ECG/Holter, ecocardiograma, FDG-PET e RMC, estes critérios parecem ter uma baixa concordância entre si.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Diante desta dificuldade diagnóstica, alguns centros têm criado times multidisciplinares para avaliação dos casos suspeitos, usando os critérios citados como um norte, mas não se limitando a eles.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Este tipo de abordagem exige experiência por parte da equipe e grande familiaridade com as principais alterações nos métodos de imagens cardiovasculares associadas à SC.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Imagem cardiovascular na avaliação da sarcoidose cardíaca</title>
<p>Dentre os exames complementares utilizados na avaliação do paciente com suspeita de SC, a RMC e o FDG-PET/CT ocupam lugar de destaque, pela possibilidade de identificarem alterações ainda em fase inicial da doença, com manifestações cardiovasculares mínimas ou ausentes,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> o que seria a SC na forma silenciosa. Já o ECG e a ecocardiografia apesar de apresentarem uma menor acurácia, também podem sugerir o diagnóstico de SC em contexto clínico favorável com a vantagem de serem amplamente disponíveis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Papel do eletrocardiograma</title>
<p>O ECG pode auxiliar no diagnóstico de SC tanto como uma ferramenta de <italic>screening</italic> para envolvimento cardíaco, em indivíduos com diagnóstico prévio de sarcoidose não cardíaca, como também levantando a suspeita de sarcoidose como etiologia de alterações cardíacas específicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<p>Várias alterações eletrocardiográficas já foram descritas em indivíduos com SC. Alterações inespecíficas, quando presentes em indivíduos com diagnóstico prévio de sarcoidose, devem levantar a suspeita de envolvimento miocárdico.</p>
<p>Estas alterações podem variar desde arritmias ventriculares ou atriais, bloqueios atrioventriculares (BAV) em graus variados, bloqueios de ramo, hemibloqueios, fragmentação de QRS e alterações da onda T, como inversão, alternância e aumento de amplitude.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
<p>Outra importância do ECG nesta patologia vem do fato de a SC ser uma importante causa de BAV avançado e taquicardia ventricular sustentada, inicialmente encarados como idiopáticos em adultos de meia idade. Em algumas casuísticas a SC foi responsável por até 30% dos casos idiopáticos de BAV e taquicardia ventricular sustentada nessa faixa etária (&lt; 60 anos).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Vale destacar que a identificação da SC como causa do BAV possui importância prognóstica, uma vez que o tratamento imunossupressor tem potencial de reversão do bloqueio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
<p>Outra alteração já descrita em indivíduos com SC é a onda épsilon, alteração classicamente observada em indivíduos com cardiopatia arritmogênica do ventrículo direito. Há relatos de caso de pacientes que preenchiam critérios para cardiopatia arritmogênica do ventrículo direito pelos critérios <italic>task force</italic>, mas que na sequência foram diagnosticados com SC após BEM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Sinais como BAV avançado, disfunção ventricular esquerda importante, RT septal, ausência de história familiar e linfadenopatia mediastinal devem levantar a suspeita de SC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
<p>De forma geral, indivíduos com SC e sintomas cardiovasculares, apresentam algum grau de alteração eletrocardiográfica. No entanto, um ECG normal não descarta envolvimento miocárdico, mas reduz a probabilidade, sobretudo em pacientes sem sintomas cardiovasculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Papel do ecocardiograma</title>
<p>O ecocardiograma, por ser um exame prático e de fácil acesso, geralmente é o primeiro exame de imagem propriamente dito a ser solicitado no rastreamento de SC. Geralmente é alterado em indivíduos sintomáticos, mas comumente normal em indivíduos com a forma silenciosa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
<p>Seus achados são variáveis, incluindo desde aumento de espessura da parede ventricular (resultante de áreas focais de edema ou infiltração granulomatosa) ou, em fase mais avançada da doença, afilamentos (mais comumente septais, em sua porção basal), acinesias, discinesias ou até mesmo aneurismas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> As regiões mais comumente afetadas são a parede livre do ventrículo esquerdo e o septo interventricular. A fração de ejeção (FE) pode estar reduzida ou preservada, com graus variados de disfunção diastólica. No entanto, diferentemente da FE reduzida, a alteração de função diastólica até o momento não participa dos critérios diagnósticos para SC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
<p>O ecocardiograma possui sensibilidade limitada quando comparado a exames de imagem avançada como RMC e F-FDG-PET. Em um estudo com 321 pacientes com diagnóstico histopatológico de sarcoidose, o ecocardiograma apresentou uma sensibilidade de menos de 30%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Por isso, recomenda-se que em pacientes com sarcoidose extracardíaca e sintomas cardiovasculares, mesmo com ecocardiograma normal, deve-se prosseguir à investigação clínica com métodos de imagem avançada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<p>Mais recentemente, o uso de técnicas como speckle tracking parece melhorar a sensibilidade do ecocardiograma em identificar lesão miocárdica pela sarcoidose, com alguns trabalhos evidenciando redução do strain global longitudinal em pacientes com sarcoidose, FE normal e evidência de lesão miocárdica por FDG-PET/CT e RMC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Na avaliação de 23 pacientes com SC (versus o controle), o strain global longitudinal foi de −15,9% ± 2,5% versus −18,2% ± 2,7%. A piora deste parâmetro também esteve associada ao desenvolvimento de insuficiência cardíaca e internação hospitalar.</p>
<p>Além disso, o ecocardiograma também é uma ferramenta valiosa para avaliar as alterações cardiovasculares secundárias à doença pulmonar grave pela sarcoidose, como pressão de artéria pulmonar e alterações do ventrículo direito. Estas alterações cardiológicas não devem ser confundidas com o acometimento cardíaco pela infiltração granulomatosa da sarcoidose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Papel do 18F-FDG-PET/CT</title>
<p>O 18F-FDG é um análogo da glicose marcado com flúor radioativo, que permanece dentro da célula contribuindo para a geração da imagem do PET. Comumente usa-se a TC associada para correção de atenuação e correlação anatômica.</p>
<p>O racional deste método está no fato de as células inflamatórias, envolvidas no granuloma da sarcoidose, possuírem avidez para a captação de glicose e de seus análogos, permitindo assim a identificação de regiões com inflamação em atividade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
<p>O padrão habitual da imagem gerada pelo FDG na SC é do tipo focal e irregular, que pode se apresentar como áreas de hipercaptação em um miocárdio com a captação fisiológica totalmente suprimida ou apenas reduzida; neste último caso, gerando padrão de hipercaptação focal em um miocárdio de captação difusa (<italic>focal on difuse</italic>) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 1</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f6">
<label>Figura 1</label>
<caption><title>18F-FDG-PET/CT cardíaco com distribuição heterogênea do FDG nas paredes do ventrículo esquerdo com áreas focais com maior captação na parede inferior (segmento médio e basal) em paciente feminina, 46 anos, com biópsia endomiocárdica sugestiva para sarcoidose cardíaca. Dados do autor. 18F-FDG-PET/CT: tomografia por emissão de pósitrons com 18F-fluorodesoxiglicose acoplada com tomografia computadorizada.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-01-e20240007-gf02-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Geralmente o PET cardíaco é associado ao PET de corpo inteiro auxiliando na identificação de áreas sugestivas de acometimento extracardíaco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
<p>Um dos desafios deste método é que o miócito habitualmente também tem avidez para consumir glicose (e consequentemente a FDG). Por isso, para que o exame seja interpretável, é preciso realizar um preparo a fim de suprimir esta captação fisiológica do radiotraçador pelo miocárdio. Os protocolos podem variar entre os serviços, mas de forma geral recomenda-se uma dieta hiperlipídica restrita em carboidratos, nas 24 horas que antecedem o exame, associado a 12 horas de jejum.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> No entanto, a despeito disto, em até cerca de 25% dos casos não há supressão adequada da captação miocárdica do FDG, impossibilitando a interpretação do exame.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Em alguns centros é comum administra-se também heparina não fracionada com o objetivo de aumentar a circulação de ácidos graxos livre, o que potencialmente poderia contribuir para suprimir a avidez do miócito por glicose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
<p>Importante lembrar que captação miocárdica de FDG não é sinônimo de SC. Outras condições também podem gerar captação miocárdica do FDG, como a própria captação fisiológica (que normalmente se apresentará como uma captação difusa), miocardites de etiologias diversas, acometimento cardíaco por doenças reumatológicas, miocárdio hibernante, e até mesmo algumas cardiomiopatias genéticas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> Dessa forma, o exame precisa ser interpretado dentro do contexto clínico, buscando excluir os diagnósticos diferenciais, sobretudo doença isquêmica. A presença de captação extracardíaca parece aumentar significativamente a especificidade de SC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
<p>Como o F-FDG-PET avalia inflamação ativa, um exame normal não descarta a presença de SC, apenas indica que não há processo inflamatório em atividade no miocárdio naquele momento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> A intensidade da captação é quantificada através da unidade standardized uptake value (SUV), cujo cálculo leva em consideração a concentração de radioatividade na região de interesse, dose injetada e o peso do paciente.</p>
<p>A sensibilidade e especificidade descritas na literatura giram em torno de um pouco mais de 80%. Kim et al. observaram em metanálise com 891 pacientes oriundos de 17 estudos uma sensibilidade de 84% e especificidade de 83%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Uma limitação importante destes dados é a não utilização da histopatologia como método de referência, e sim dos critérios da JMHW, publicados em 2006.</p>
<p>Além da grande utilidade do F-FDG-PET na avaliação diagnóstica de SC, este exame também possui implicações terapêuticas e prognósticas.</p>
<p>As principais diretrizes sobre o tema (HRS e JCS) orientam a imunossupressão diante de pacientes com manifestações clínicas atribuídas à SC quando diante de indícios de inflamação detectada pelo PET-FDG.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> A redução da captação de FDG após imunossupressão parece ser um preditor de melhora de FE, de modo que este método também tem sido utilizado como parâmetro para avaliar resposta terapêutica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
<p>A persistência da captação do FDG em exames seriados é fortemente associada a pior prognóstico, chegando a aumentar o risco de eventos cardiovasculares maiores em até 20 vezes em pacientes não respondedores à imunossupressão.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
<p>Outro importante preditor de pior prognóstico é a captação de FDG no ventrículo direito, associada ao aumento de mortalidade, arritmias ventriculares e queda da FE do ventrículo esquerdo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
<p>O estudo de perfusão quando associado ao PET-FDG também agrega informação prognóstica, de modo que pacientes com captação miocárdica de FDG associada a alterações perfusionais nestas regiões (o que seria o <italic>mismatch</italic>) parecem ter pior prognóstico do que aqueles com inflamação miocárdica mas perfusão normal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> Os estudos de perfusão podem ser realizados através da própria PET/CT utilizando radiotraçadores como amônia marcada com nitrogênio-13 e rubídio-82, pouco utilizados devido ao alto custo, ou com a cintilografia de perfusão.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
<p>Para o futuro espera-se a utilização de radiotraçadores que não sejam habitualmente captados pelo miocárdio normal, e que consequentemente dispensem preparos com dietas, como os análogos da somatostatina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Papel da ressonância magnética cardíaca</title>
<p>A RMC é um exame indispensável na avaliação de pacientes com suspeita de SC. Além de avaliar com grande acurácia detalhes da morfologia e função dos ventrículos direito e esquerdo, também permite identificar indícios de inflamação, e principalmente necrose e fibrose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
<p>A RMC tem a vantagem de não usar radiação e de utilizar contraste com baixo risco de eventos adversos, o gadolínio.</p>
<p>Um dos principais recursos da RMC é análise do RT, detectando a expansão da matriz extracelular, que sugere, sobretudo na fase mais avançada da doença, a presença de fibrose (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura 2</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f7">
<label>Figura 2</label>
<caption><title>RMC com presença de realce tardio mesocárdico em parede inferior de paciente masculino, 38 anos, com diagnóstico de sarcoidose cardíaca. Dados do autor. RMC: ressonância magnética cardíaca.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-01-e20240007-gf03-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Apesar de não haver achados patognomônicos, os padrões de RT mais comumente observados na SC são focal, mesocárdico ou subepicárdico em regiões basais de septo e parede lateral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Estes padrões não são específicos e podem ser encontrados em diversas outras condições de lesão miocárdica, sobretudo inflamatórias. No entanto, até mesmo padrões transmurais podem ocorrer.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
<p>Recentemente, foi descrito um padrão de RT que a princípio parece ser específico de SC, o <italic>hug sign</italic>. Este é caracterizado por um RT que se estende do septo interventricular em direção ao ventrículo direito, observado em casos de SC isolada com diagnóstico histopatológico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> No entanto, este padrão já foi observado na miocardite de células gigantes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
<p>A RMC também pode sugerir a presença de inflamação miocárdica através da presença de hipersinal em T2, que indica excesso de líquido no miocárdio. No entanto, ausência desta alteração não exclui a presença de inflamação quando comparada com o PET.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> Na RMC, também é possível estimar a fibrose intersticial difusa através dos mapas T1 e T2, sugerindo sarcoidose subclínica, apesar de a utilidade clínica deste parâmetro ainda ser incerta.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
<p>A real acurácia, sensibilidade e especificidade dos exames de imagem na SC ainda são bastante discutíveis, uma vez que na maioria dos estudos estes métodos não foram comparados com o padrão ouro, a BEM, mas sim, com critérios diagnósticos, geralmente os propostos pela HRS<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> e JMHW.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Estes estudos descrevem sensibilidade que varia de 75% a 100% e especificidade variando de 77% a 85%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
<p>Assim, em indivíduos com sarcoidose extracardíaca a presença de RT é indicativa de provável SC, no entanto, um exame negativo não pode excluir a presença de doença cardíaca, como por exemplo, ainda em fase inicial.</p>
<p>Até o momento nenhum grande trabalho prospectivo foi desenhado com o objetivo de comparar a acurácia entre ressonância e PET no diagnóstico de SC. Alguns serviços sugerem diante de forte suspeita de SC iniciar a investigação pela RMC antes do PET, por alguns motivos, como não depender de preparo e fornecer boa caracterização estrutural e tecidual do coração. No entanto, a impressão no presente momento é de que se tratam de exames que oferecem informações complementares, o PET sinais de atividade inflamatória e RMC as sequelas cicatriciais<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 2</xref>).</p>
<table-wrap id="t4">
<label>Tabela 2</label>
<caption><title>Interpretação diagnóstica de dados combinados da RMC com 18F-FDG-PET</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="none">
<colgroup width="33%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874;">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Interpretação</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Achados na RMC</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Achados no 18 F-FDG-PET</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top">Doença ativa com presença de cicatriz e inflamação</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">Presença de RT</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">Captação de 18F-FDG observada</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="top">Cicatriz sem inflamação ativa (doença inativa)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">Presença de RT</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">Não foi observada captação de 18F-FDG</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top">Normal (sem doença)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">Ausência de RT</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">Ausência de captação de 18F-FDG</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="top">Doença precoce/falso positivo</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">Ausência de RT</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">Captação de 18F-FDG observada</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN4"><p>18F-FDG-PET: tomografia por emissão de pósitrons com 18F-fluorodesoxiglicose; RMC: ressonância magnética cardíaca; RT: realce tardio. Adaptada de Diagnostic Guideline and Criteria for Sarcoidosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>Além de utilidade diagnóstica, já foi observado em vários estudos o importante papel prognóstico. Uma metanálise com 694 pacientes observou em pacientes com SC e RT maior mortalidade cardiovascular, mortalidade por todas as causas e arritmias ventriculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> Padrões específicos de RT como acometimento do ventrículo direito e padrão multifocal também parecem estar associados a pior prognóstico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
<p>Dentre as limitações deste exame, destacamos a contraindicação, ao menos relativa, em indivíduos com taxa de filtração glomerular &lt; 30 mL/min/1,73 m<sup>2</sup> e a dificuldade de interpretação das imagens (devido à presença de artefatos) em indivíduos portadores de dispositivos cardíacos, como marcapasso e cardiodesfibrilador implantável, ainda que compatíveis com aparelhos de ressonância magnética.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Integrando os exames de imagem na avaliação do paciente com suspeita de sarcoidose cardíaca</title>
<p>Quando se discute a abordagem diagnóstica ideal para indivíduos com suspeita de SC é imprescindível a distinção de pelo menos dois principais cenários: o dos indivíduos que já possuem o diagnóstico prévio de sarcoidose extracardíaca e os que não possuem.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
<p>Nos primeiros, qualquer sintoma cardiovascular ou alteração em ECG/ ecocardiograma, aumentam a probabilidade de que o miocárdio também seja acometido pela sarcoidose, indicando prosseguir a investigação com RMC, geralmente seguida de FDG-PET, e em casos excepcionais, da realização de BEM<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figura 3</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f8">
<label>Figura 3</label>
<caption><title>Fluxograma de investigação diagnóstica de sarcoidose cardíaca, em paciente com diagnóstico de sarcoidose extracardíaca. 18-FDG-PET: tomografia por emissão de pósitrons com <sup>18</sup>F-fluorodesoxiglicose; BEM: biópsia endomiocárdica; ECG: eletrocardiograma; RMC: ressonância magnética cardíaca; SC: sarcoidose cardíaca; SPECT: tomografia computadorizada por emissão de fóton único. Adaptada de Montera et al.<sup>49</sup></title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-01-e20240007-gf04-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>O grande desafio diagnóstico é o segundo cenário, de indivíduos com alterações cardiovasculares como insuficiência cardíaca, BAV avançado ou arritmias ventriculares, sem diagnóstico prévio de nenhuma condição sistêmica, em que o leque de etiologias é imenso, e a SC passa a ser apenas uma dentre as dezenas de possibilidades. Nestes casos, a suspeita de SC deve ser levantada principalmente diante de casos de BAV avançado ou taquicardia ventricular de causa inexplicada em menores de 60 anos, ou até mesmo em portadores de insuficiência cardíaca não justificada pelas etiologias mais prevalentes, sobretudo com a presença de afilamento do septo basal e afilamento ou espessamento da parede ventricular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Para estes indivíduos a investigação deve contemplar tanto a caracterização do padrão de lesão miocárdica, com RMC e FDG-PET cardíaco, em busca de sinais que possam sugerir SC, como também o FDG-PET de corpo inteiro, com objetivo de identificar eventuais indícios de sarcoidose extracardíaca. A busca por indícios de sarcoidose extracardíaca pode ser refinada com avaliação oftalmológica, dermatológica e pulmonar. Em casos selecionados a BEM também será recomendada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Take-home messages</title>
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>A sarcoidose cardíaca é uma doença de diagnóstico complexo.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Geralmente seu diagnóstico é firmado sem a confirmação de histologia miocárdica, baseando-se em alterações de exames de imagem.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>A maior parte das alterações observadas nestes exames são achados inespecíficos que precisam ser interpretados no contexto clínico do paciente.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>A ausência de estudos que comparem a acurácia destes exames com o padrão ouro (a histopatologia) dificulta o entendimento sobre a real capacidade diagnóstica de cada método, reforçando a importância do uso de multimodalidade de imagem na investigação dos casos suspeitos.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>A RMC e o PET parecem ser os exames de imagem com a maior acurácia fornecendo informações complementares a respeito da presença e extensão de fibrose e inflamação, respectivamente.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>A sarcoidose cardíaca deve ser suspeitada sempre diante distúrbios importantes do ritmo ou insuficiência cardíaca, de causa inexplicada, sobretudo em indivíduos de meia-idade.</p></list-item>
</list>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusão</title>
<p>A SC é uma doença de etiologia ainda pouco compreendida e de diagnóstico desafiador, com a maior parte dos diagnósticos firmados sem a confirmação de histologia miocárdica, baseando-se em alterações de exames de imagem. Apesar da baixa prevalência, a sua identificação é de fundamental importância devido ao prognóstico reservado associado à existência de tratamentos com potencial de modificar a história natural dessa doença. Felizmente, nos últimos anos observou-se um grande avanço nos métodos de imagem cardiovascular permitindo maior entendimento sobre aspectos diagnósticos e prognósticos. No entanto, ainda se faz necessário a realização de mais estudos que envolvam a comparação direta entre os exames de imagem com os achados histopatológicos de miocárdios acometidos pela sarcoidose, para que assim possamos adentrar em uma nova era de diagnósticos mais precisos.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn5"><p><bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold></p>
<p>O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6"><p><bold>Vinculação Acadêmica</bold></p>
<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn7"><p><bold>Vinculação Acadêmica</bold></p>
<p>Este artigo é parte de tese de Doutorado de Diego Moraes de Moura pela Universidade de São Paulo.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn8"><p><bold>Aprovação Ética e Consentimento Informado</bold></p>
<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
</back>
</sub-article>
</article>