<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.1 20151215//EN" "https://jats.nlm.nih.gov/publishing/1.1/JATS-journalpublishing1.dtd">
<article xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" article-type="review-article" xml:lang="en">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abcimg</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq Bras Cardiol: Imagem cardiovasc.</abbrev-journal-title></journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name></publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abcimg.20240003i</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20240003i</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Review Article</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Left Atrial Strain: Clinical Applications and Prognostic Implications</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0001-4696-3895</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Figueiredo</surname><given-names>Fernanda de Azevedo</given-names></name><role>Conception and design of the research</role><role>analysis and interpretation of the data</role><role>writing of the manuscript</role><role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5418-6646</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Costa</surname><given-names>Admilson Lemos da</given-names><suffix>Filho</suffix></name><role>writing of the manuscript</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3100-2565</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Figueiredo</surname><given-names>Flávio de Azevedo</given-names></name><role>Conception and design of the research</role><role>writing of the manuscript</role><role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0000-3595-6350</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Chavez</surname><given-names>Luz Marina Tacuri</given-names></name><role>Conception and design of the research</role><role>writing of the manuscript</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0003-5806-9465</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Teixeira</surname><given-names>Marcia Fabrícia Almeida</given-names></name><role>Conception and design of the research</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0004-2008-4245</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Barbosa</surname><given-names>William Silva</given-names></name><role>acquisition of data</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0002-4100-3438</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Bronzatto</surname><given-names>Pedro Henrique</given-names></name><role>acquisition of data</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0008-6430-7999</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Cintra</surname><given-names>Priscila Rabelo</given-names></name><role>writing of the manuscript</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8801-1828</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Nunes</surname><given-names>Maria Carmo Pereira</given-names></name><role>Conception and design of the research</role><role>acquisition of data</role><role>analysis and interpretation of the data</role><role>obtaining financing</role><role>writing of the manuscript</role><role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/></contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Minas Gerai</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Lavras</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Lavras</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Lavras, Lavras, MG – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Maria do Carmo Pereira Nunes</bold> • Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais. Professor Alfredo Balena, 190, Santa Efigênia. Postal code: <postal-code>30130-100</postal-code>. Belo Horizonte, MG – Brazil E-mail: <email>mcarmo@waymail.com.br</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><p><bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold></p>
<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><p>Editor responsible for the review: Marcelo Dantas Tavares de Melo</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>28</day>
<month>03</month>
<year>2024</year></pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2024</year></pub-date>
<volume>37</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
<elocation-id>e20240003</elocation-id>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>25</day>
<month>01</month>
<year>2024</year>
</date>
<date date-type="rev-recd">
<day>30</day>
<month>01</month>
<year>2024</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>08</day>
<month>02</month>
<year>2024</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>Left atrial (LA) strain, obtained using two-dimensional speckle tracking echocardiography (2DSTE), has emerged as an accurate method for evaluating LA function. Recently, it has gained prominence in clinical practice due to its significant prognostic value in various cardiovascular diseases, standing out due to its greater sensitivity compared to traditional methods of volumetric analysis and Doppler parameters.</p>
<p>This review article addresses the complex function of the LA and its close interdependence with left ventricular (LV) function, highlighting its relevance in cardiac performance. The LA performs three distinct functions, acting as a reservoir during ventricular systole, as a conduit in early diastole, and as a contractile chamber during the atrial contraction phase.</p>
<p>This review analyzes the normal patterns of LA strain and its application in various clinical conditions, such as atrial fibrillation (AF), heart failure, coronary artery disease, obesity, diabetes mellitus, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, and cardiac amyloidosis. The crucial role of atrial strain in rheumatic mitral stenosis (MS) is highlighted due to its capacity to predict clinical outcomes.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords</title>
<kwd>Global Longitudinal Strain</kwd>
<kwd>Left Atrial Function</kwd>
<kwd>Atrial Fibrillation</kwd>
<kwd>Echocardiography</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<funding-group>
<award-group>
<funding-source>CNPq</funding-source>
<award-id>09/2020</award-id>
</award-group>
</funding-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="10"/>
<table-count count="2"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="59"/>
</counts>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<fig id="f1">
<caption><title>LA: left atrium; LAScd_ED: left atrial strain in the conduit phase in end diastole; LASct_ED: left atrial strain in the contractile phase in end diastole; LASr_ED: left atrial strain in the reservoir phase in end diastole; LV: left ventricle; MR: mitral regurgitation; MS: mitral stenosis.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-01-e20240003-gf01.tif"/>
</fig>
<sec>
<title>LA function</title>
<p>LA function is closely interdependent with LV function, and it plays a crucial role in preserving optimal cardiac performance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Assessment of LA function in both physiological and pathological states is essential to predict adverse outcomes in various cardiovascular conditions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> The LA performs three fundamental functions: it acts as a reservoir, functions as a conduit, and exerts a contractile function<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f2">
<label>Figure 1</label>
<caption><title>LA function: variation in LA volume during the cardiac cycle under physiological conditions.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-01-e20240003-gf02.tif"/>
</fig>
<sec>
<title>1) Reservoir function:</title>
<p>The LA functions as a reservoir receiving blood from the pulmonary veins. It begins with the closure of the mitral valve and encompasses ventricular systole, isovolumetric relaxation, and LA relaxation. This atrial function is modulated by ventricular contraction descending from the base of the LV, by right ventricular systolic pressure transmitted through pulmonary circulation, and by the properties of the LA, such as relaxation and chamber compliance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>2) Conduit function:</title>
<p>During early diastole, the LA acts as a conduit. The flow occurs passively, originating in the pulmonary veins and moving towards the LV. This function begins immediately after the opening of the mitral valve, encompassing the period of ventricular relaxation and diastasis. It ends shortly before atrial contraction, before the P wave is recorded on electrocardiogram. This function is especially modulated by LV diastolic properties in healthy individuals, considering LV relaxation and diastolic pressure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>3) Contractile function:</title>
<p>This phase occurs at the end of ventricular diastole. During atrial contraction, there is active emptying of the atrium, contributing 20% to 30% of cardiac output in the absence of heart disease. The effectiveness of this function is directly related to venous return (atrial preload), LV end-diastolic pressure (atrial afterload), and the intrinsic contractility of the atrial myocardium.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Echocardiographic assessment of LA function</title>
<p>Non-invasive assessment of LA function has evolved considerably, surpassing volumetric analyses and Doppler parameters. Modalities such as computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging have historically been used, but advanced echocardiographic techniques have recently gone on to provide more accurate assessment.</p>
<p>Analyses of atrial diameter and volume do not always reflect LA function, especially in later stages of pathological conditions, during which they may undergo changes. Thus, parameters that more accurately express LA function reveal complementary and incremental information in relation to traditional measures. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>The advent of advanced echocardiographic techniques has made it possible to better assess LA function. Strain measured by 2DSTE is a non-invasive method that allows automatic, frame by frame tracking of points in the myocardium throughout the cardiac cycle.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
<p>The advantages of assessing LA function by means of strain are noteworthy. The capacity to discriminate between passive and active movement of myocardial tissue stands out. Furthermore, strain parameters are relatively independent from tethering effects and less dependent on load, making it possible to assess different phases of atrial function throughout the cardiac cycle.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p>These advances represent a significant contribution to a more comprehensive understanding of LA function, offering valuable insights for clinical practice.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Assessment of atrial function by strain</title>
<p>During the reservoir phase, the LA expands as it fills with blood coming from the pulmonary veins. In this scenario, atrial longitudinal strain increases, reaching a positive peak at the end of atrial filling. After mitral valve opening, rapid emptying of the LA occurs, resulting in a decrease in atrial longitudinal strain, until it reaches a plateau, corresponding to the period of atrial diastasis. In the atrial contraction phase, an additional reduction in strain values is observed, due to the shortening of the wall of this chamber.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<p>The contributions of the reservoir, conduit, and contractile functions of the LA to LV filling are approximately 50%, 30%, and 20%, respectively, in healthy individuals.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> There are differences in the nomenclature used to describe atrial strain that depend on which cycle (atrial or ventricular) is being used as a reference point, i.e., as baseline zero.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> If the ventricular cycle is used, the QRS complex is the zero reference. Thus, the positive longitudinal peak corresponds to the atrial reservoir function (LASr), occurring during isovolumic contraction and relaxation of the LV. The periods of rapid filling and atrial contraction correspond, respectively, to the atrial conduit function (LAScd) and the pump or contraction function (LASct)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figures 2</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">3</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f3">
<label>Figure 2</label>
<caption><title>Nomenclature of strain based on the choice of the zero reference point. ECG: electrocardiogram; LAScd: left atrial strain in the conduit phase; LASct: left atrial strain in the contractile phase; LASr: left atrial strain in the reservoir phase.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-01-e20240003-gf03.tif"/>
</fig>
<fig id="f4">
<label>Figure 3</label>
<caption><title>Analysis of LA strain using the QRS as a reference. Conduit: conduit phase; Contractile: contractile or pump phase; LAScd_ED: left atrial strain in the conduit phase _ end diastole; LASct_ED: left atrial strain in the contractile phase _ end diastole; LASr_ED: left atrial strain in the reservoir phase _ end diastole; Reservoir: reservoir phase.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-01-e20240003-gf04.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>If the atrial cycle is used as a reference, the beginning of the P wave on electrocardiogram is the zero reference. The first negative peak represents the pump function; the positive peak corresponds to the conduit function, and their sum represents the reservoir function<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figures 2</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">4</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f5">
<label>Figura 4</label>
<caption><title>LA strain measurements using the QRS as a reference; B) LA strain measurements using the P wave as a reference. LAScd_AC: left atrial strain in the conduit phase _ pre-atrial contraction; LAScd_ED: left atrial strain in the conduit phase _ end diastole; LASct_AC: left atrial strain in the contractile phase _ pre-atrial contraction; LASct_ED: left atrial strain in the contractile phase _ end diastole; LASr_AC: left atrial strain in the reservoir phase _ pre-atrial contraction; LASr_ED: left atrial strain in the reservoir phase _ end diastole.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-01-e20240003-gf05.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>There are some advantages to adopting end diastole as a reference point, such as the feasibility of obtaining measurements in all patients, regardless of heart rate. It is also worth emphasizing the ease of obtaining the reservoir strain measurement, which is clinically relevant, as it represents the parameter of atrial strain with most supporting evidence regarding its prognostic usefulness.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
<p>Regarding normal LA strain values, a meta-analysis comprising 40 studies, including 2,542 healthy individuals, established the following reference values:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> LASr: 39% (95% confidence interval: 38% to 41%), LAScd: 23% (95% confidence interval: 21% to 25%), and LASct: 17% (95% confidence interval: 16% to 19%).</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>LA strain in the clinical context</title>
<sec>
<title>LA strain as a predictor of AF</title>
<p>Atrial dysfunction is associated with the presence of fibrosis, especially in cases of AF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Although nuclear magnetic resonance is considered the gold standard for evaluating atrial fibrosis, its cost and availability limitations have led to a search for alternatives. The measurement of LA strain by 2DSTE has revealed an inverse correlation with the extent of fibrosis, presenting itself as a viable alternative.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Correlations between LA strain and histological fibrosis have been established in patients with mitral valve disease, highlighting a negative relationship between strain values and extent of fibrosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> A recent study also showed that LA reservoir strain was correlated with the occurrence of paroxysmal AF, preceding atrial dilation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
<p>In patients with AF undergoing catheter ablation, peak systolic LA strain has been shown to be related to recurrence of AF after the procedure. These findings highlight the potential of LA strain as a predictor of AF and its clinical usefulness in different cardiovascular contexts.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
<p>Hauser et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> conducted a prospective study with 4,466 participants with the primary objective of evaluating the incidence of AF over an average follow-up of 5 years. During this period, 154 (4.3%) participants developed AF. In univariate analyses, they observed that peak atrial longitudinal strain (PALS), peak atrial contraction strain (PACS), and strain during the conduit phase were significantly associated with the development of AF. The results of multivariate analyses indicated that both PALS and PACS remained independent predictors of AF. Furthermore, PALS and PACS maintained a significant association with the development of AF, even in participants with normal LA size and preserved LV systolic function. Patients with atrial strain below 23% had a 6.8 times greater risk of developing AF compared to those with strain of 23% or greater.</p>
<p>In another study, Candan et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> included 53 patients with significant mitral regurgitation in sinus rhythm who underwent mitral valve surgery. During the postoperative period, 15 patients (28.3%) developed AF. The results revealed that both PACS and PALS were significantly lower in the group of patients who developed AF.</p>
<p>In a study conducted by Park et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> which analyzed 2,461 patients with acute heart failure over 5 years of follow-up, 397 patients (16.1%) developed new-onset AF. The incidence of AF was significantly higher in patients with reduced LA longitudinal strain values compared to those with normal strain values. These findings suggest an association between atrial dysfunction, measured by strain, and the development of AF in patients with acute heart failure.</p>
<p>In the evaluation of cryptogenic ischemic stroke, Pathan et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> included 538 patients who underwent transthoracic echocardiography with LA strain. During follow-up, 61 (11%) developed AF. These patients had significantly lower atrial strain values compared to those who did not develop AF during follow-up.</p>
<p>Strain indices, especially LASr with a cutoff of ≤ 21.4% and LASct with a cutoff of &gt; 10.4%, have been identified as high-risk markers. The isolated analysis of these indices revealed a subgroup of patients at considerably higher risk, making them candidates for empirical anticoagulation. This is due to the incremental and independent value of atrial strain in predicting the risk of thromboembolic events, superior to the CHA2DS2-VASc score.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>LA strain in rheumatic MS</title>
<p>LA function plays a crucial role in rheumatic MS, influencing blood flow through the stenosed valve.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
<p>In MS, the reservoir function of the LA, which is essential for ventricular filling during diastole, is impaired due to the compensatory elevation in atrial pressure, fibrosis, and dilation. The conduit function, which is responsible for passive filling of the LV, is also affected due to reduced duration of ventricular diastole. In patients with MS, an initial increase is observed in the contractile function of the LA as a compensatory response; however, this function decreases with the progression of the disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Studies have shown that, even in mild MS, the LA reservoir and conduit strain may be reduced.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
<p>LA strain assessment has shown to be valuable in predicting adverse events in patients with MS, such as hospitalizations, AF, thromboembolism, symptoms of heart failure, and the need for mitral valve intervention.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> LASr has emerged as a significant prognostic indicator, which is reduced even in early stages of mild MS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> In follow-up studies, LASr was shown to be a consistent predictor of AF and other adverse outcomes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
<p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref> displays an overview of the main studies that have used LA strain to evaluate rheumatic MS, highlighting its role in risk stratification and prognosis of these patients.</p>
<table-wrap id="t1">
<label>Table 1</label>
<caption><title>Main studies using atrial strain in the context of rheumatic MS</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="25%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874;">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Study</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Population</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Objectives</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Main findings</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Ancona et al., 2013</bold> <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">101 asymptomatic patients with MS <break/>70 controls</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Assess the function of the LA in MS using LA strain and its value in predicting AF at 4 years of follow-up.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">LA dimensions, volumes, and PASP were significantly increased, and LA strain was significantly decreased in patients with MS. Patients who progressed to AF (20%) were older, with no difference in LA dimensions or volumes. <break/>The best predictor of AF at 4 years of follow-up was LA peak systolic strain, with a cutoff value of 17.4%.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Pourafkari et al., 2015</bold> <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">603 patients with MS (33% with AF)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Establish a mathematical model for predicting the risk of AF in patients with MS.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">The factors independently associated with AF were LA strain, right atrial pressure, age, and ejection fraction.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Chien et al., 2018</bold> <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">69 stable patients with MS</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Identify the determinants of NYHA functional class in patients with MS and assess the relationship between atrial strain and HF symptoms.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">In multivariate analyses, adjusted for the use of diuretics, LASr was an independent predictor of NYHA functional class.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Mahfouz et al., 2020</bold> <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">75 patients with mild MS in sinus rhythm <break/>40 healthy controls</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Assess atrial strain in patients with mild MS and correlate it with exercise tolerance.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Patients with mild MS had significantly lower LASr and LAScd values. <break/>Patients with exercise intolerance (MET &lt; 8) had lower LASr, LAScd, and LASct values. <break/>LASr ≤ 26.5% was an independent predictor of low exercise capacity in patients with mild MS.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Vriz et al., 2021</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">101 patients with severe MS</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Determine the correlation between atrial strain, PASP, and other parameters of RV function <break/>Verify whether atrial strain is a predictor of development of AF.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">With the increase in LASr there was a decrease in PASP and PVR. <break/>RV function increased significantly with the increase in LASr. <break/>LASr was one of the best predictors of AF.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Kaur V et al., 2021</bold> <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">83 patients with MS undergoing PTMC</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Assess the association between LA-RAs and increased PVR measured by hemodynamics.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Low LA-RAs correlated with more severe MS, higher mean pulmonary artery pressure, and pulmonary capillary wedge pressure, when compared with patients with high LA-RAs. <break/>LA-RAs showed a strong correlation with PH. <break/>LA-RAs increased significantly after PTMC.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Stassen et al., 2022</bold> <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">125 patients with MS, with no history of AF</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Assess the association of atrial strain with the development of AF in the follow-up of patients with MS.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">During a mean follow-up period of 32 months, 41 patients (32.8%) developed new-onset AF. <break/>Patients who developed AF had significantly more impaired LASr than those who remained in sinus rhythm. <break/>LASr &lt; 21% was independently associated with the development of AF during follow-up.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Mehta et al., 2022</bold> <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">80 patients with severe MS in sinus rhythm <break/>40 controls</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Assess LA function using strain and its correlation with NYHA functional class and echocardiographic parameters in patients with severe MS and PH, compared with the control group.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">The mean LASr, LAScd, and LASct values in patients with MS were significantly lower than in controls.</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN1"><p>LA: left atrium; AF: atrial fibrillation; HF: heart failure; MS: mitral stenosis; LA-RAs: left atrial to right atrial strain ratio; LAScd: left atrial strain during the conduit phase; LASct: left atrial strain during the contractile phase; LASr: left atrial strain during the reservoir phase; NYHA: New York Heart Association; PASP: pulmonary artery systolic pressure; PH: pulmonary hypertension; PTMC: percutaneous mitral commissurotomy; PVR: pulmonary vascular resistance; RV: right ventricle.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>LA strain in heart failure</title>
<p>Increased filling pressures represent a crucial condition in the pathophysiology of heart failure. In this context, LA strain can be used as a diagnostic and prognostic tool, especially in heart failure with reduced ejection fraction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
<p>Reduced LASr (LA strain in the reservoir phase) is associated with increased LV systolic dysfunction, as well as right ventricular systolic and diastolic dysfunction, risk of AF, elevated levels of brain natriuretic peptide, and worsening of NYHA functional class. It is also an important predictor of death and hospitalization due to heart failure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
<p>In addition to these prognostic associations, LA strain can be used to evaluate therapeutic response. Optimized therapy reduces pre- and afterload, in addition to reducing the metabolic demand of the myocyte, reducing myocardial work. These effects lead to reduced LA overload, improving strain parameters.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
<p>LA strain has also shown to be a promising prognostic marker in heart failure with preserved ejection fraction. Patients with heart failure with preserved ejection fraction have reduced LASr and LASct values, which are strongly associated with increased pressure and resistance in the pulmonary artery, reduced cardiac output, and low exercise tolerance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
<p>Despite the aforementioned evidence, the value of LA strain as a predictor of hospitalization and death in HF, regardless of LV strain, remains uncertain.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>LA strain in various cardiovascular conditions</title>
<p>LA dysfunction in the context of coronary artery disease, despite initially being mild, can be identified through analysis of LA strain.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> Atrial strain in the reservoir phase (LASr) has been observed to be is significantly reduced in patients with involvement of the anterior descending artery, and reduced values are correlated with greater severity of the coronary lesion. This evidence supports the view that LA strain not only plays a diagnostic role, but also provides crucial prognostic information. Therefore, when weighing between conservative and interventional treatment approaches, the inclusion of LA strain analysis can contribute to clinical decision-making.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
<p>Obesity leads to increased cardiac output and stroke volume, increased afterload, systemic inflammation (with myopathic effect), in addition to the paracrine effect of epicardial fat. These factors are associated with the occurrence of atrial remodeling, which can be detected early by analyzing LA strain.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> In a study carried out by Chirinos et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> involving 1,531 patients, increased body mass index was associated with reduced LASr and LASct (atrial strain in the reservoir and conduit phases), and a compensatory increase in contractile strain (LASct), when adjusted for age and sex. The authors also observed that, as body mass index increases, there is a decrease in this atrial compensatory contractile function, which increases the likelihood of developing heart failure.</p>
<p>Diabetes mellitus is an important cardiovascular risk factor, and its prevalence is growing significantly.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> Long-standing diabetes mellitus is associated with LV diastolic dysfunction, LA dilation, and greater predisposition to heart failure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> Previous studies have shown reduced LA strain in the reservoir and conduit phases (LASr and LASct) in patients with diabetes,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> even in the absence of systemic arterial hypertension and LV hypertrophy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> The impact of diabetes mellitus on atrial remodeling contributes to a greater risk of developing AF in patients with diabetes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
<p>Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy induces progressive LV diastolic dysfunction, with a consequent increase in filling pressures, which are transmitted to the LA, culminating in the remodeling and progressive dilation of this chamber. As a clinical manifestation, patients present heart failure, AF, ventricular arrhythmias, and sudden death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> Previous studies have shown that hypertrophic cardiomyopathy leads to a progressive stiffening of the LA myocardium with reduced reservoir function in this chamber.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup> A study with 76 patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy provided evidence of an association between this condition and reduced indices of LA conduit and contractile strain (LAScd and LASct).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> This study also found that lower LASct values correlated with a significant increase in the rates of hospitalization for heart failure and AF.</p>
<p>Cardiac amyloidosis leads to progressive thickening of the LV myocardium with consequent diastolic dysfunction and elevated filling pressures.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> This increase in LV filling pressures, associated with the deposition of amyloid proteins in the atrial myocardium, causes progressive LA dysfunction and dilation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> Mohty et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> in a study with 77 patients with cardiac amyloidosis (type AL, light chain amyloidosis), showed reduced LA reservoir strain values (LASr), with significantly lower 2-year survival in patients with LASr &lt; 14%. Another study conducted by Nochioka et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup> found reduced values of atrial strain in the reservoir, conduit, and contractile phases in individuals with cardiac amyloidosis, regardless of the subtype.</p>
<p>Mitral regurgitation causes progressive dilation and dysfunction of the LA, leading to an increased risk of developing AF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> In a study conducted by Yang et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> involving patients with severe primary mitral regurgitation, the reduction in LA strain in the reservoir phase was associated with higher mortality rates and need for mitral valve replacement surgery or repair after a follow-up period of 13.2 months. In another study, Ring et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup> evaluated 192 patients with mitral prolapse and regurgitation, observing that LA strain values in the reservoir and contractile phases were independent predictors of the need for mitral valve replacement. Although small, these studies show the relevance of atrial strain measurements for risk stratification and possible optimization of the ideal time to perform surgical interventions in this group of patients.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Challenges in current clinical applications of LA strain</title>
<p>The routine, widespread application of LA strain as a prognostic marker in different cardiovascular conditions is still limited. Comprehensive assessment of LA function requires joint analysis of both atrial pressure and volume. In the absence of modalities for direct assessment of LA pressure, estimates are made indirectly, which can be influenced both by LV dysfunction and by primary abnormalities in the LA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Furthermore, it is worth highlighting the variation in LA strain values obtained by different software platforms.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusions and future perspectives</title>
<p>LA strain has emerged as a promising tool in the assessment of various cardiovascular conditions, offering valuable insights for risk stratification and for monitoring the progression of heart diseases.</p>
<p>Notwithstanding its potential, it is crucial to recognize the need for prospective multicenter studies, in addition to the standardization of techniques and the development of specific guidelines on the interpretation and clinical application of atrial strain.</p>
<p>The establishment of specific guidelines will guarantee consistency and reliability in the interpretation of LA strain, leading to its widespread use in clinical practice.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1"><p><bold>Sources of Funding</bold></p>
<p>This study was partially funded by CNPq. Maria do Carmo P Nunes has a scientific productivity grant (PQ-1A) - CNPq Notice No. 09/2020.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2"><p><bold>Study Association</bold></p>
<p>This article is part of the thesis of master submitted by Fernanda de Azevedo Figueiredo, from Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3"><p><bold>Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate</bold></p>
<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
<ref-list>
<title>References</title>
<ref id="B1">
<label>1</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Gan</surname><given-names>GCH</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Ferkh</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Boyd</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Thomas</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Left Atrial Function: Evaluation by Strain Analysis</article-title>
<source>Cardiovasc Diagn Ther</source>
<year>2018</year>
<volume>8</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
<fpage>29</fpage>
<lpage>46</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.21037/cdt.2017.06.08</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Gan GCH, Ferkh A, Boyd A, Thomas L. Left Atrial Function: Evaluation by Strain Analysis. Cardiovasc Diagn Ther. 2018;8(1):29-46. doi: 10.21037/cdt.2017.06.08.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B2">
<label>2</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Jain</surname><given-names>V</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Ghosh</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Gupta</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Saijo</surname><given-names>Y</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Bansal</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Farwati</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Contemporary Narrative Review on Left Atrial Strain Mechanics in Echocardiography: Cardiomyopathy, Valvular Heart Disease and Beyond</article-title>
<source>Cardiovasc Diagn Ther</source>
<year>2021</year>
<volume>11</volume>
<issue>3</issue>
<fpage>924</fpage>
<lpage>938</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.21037/cdt-20-461</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Jain V, Ghosh R, Gupta M, Saijo Y, Bansal A, Farwati M, et al. Contemporary Narrative Review on Left Atrial Strain Mechanics in Echocardiography: Cardiomyopathy, Valvular Heart Disease and Beyond. Cardiovasc Diagn Ther. 2021;11(3):924-38. doi: 10.21037/cdt-20-461.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B3">
<label>3</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Rosca</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Lancellotti</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Popescu</surname><given-names>BA</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Piérard</surname><given-names>LA</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Left Atrial Function: Pathophysiology, Echocardiographic Assessment, and Clinical Applications</article-title>
<source>Heart</source>
<year>2011</year>
<volume>97</volume>
<issue>23</issue>
<fpage>1982</fpage>
<lpage>1989</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1136/heartjnl-2011-300069</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Rosca M, Lancellotti P, Popescu BA, Piérard LA. Left Atrial Function: Pathophysiology, Echocardiographic Assessment, and Clinical Applications. Heart. 2011;97(23):1982-9. doi: 10.1136/heartjnl-2011-300069.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B4">
<label>4</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Pathan</surname><given-names>F</given-names></name>
<name><surname>D’Elia</surname><given-names>N</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Nolan</surname><given-names>MT</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Marwick</surname><given-names>TH</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Negishi</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Normal Ranges of Left Atrial Strain by Speckle-Tracking Echocardiography: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis</article-title>
<source>J Am Soc Echocardiogr</source>
<year>2017</year>
<volume>30</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
<fpage>59.e8</fpage>
<lpage>70.e8</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.echo.2016.09.007</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Pathan F, D’Elia N, Nolan MT, Marwick TH, Negishi K. Normal Ranges of Left Atrial Strain by Speckle-Tracking Echocardiography: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2017;30(1):59-70.e8. doi: 10.1016/j.echo.2016.09.007.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B5">
<label>5</label>
<element-citation publication-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Roediger</surname><given-names>V</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<source>AutoStrain VE/VD/AE - Medições Automatizadas da Deformação Longitudinal</source>
<publisher-loc>Amesterdam</publisher-loc>
<publisher-name>Koninklijke Philips</publisher-name>
<year>2019</year>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Roediger V. AutoStrain VE/VD/AE - Medições Automatizadas da Deformação Longitudinal. Amesterdam: Koninklijke Philips; 2019.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B6">
<label>6</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Saraiva</surname><given-names>RM</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Demirkol</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Buakhamsri</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Greenberg</surname><given-names>N</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Popović</surname><given-names>ZB</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Thomas</surname><given-names>JD</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Left Atrial Strain Measured by Two-Dimensional Speckle Tracking Represents a New Tool to Evaluate Left Atrial Function</article-title>
<source>J Am Soc Echocardiogr</source>
<year>2010</year>
<volume>23</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<fpage>172</fpage>
<lpage>180</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.echo.2009.11.003</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Saraiva RM, Demirkol S, Buakhamsri A, Greenberg N, Popović ZB, Thomas JD, et al. Left Atrial Strain Measured by Two-Dimensional Speckle Tracking Represents a New Tool to Evaluate Left Atrial Function. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2010;23(2):172-80. doi: 10.1016/j.echo.2009.11.003.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B7">
<label>7</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Thomas</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Abhayaratna</surname><given-names>WP</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Left Atrial Reverse Remodeling: Mechanisms, Evaluation, and Clinical Significance</article-title>
<source>JACC Cardiovasc Imaging</source>
<year>2017</year>
<volume>10</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
<fpage>65</fpage>
<lpage>77</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.jcmg.2016.11.003</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Thomas L, Abhayaratna WP. Left Atrial Reverse Remodeling: Mechanisms, Evaluation, and Clinical Significance. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2017;10(1):65-77. doi: 10.1016/j.jcmg.2016.11.003.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B8">
<label>8</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Cameli</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Lisi</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Righini</surname><given-names>FM</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Massoni</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Natali</surname><given-names>BM</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Focardi</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Usefulness of Atrial Deformation Analysis to Predict Left Atrial Fibrosis and Endocardial Thickness in Patients Undergoing Mitral Valve Operations for Severe Mitral Regurgitation Secondary to Mitral Valve Prolapse</article-title>
<source>Am J Cardiol</source>
<year>2013</year>
<volume>111</volume>
<issue>4</issue>
<fpage>595</fpage>
<lpage>601</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.amjcard.2012.10.049</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Cameli M, Lisi M, Righini FM, Massoni A, Natali BM, Focardi M, et al. Usefulness of Atrial Deformation Analysis to Predict Left Atrial Fibrosis and Endocardial Thickness in Patients Undergoing Mitral Valve Operations for Severe Mitral Regurgitation Secondary to Mitral Valve Prolapse. Am J Cardiol. 2013;111(4):595-601. doi: 10.1016/j.amjcard.2012.10.049.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B9">
<label>9</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Vieira</surname><given-names>MJ</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Teixeira</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Gonçalves</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Gersh</surname><given-names>BJ</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Left Atrial Mechanics: Echocardiographic Assessment and Clinical Implications</article-title>
<source>J Am Soc Echocardiogr</source>
<year>2014</year>
<volume>27</volume>
<issue>5</issue>
<fpage>463</fpage>
<lpage>478</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.echo.2014.01.021</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Vieira MJ, Teixeira R, Gonçalves L, Gersh BJ. Left Atrial Mechanics: Echocardiographic Assessment and Clinical Implications. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2014;27(5):463-78. doi: 10.1016/j.echo.2014.01.021.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B10">
<label>10</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Donal</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Lip</surname><given-names>GY</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Galderisi</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Goette</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Shah</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Marwan</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>EACVI/EHRA Expert Consensus Document on the Role of Multi-Modality Imaging for the Evaluation of Patients with Atrial Fibrillation</article-title>
<source>Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging</source>
<year>2016</year>
<volume>17</volume>
<issue>4</issue>
<fpage>355</fpage>
<lpage>383</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1093/ehjci/jev354</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Donal E, Lip GY, Galderisi M, Goette A, Shah D, Marwan M, et al. EACVI/EHRA Expert Consensus Document on the Role of Multi-Modality Imaging for the Evaluation of Patients with Atrial Fibrillation. Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging. 2016;17(4):355-83. doi: 10.1093/ehjci/jev354.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B11">
<label>11</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Boldt</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Wetzel</surname><given-names>U</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Lauschke</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Weigl</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Gummert</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Hindricks</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Fibrosis in Left Atrial Tissue of Patients with Atrial Fibrillation with and without Underlying Mitral Valve Disease</article-title>
<source>Heart</source>
<year>2004</year>
<volume>90</volume>
<issue>4</issue>
<fpage>400</fpage>
<lpage>405</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1136/hrt.2003.015347</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Boldt A, Wetzel U, Lauschke J, Weigl J, Gummert J, Hindricks G, et al. Fibrosis in Left Atrial Tissue of Patients with Atrial Fibrillation with and without Underlying Mitral Valve Disease. Heart. 2004;90(4):400-5. doi: 10.1136/hrt.2003.015347.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B12">
<label>12</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Kuppahally</surname><given-names>SS</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Akoum</surname><given-names>N</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Burgon</surname><given-names>NS</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Badger</surname><given-names>TJ</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Kholmovski</surname><given-names>EG</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Vijayakumar</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Left Atrial Strain and Strain Rate in Patients with Paroxysmal and Persistent Atrial Fibrillation: Relationship to Left Atrial Structural Remodeling Detected by Delayed-Enhancement MRI</article-title>
<source>Circ Cardiovasc Imaging</source>
<year>2010</year>
<volume>3</volume>
<issue>3</issue>
<fpage>231</fpage>
<lpage>239</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIRCIMAGING.109.865683</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Kuppahally SS, Akoum N, Burgon NS, Badger TJ, Kholmovski EG, Vijayakumar S, et al. Left Atrial Strain and Strain Rate in Patients with Paroxysmal and Persistent Atrial Fibrillation: Relationship to Left Atrial Structural Remodeling Detected by Delayed-Enhancement MRI. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging. 2010;3(3):231-9. doi: 10.1161/CIRCIMAGING.109.865683.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B13">
<label>13</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Kojima</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Kawasaki</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Tanaka</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Ono</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Hirose</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Iwama</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Left Atrial Global and Regional Function in Patients with Paroxysmal Atrial Fibrillation has Already Been Impaired Before Enlargement of Left Atrium: Velocity Vector Imaging Echocardiography Study</article-title>
<source>Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging</source>
<year>2012</year>
<volume>13</volume>
<issue>3</issue>
<fpage>227</fpage>
<lpage>234</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1093/ejechocard/jer281</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Kojima T, Kawasaki M, Tanaka R, Ono K, Hirose T, Iwama M, et al. Left Atrial Global and Regional Function in Patients with Paroxysmal Atrial Fibrillation has Already Been Impaired Before Enlargement of Left Atrium: Velocity Vector Imaging Echocardiography Study. Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging. 2012;13(3):227-34. doi: 10.1093/ejechocard/jer281.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B14">
<label>14</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Hwang</surname><given-names>HJ</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Choi</surname><given-names>EY</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Rhee</surname><given-names>SJ</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Joung</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Lee</surname><given-names>BH</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Lee</surname><given-names>SH</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Left Atrial Strain as Predictor of Successful Outcomes in Catheter Ablation for Atrial Fibrillation: a Two-Dimensional Myocardial Imaging Study</article-title>
<source>J Interv Card Electrophysiol</source>
<year>2009</year>
<volume>26</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<fpage>127</fpage>
<lpage>132</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1007/s10840-009-9410-y</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Hwang HJ, Choi EY, Rhee SJ, Joung B, Lee BH, Lee SH, et al. Left Atrial Strain as Predictor of Successful Outcomes in Catheter Ablation for Atrial Fibrillation: a Two-Dimensional Myocardial Imaging Study. J Interv Card Electrophysiol. 2009;26(2):127-32. doi: 10.1007/s10840-009-9410-y.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B15">
<label>15</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Yasuda</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Murata</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Roberts</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Tokuda</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Minakata</surname><given-names>Y</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Suzuki</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Left Atrial Strain is a Powerful Predictor of Atrial Fibrillation Recurrence after Catheter Ablation: Study of a Heterogeneous Population with Sinus Rhythm or Atrial Fibrillation</article-title>
<source>Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging</source>
<year>2015</year>
<volume>16</volume>
<issue>9</issue>
<fpage>1008</fpage>
<lpage>1014</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1093/ehjci/jev028</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Yasuda R, Murata M, Roberts R, Tokuda H, Minakata Y, Suzuki K, et al. Left Atrial Strain is a Powerful Predictor of Atrial Fibrillation Recurrence after Catheter Ablation: Study of a Heterogeneous Population with Sinus Rhythm or Atrial Fibrillation. Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging. 2015;16(9):1008-14. doi: 10.1093/ehjci/jev028.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B16">
<label>16</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Hauser</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Nielsen</surname><given-names>AB</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Skaarup</surname><given-names>KG</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Lassen</surname><given-names>MCH</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Duus</surname><given-names>LS</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Johansen</surname><given-names>ND</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Left Atrial Strain Predicts Incident Atrial Fibrillation in the General Population: the Copenhagen City Heart Study</article-title>
<source>Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging</source>
<year>2021</year>
<volume>23</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
<fpage>52</fpage>
<lpage>60</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1093/ehjci/jeab202</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Hauser R, Nielsen AB, Skaarup KG, Lassen MCH, Duus LS, Johansen ND, et al. Left Atrial Strain Predicts Incident Atrial Fibrillation in the General Population: the Copenhagen City Heart Study. Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging. 2021;23(1):52-60. doi: 10.1093/ehjci/jeab202.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B17">
<label>17</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Candan</surname><given-names>O</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Ozdemir</surname><given-names>N</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Aung</surname><given-names>SM</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Dogan</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Karabay</surname><given-names>CY</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Gecmen</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Left Atrial Longitudinal Strain Parameters Predict Postoperative Persistent Atrial Fibrillation Following Mitral Valve Surgery: a Speckle Tracking Echocardiography Study</article-title>
<source>Echocardiography</source>
<year>2013</year>
<volume>30</volume>
<issue>9</issue>
<fpage>1061</fpage>
<lpage>1068</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1111/echo.12222</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Candan O, Ozdemir N, Aung SM, Dogan C, Karabay CY, Gecmen C, et al. Left Atrial Longitudinal Strain Parameters Predict Postoperative Persistent Atrial Fibrillation Following Mitral Valve Surgery: a Speckle Tracking Echocardiography Study. Echocardiography. 2013;30(9):1061-8. doi: 10.1111/echo.12222.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B18">
<label>18</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Park</surname><given-names>JJ</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Park</surname><given-names>JH</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Hwang</surname><given-names>IC</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Park</surname><given-names>JB</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Cho</surname><given-names>GY</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Marwick</surname><given-names>TH</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Left Atrial Strain as a Predictor of New-Onset Atrial Fibrillation in Patients with Heart Failure</article-title>
<source>JACC Cardiovasc Imaging</source>
<year>2020</year>
<volume>13</volume>
<issue>10</issue>
<fpage>2071</fpage>
<lpage>2081</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.jcmg.2020.04.031</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Park JJ, Park JH, Hwang IC, Park JB, Cho GY, Marwick TH. Left Atrial Strain as a Predictor of New-Onset Atrial Fibrillation in Patients with Heart Failure. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2020;13(10):2071-81. doi: 10.1016/j.jcmg.2020.04.031.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B19">
<label>19</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Pathan</surname><given-names>F</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Sivaraj</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Negishi</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Rafiudeen</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Pathan</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>
<name><surname>D’Elia</surname><given-names>N</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Use of Atrial Strain to Predict Atrial Fibrillation after Cerebral Ischemia</article-title>
<source>JACC Cardiovasc Imaging</source>
<year>2018</year>
<volume>11</volume>
<issue>11</issue>
<fpage>1557</fpage>
<lpage>1565</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.jcmg.2017.07.027</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Pathan F, Sivaraj E, Negishi K, Rafiudeen R, Pathan S, D’Elia N, et al. Use of Atrial Strain to Predict Atrial Fibrillation after Cerebral Ischemia. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2018;11(11):1557-65. doi: 10.1016/j.jcmg.2017.07.027.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B20">
<label>20</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Obokata</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Negishi</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Kurosawa</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Tateno</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Tange</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Arai</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Left Atrial Strain Provides Incremental Value for Embolism Risk Stratification Over CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>-Vasc Score and Indicates Prognostic Impact in Patients with Atrial Fibrillation</article-title>
<source>J Am Soc Echocardiogr</source>
<year>2014</year>
<volume>27</volume>
<issue>7</issue>
<fpage>709.e4</fpage>
<lpage>716.e4</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.echo.2014.03.010</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Obokata M, Negishi K, Kurosawa K, Tateno R, Tange S, Arai M, et al. Left Atrial Strain Provides Incremental Value for Embolism Risk Stratification Over CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>-Vasc Score and Indicates Prognostic Impact in Patients with Atrial Fibrillation. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2014;27(7):709-16.e4. doi: 10.1016/j.echo.2014.03.010.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B21">
<label>21</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Demirkol</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Kucuk</surname><given-names>U</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Baysan</surname><given-names>O</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Balta</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Celik</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Kurt</surname><given-names>IH</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>The Impact of Mitral Stenosis on Left Atrial Function Assessed by Two-Dimensional Speckle Tracking Echocardiography</article-title>
<source>Echocardiography</source>
<year>2012</year>
<volume>29</volume>
<issue>9</issue>
<fpage>1064</fpage>
<lpage>1070</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1111/j.1540-8175.2012.01751.x</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Demirkol S, Kucuk U, Baysan O, Balta S, Celik T, Kurt IH, et al. The Impact of Mitral Stenosis on Left Atrial Function Assessed by Two-Dimensional Speckle Tracking Echocardiography. Echocardiography. 2012;29(9):1064-70. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-8175.2012.01751.x.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B22">
<label>22</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Nikitin</surname><given-names>NP</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Witte</surname><given-names>KK</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Thackray</surname><given-names>SD</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Goodge</surname><given-names>LJ</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Clark</surname><given-names>AL</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Cleland</surname><given-names>JG</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Effect of Age and Sex on Left Atrial Morphology and Function</article-title>
<source>Eur J Echocardiogr</source>
<year>2003</year>
<volume>4</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
<fpage>36</fpage>
<lpage>42</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1053/euje.2002.0611</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Nikitin NP, Witte KK, Thackray SD, Goodge LJ, Clark AL, Cleland JG. Effect of Age and Sex on Left Atrial Morphology and Function. Eur J Echocardiogr. 2003;4(1):36-42. doi: 10.1053/euje.2002.0611.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B23">
<label>23</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Dernellis</surname><given-names>JM</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Stefanadis</surname><given-names>CI</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Zacharoulis</surname><given-names>AA</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Toutouzas</surname><given-names>PK</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Left Atrial Mechanical Adaptation to Long-Standing Hemodynamic Loads Based on Pressure-Volume Relations</article-title>
<source>Am J Cardiol</source>
<year>1998</year>
<volume>81</volume>
<issue>9</issue>
<fpage>1138</fpage>
<lpage>1143</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/s0002-9149(98)00134-9</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Dernellis JM, Stefanadis CI, Zacharoulis AA, Toutouzas PK. Left Atrial Mechanical Adaptation to Long-Standing Hemodynamic Loads Based on Pressure-Volume Relations. Am J Cardiol. 1998;81(9):1138-43. doi: 10.1016/s0002-9149(98)00134-9.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B24">
<label>24</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Mahfouz</surname><given-names>RA</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Gouda</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Abdelhamed</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Relation between Left Atrial Strain and Exercise Tolerance in Patients with Mild Mitral Stenosis: an Insight from 2D Speckle-Tracking Echocardiography</article-title>
<source>Echocardiography</source>
<year>2020</year>
<volume>37</volume>
<issue>9</issue>
<fpage>1406</fpage>
<lpage>1412</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1111/echo.14818</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Mahfouz RA, Gouda M, Abdelhamed M. Relation between Left Atrial Strain and Exercise Tolerance in Patients with Mild Mitral Stenosis: an Insight from 2D Speckle-Tracking Echocardiography. Echocardiography. 2020;37(9):1406-12. doi: 10.1111/echo.14818.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B25">
<label>25</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Mehta</surname><given-names>V</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Chaudhari</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Mehra</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Mahajan</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Yusuf</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Gupta</surname><given-names>MD</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Left Atrial Function by Two-Dimensional Speckle Tracking Echocardiography in Patients with Severe Rheumatic Mitral Stenosis and Pulmonary Hypertension</article-title>
<source>Indian Heart J</source>
<year>2022</year>
<volume>74</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
<fpage>63</fpage>
<lpage>65</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.ihj.2021.12.011</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Mehta V, Chaudhari D, Mehra P, Mahajan S, Yusuf J, Gupta MD, et al. Left Atrial Function by Two-Dimensional Speckle Tracking Echocardiography in Patients with Severe Rheumatic Mitral Stenosis and Pulmonary Hypertension. Indian Heart J. 2022;74(1):63-5. doi: 10.1016/j.ihj.2021.12.011.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B26">
<label>26</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Caso</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Ancona</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Di Salvo</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Comenale Pinto</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Macrino</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Di Palma</surname><given-names>V</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Atrial Reservoir Function by Strain Rate Imaging in Asymptomatic Mitral Stenosis: Prognostic Value at 3 Year Follow-Up</article-title>
<source>Eur J Echocardiogr</source>
<year>2009</year>
<volume>10</volume>
<issue>6</issue>
<fpage>753</fpage>
<lpage>759</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1093/ejechocard/jep058</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Caso P, Ancona R, Di Salvo G, Comenale Pinto S, Macrino M, Di Palma V, et al. Atrial Reservoir Function by Strain Rate Imaging in Asymptomatic Mitral Stenosis: Prognostic Value at 3 Year Follow-Up. Eur J Echocardiogr. 2009;10(6):753-9. doi: 10.1093/ejechocard/jep058.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B27">
<label>27</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Ancona</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Comenale Pinto</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Caso</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Di Salvo</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Severino</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Two-Dimensional Atrial Systolic Strain Imaging Predicts Atrial Fibrillation at 4-Year Follow-Up in Asymptomatic Rheumatic Mitral Stenosis</article-title>
<source>J Am Soc Echocardiogr</source>
<year>2013</year>
<volume>26</volume>
<issue>3</issue>
<fpage>270</fpage>
<lpage>277</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.echo.2012.11.016</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Ancona R, Comenale Pinto S, Caso P, Di Salvo G, Severino S, et al. Two-Dimensional Atrial Systolic Strain Imaging Predicts Atrial Fibrillation at 4-Year Follow-Up in Asymptomatic Rheumatic Mitral Stenosis. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2013;26(3):270-7. doi: 10.1016/j.echo.2012.11.016.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B28">
<label>28</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Pourafkari</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Ghaffari</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Bancroft</surname><given-names>GR</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Tajlil</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Nader</surname><given-names>ND</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Factors Associated with Atrial Fibrillation in Rheumatic Mitral Stenosis</article-title>
<source>Asian Cardiovasc Thorac Ann</source>
<year>2015</year>
<volume>23</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
<fpage>17</fpage>
<lpage>23</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1177/0218492314530134</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Pourafkari L, Ghaffari S, Bancroft GR, Tajlil A, Nader ND. Factors Associated with Atrial Fibrillation in Rheumatic Mitral Stenosis. Asian Cardiovasc Thorac Ann. 2015;23(1):17-23. doi: 10.1177/0218492314530134.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B29">
<label>29</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Chien</surname><given-names>CY</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Chen</surname><given-names>CW</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Lin</surname><given-names>TK</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Lin</surname><given-names>Y</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Lin</surname><given-names>JW</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Li</surname><given-names>YD</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Atrial Deformation Correlated with Functional Capacity in Mitral Stenosis Patients</article-title>
<source>Echocardiography</source>
<year>2018</year>
<volume>35</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<fpage>190</fpage>
<lpage>195</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1111/echo.13770</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Chien CY, Chen CW, Lin TK, Lin Y, Lin JW, Li YD, et al. Atrial Deformation Correlated with Functional Capacity in Mitral Stenosis Patients. Echocardiography. 2018;35(2):190-5. doi: 10.1111/echo.13770.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B30">
<label>30</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Vriz</surname><given-names>O</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Blassy</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Almozel</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Almohammadi</surname><given-names>SM</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Galzerano</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Alfehaid</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Left Atrial Strain can Predict Right Ventricular Impairment and Developement of Atrial Fibrilation in Patients with Severe Mitral Stenosis Better than Transmitral Gradients</article-title>
<source>Eur Heart Cardiovasc Imag</source>
<year>2021</year>
<volume>22</volume>
<supplement>Suppl 10</supplement>
<fpage>i79</fpage>
<lpage>i79</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1093/ehjci/jeaa356.060</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Vriz O, Blassy B, Almozel A, Almohammadi SM, Galzerano D, Alfehaid A, et al. Left Atrial Strain can Predict Right Ventricular Impairment and Developement of Atrial Fibrilation in Patients with Severe Mitral Stenosis Better than Transmitral Gradients. Eur Heart Cardiovasc Imag. 2021;22(Suppl 10):i79. doi: 10.1093/ehjci/jeaa356.060.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B31">
<label>31</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Kaur</surname><given-names>V</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Manouras</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Venkateshvaran</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Association of Atrial Strain Ratio with Invasive Pulmonary Hemodynamics in Rheumatic Mitral Stenosis. Echocardiography: Valve Disease</article-title>
<source>Eur Heart Cardiovasc Imag</source>
<year>2021</year>
<volume>22</volume>
<supplement>Suppl 10</supplement>
<fpage>i72</fpage>
<lpage>i72</lpage>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Kaur V, Manouras A, Venkateshvaran A. Association of Atrial Strain Ratio with Invasive Pulmonary Hemodynamics in Rheumatic Mitral Stenosis. Echocardiography: Valve Disease. Eur Heart Cardiovasc Imag. 2021; 22(Suppl 10):i72.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B32">
<label>32</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Stassen</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Butcher</surname><given-names>SC</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Namazi</surname><given-names>F</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Ajmone Marsan</surname><given-names>N</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Bax</surname><given-names>JJ</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Delgado</surname><given-names>V</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Left Atrial Deformation Imaging and Atrial Fibrillation in Patients with Rheumatic Mitral Stenosis</article-title>
<source>J Am Soc Echocardiogr</source>
<year>2022</year>
<volume>35</volume>
<issue>5</issue>
<fpage>486.e2</fpage>
<lpage>494.e2</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.echo.2021.12.010</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Stassen J, Butcher SC, Namazi F, Ajmone Marsan N, Bax JJ, Delgado V. Left Atrial Deformation Imaging and Atrial Fibrillation in Patients with Rheumatic Mitral Stenosis. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2022;35(5):486-94.e2. doi: 10.1016/j.echo.2021.12.010.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B33">
<label>33</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Carluccio</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Biagioli</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Mengoni</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Cerasa</surname><given-names>MF</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Lauciello</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Zuchi</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Left Atrial Reservoir Function and Outcome in Heart Failure with Reduced Ejection Fraction</article-title>
<source>Circ Cardiovasc Imaging</source>
<year>2018</year>
<volume>11</volume>
<issue>11</issue>
<elocation-id>e007696</elocation-id>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIRCIMAGING.118.007696</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Carluccio E, Biagioli P, Mengoni A, Cerasa MF, Lauciello R, Zuchi C, et al. Left Atrial Reservoir Function and Outcome in Heart Failure with Reduced Ejection Fraction. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging. 2018;11(11):e007696. doi: 10.1161/CIRCIMAGING.118.007696.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B34">
<label>34</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Kurt</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Tanboga</surname><given-names>IH</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Aksakal</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Kaya</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Isik</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Ekinci</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Relation of Left Ventricular End-Diastolic Pressure and N-Terminal Pro-Brain Natriuretic Peptide Level with Left Atrial Deformation Parameters</article-title>
<source>Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging</source>
<year>2012</year>
<volume>13</volume>
<issue>6</issue>
<fpage>524</fpage>
<lpage>530</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1093/ejechocard/jer283</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Kurt M, Tanboga IH, Aksakal E, Kaya A, Isik T, Ekinci M, et al. Relation of Left Ventricular End-Diastolic Pressure and N-Terminal Pro-Brain Natriuretic Peptide Level with Left Atrial Deformation Parameters. Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging. 2012;13(6):524-30. doi: 10.1093/ejechocard/jer283.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B35">
<label>35</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Malagoli</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Rossi</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Bursi</surname><given-names>F</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Zanni</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Sticozzi</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Piepoli</surname><given-names>MF</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Left Atrial Function Predicts Cardiovascular Events in Patients with Chronic Heart Failure with Reduced Ejection Fraction</article-title>
<source>J Am Soc Echocardiogr</source>
<year>2019</year>
<volume>32</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<fpage>248</fpage>
<lpage>256</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.echo.2018.08.012</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Malagoli A, Rossi L, Bursi F, Zanni A, Sticozzi C, Piepoli MF, et al. Left Atrial Function Predicts Cardiovascular Events in Patients with Chronic Heart Failure with Reduced Ejection Fraction. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2019;32(2):248-56. doi: 10.1016/j.echo.2018.08.012.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B36">
<label>36</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Telles</surname><given-names>F</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Nanayakkara</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Evans</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Patel</surname><given-names>HC</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Mariani</surname><given-names>JA</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Vizi</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Impaired Left Atrial Strain Predicts Abnormal Exercise Haemodynamics in Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction</article-title>
<source>Eur J Heart Fail</source>
<year>2019</year>
<volume>21</volume>
<issue>4</issue>
<fpage>495</fpage>
<lpage>505</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1002/ejhf.1399</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Telles F, Nanayakkara S, Evans S, Patel HC, Mariani JA, Vizi D, et al. Impaired Left Atrial Strain Predicts Abnormal Exercise Haemodynamics in Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction. Eur J Heart Fail. 2019;21(4):495-505. doi: 10.1002/ejhf.1399.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B37">
<label>37</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Freed</surname><given-names>BH</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Daruwalla</surname><given-names>V</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Cheng</surname><given-names>JY</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Aguilar</surname><given-names>FG</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Beussink</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Choi</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Prognostic Utility and Clinical Significance of Cardiac Mechanics in Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction: Importance of Left Atrial Strain</article-title>
<source>Circ Cardiovasc Imaging</source>
<year>2016</year>
<volume>9</volume>
<issue>3</issue>
<elocation-id>e003754</elocation-id>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIRCIMAGING.115.003754</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Freed BH, Daruwalla V, Cheng JY, Aguilar FG, Beussink L, Choi A, et al. Prognostic Utility and Clinical Significance of Cardiac Mechanics in Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction: Importance of Left Atrial Strain. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging. 2016;9(3):e003754. doi: 10.1161/CIRCIMAGING.115.003754.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B38">
<label>38</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Santos</surname><given-names>AB</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Roca</surname><given-names>GQ</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Claggett</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Sweitzer</surname><given-names>NK</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Shah</surname><given-names>SJ</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Anand</surname><given-names>IS</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Prognostic Relevance of Left Atrial Dysfunction in Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction</article-title>
<source>Circ Heart Fail</source>
<year>2016</year>
<volume>9</volume>
<issue>4</issue>
<elocation-id>e002763</elocation-id>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.115.002763</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Santos AB, Roca GQ, Claggett B, Sweitzer NK, Shah SJ, Anand IS, et al. Prognostic Relevance of Left Atrial Dysfunction in Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction. Circ Heart Fail. 2016;9(4):e002763. doi: 10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.115.002763.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B39">
<label>39</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Yan</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Sun</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Shi</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Zhu</surname><given-names>W</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Zhou</surname><given-names>Q</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Jiang</surname><given-names>Y</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Left Atrial and Right Atrial Deformation in Patients with Coronary Artery Disease: a Velocity Vector Imaging-Based Study</article-title>
<source>PLoS One</source>
<year>2012</year>
<volume>7</volume>
<issue>12</issue>
<elocation-id>e51204</elocation-id>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pone.0051204</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Yan P, Sun B, Shi H, Zhu W, Zhou Q, Jiang Y, et al. Left Atrial and Right Atrial Deformation in Patients with Coronary Artery Disease: a Velocity Vector Imaging-Based Study. PLoS One. 2012;7(12):e51204. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0051204.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B40">
<label>40</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Said</surname><given-names>KM</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Nassar</surname><given-names>AI</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Fouad</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Ramzy</surname><given-names>AA</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Abd Allah</surname><given-names>MFF</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Left Atrial Deformation Analysis as a Predictor of Severity of Coronary Artery Disease</article-title>
<source>Egypt Heart J</source>
<year>2018</year>
<volume>70</volume>
<issue>4</issue>
<fpage>353</fpage>
<lpage>359</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.ehj.2018.09.004</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Said KM, Nassar AI, Fouad A, Ramzy AA, Abd Allah MFF. Left Atrial Deformation Analysis as a Predictor of Severity of Coronary Artery Disease. Egypt Heart J. 2018;70(4):353-9. doi: 10.1016/j.ehj.2018.09.004.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B41">
<label>41</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Ayer</surname><given-names>JG</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Sholler</surname><given-names>GF</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Celermajer</surname><given-names>DS</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Left Atrial Size Increases with Body Mass Index in Children</article-title>
<source>Int J Cardiol</source>
<year>2010</year>
<volume>141</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
<fpage>61</fpage>
<lpage>67</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.ijcard.2008.11.157</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Ayer JG, Sholler GF, Celermajer DS. Left Atrial Size Increases with Body Mass Index in Children. Int J Cardiol. 2010;141(1):61-7. doi: 10.1016/j.ijcard.2008.11.157.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B42">
<label>42</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Oliver</surname><given-names>W</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Matthews</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Ayers</surname><given-names>CR</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Garg</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Gupta</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Neeland</surname><given-names>IJ</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Factors Associated with Left Atrial Remodeling in the General Population</article-title>
<source>Circ Cardiovasc Imaging</source>
<year>2017</year>
<volume>10</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<elocation-id>e005047</elocation-id>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIRCIMAGING.116.005047</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Oliver W, Matthews G, Ayers CR, Garg S, Gupta S, Neeland IJ, et al. Factors Associated with Left Atrial Remodeling in the General Population. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging. 2017;10(2):e005047. doi: 10.1161/CIRCIMAGING.116.005047.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B43">
<label>43</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Chirinos</surname><given-names>JA</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Rietzschel</surname><given-names>ER</given-names></name>
<name><surname>De Buyzere</surname><given-names>ML</given-names></name>
<name><surname>De Bacquer</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Gillebert</surname><given-names>TC</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Gupta</surname><given-names>AK</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Arterial Load and Ventricular-Arterial Coupling: Physiologic Relations with Body Size and Effect of Obesity</article-title>
<source>Hypertension</source>
<year>2009</year>
<volume>54</volume>
<issue>3</issue>
<fpage>558</fpage>
<lpage>566</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.109.131870</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Chirinos JA, Rietzschel ER, De Buyzere ML, De Bacquer D, Gillebert TC, Gupta AK, et al. Arterial Load and Ventricular-Arterial Coupling: Physiologic Relations with Body Size and Effect of Obesity. Hypertension. 2009;54(3):558-66. doi: 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.109.131870.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B44">
<label>44</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Mahabadi</surname><given-names>AA</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Lehmann</surname><given-names>N</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Kälsch</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Bauer</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Dykun</surname><given-names>I</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Kara</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Association of Epicardial Adipose Tissue and Left Atrial Size on Non-Contrast CT with Atrial Fibrillation: the Heinz Nixdorf Recall Study</article-title>
<source>Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging</source>
<year>2014</year>
<volume>15</volume>
<issue>8</issue>
<fpage>863</fpage>
<lpage>869</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1093/ehjci/jeu006</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Mahabadi AA, Lehmann N, Kälsch H, Bauer M, Dykun I, Kara K, et al. Association of Epicardial Adipose Tissue and Left Atrial Size on Non-Contrast CT with Atrial Fibrillation: the Heinz Nixdorf Recall Study. Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging. 2014;15(8):863-9. doi: 10.1093/ehjci/jeu006.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B45">
<label>45</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Shaw</surname><given-names>JE</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Sicree</surname><given-names>RA</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Zimmet</surname><given-names>PZ</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Global Estimates of the Prevalence of Diabetes for 2010 and 2030</article-title>
<source>Diabetes Res Clin Pract</source>
<year>2010</year>
<volume>87</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
<fpage>4</fpage>
<lpage>14</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.diabres.2009.10.007</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Shaw JE, Sicree RA, Zimmet PZ. Global Estimates of the Prevalence of Diabetes for 2010 and 2030. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2010;87(1):4-14. doi: 10.1016/j.diabres.2009.10.007.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B46">
<label>46</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Nichols</surname><given-names>GA</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Hillier</surname><given-names>TA</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Erbey</surname><given-names>JR</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Brown</surname><given-names>JB</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Congestive Heart Failure in Type 2 Diabetes: Prevalence, Incidence, and Risk Factors</article-title>
<source>Diabetes Care</source>
<year>2001</year>
<volume>24</volume>
<issue>9</issue>
<fpage>1614</fpage>
<lpage>1619</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.2337/diacare.24.9.1614</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Nichols GA, Hillier TA, Erbey JR, Brown JB. Congestive Heart Failure in Type 2 Diabetes: Prevalence, Incidence, and Risk Factors. Diabetes Care. 2001;24(9):1614-9. doi: 10.2337/diacare.24.9.1614.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B47">
<label>47</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Ernande</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Rietzschel</surname><given-names>ER</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Bergerot</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name>
<name><surname>De Buyzere</surname><given-names>ML</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Schnell</surname><given-names>F</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Groisne</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Impaired Myocardial Radial Function in Asymptomatic Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: a Speckle-Tracking Imaging Study</article-title>
<source>J Am Soc Echocardiogr</source>
<year>2010</year>
<volume>23</volume>
<issue>12</issue>
<fpage>1266</fpage>
<lpage>1272</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.echo.2010.09.007</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Ernande L, Rietzschel ER, Bergerot C, De Buyzere ML, Schnell F, Groisne L, et al. Impaired Myocardial Radial Function in Asymptomatic Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: a Speckle-Tracking Imaging Study. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2010;23(12):1266-72. doi: 10.1016/j.echo.2010.09.007.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B48">
<label>48</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Tadic</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Vukomanovic</surname><given-names>V</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Cuspidi</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Suzic-Lazic</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Stanisavljevic</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Celic</surname><given-names>V</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Left Atrial Phasic Function and Heart Rate Variability in Asymptomatic Diabetic Patients</article-title>
<source>Acta Diabetol</source>
<year>2017</year>
<volume>54</volume>
<issue>3</issue>
<fpage>301</fpage>
<lpage>308</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1007/s00592-016-0962-x</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Tadic M, Vukomanovic V, Cuspidi C, Suzic-Lazic J, Stanisavljevic D, Celic V. Left Atrial Phasic Function and Heart Rate Variability in Asymptomatic Diabetic Patients. Acta Diabetol. 2017;54(3):301-8. doi: 10.1007/s00592-016-0962-x.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B49">
<label>49</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Tadic</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Cuspidi</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Atrial Fibrillation: from Mechanisms to Clinical Practice</article-title>
<source>Arch Cardiovasc Dis</source>
<year>2015</year>
<volume>108</volume>
<issue>4</issue>
<fpage>269</fpage>
<lpage>276</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.acvd.2015.01.009</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Tadic M, Cuspidi C. Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Atrial Fibrillation: from Mechanisms to Clinical Practice. Arch Cardiovasc Dis. 2015;108(4):269-76. doi: 10.1016/j.acvd.2015.01.009.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B50">
<label>50</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Siontis</surname><given-names>KC</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Geske</surname><given-names>JB</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Ong</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Nishimura</surname><given-names>RA</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Ommen</surname><given-names>SR</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Gersh</surname><given-names>BJ</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Atrial Fibrillation in Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy: Prevalence, Clinical Correlations, and Mortality in a Large High-Risk Population</article-title>
<source>J Am Heart Assoc</source>
<year>2014</year>
<volume>3</volume>
<issue>3</issue>
<elocation-id>e001002</elocation-id>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/JAHA.114.001002</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Siontis KC, Geske JB, Ong K, Nishimura RA, Ommen SR, Gersh BJ. Atrial Fibrillation in Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy: Prevalence, Clinical Correlations, and Mortality in a Large High-Risk Population. J Am Heart Assoc. 2014;3(3):e001002. doi: 10.1161/JAHA.114.001002.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B51">
<label>51</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Sanada</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Shimizu</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Sugihara</surname><given-names>N</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Shimizu</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Ino</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Takeda</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Increased Left Atrial Chamber Stiffness in Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy</article-title>
<source>Br Heart J</source>
<year>1993</year>
<volume>69</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
<fpage>31</fpage>
<lpage>35</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1136/hrt.69.1.31</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Sanada H, Shimizu M, Sugihara N, Shimizu K, Ino H, Takeda R. Increased Left Atrial Chamber Stiffness in Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy. Br Heart J. 1993;69(1):31-5. doi: 10.1136/hrt.69.1.31.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B52">
<label>52</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Fujimoto</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Inoue</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Saito</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Higashi</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Kono</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Uetani</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Incremental Value of Left Atrial Active Function Measured by Speckle Tracking Echocardiography in Patients with Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy</article-title>
<source>Echocardiography</source>
<year>2018</year>
<volume>35</volume>
<issue>8</issue>
<fpage>1138</fpage>
<lpage>1148</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1111/echo.13886</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Fujimoto K, Inoue K, Saito M, Higashi H, Kono T, Uetani T, et al. Incremental Value of Left Atrial Active Function Measured by Speckle Tracking Echocardiography in Patients with Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy. Echocardiography. 2018;35(8):1138-48. doi: 10.1111/echo.13886.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B53">
<label>53</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Klein</surname><given-names>AL</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Hatle</surname><given-names>LK</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Taliercio</surname><given-names>CP</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Oh</surname><given-names>JK</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Kyle</surname><given-names>RA</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Gertz</surname><given-names>MA</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Prognostic Significance of Doppler Measures of Diastolic Function in Cardiac Amyloidosis. A Doppler echocardiography study</article-title>
<source>Circulation</source>
<year>1991</year>
<volume>83</volume>
<issue>3</issue>
<fpage>808</fpage>
<lpage>816</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/01.cir.83.3.808</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Klein AL, Hatle LK, Taliercio CP, Oh JK, Kyle RA, Gertz MA, et al. Prognostic Significance of Doppler Measures of Diastolic Function in Cardiac Amyloidosis. A Doppler echocardiography study. Circulation. 1991;83(3):808-16. doi: 10.1161/01.cir.83.3.808.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B54">
<label>54</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Mohty</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Pibarot</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Dumesnil</surname><given-names>JG</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Darodes</surname><given-names>N</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Lavergne</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Echahidi</surname><given-names>N</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Left Atrial Size is an Independent Predictor of Overall Survival in Patients with Primary Systemic Amyloidosis</article-title>
<source>Arch Cardiovasc Dis</source>
<year>2011</year>
<volume>104</volume>
<issue>12</issue>
<fpage>611</fpage>
<lpage>618</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.acvd.2011.10.004</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Mohty D, Pibarot P, Dumesnil JG, Darodes N, Lavergne D, Echahidi N, et al. Left Atrial Size is an Independent Predictor of Overall Survival in Patients with Primary Systemic Amyloidosis. Arch Cardiovasc Dis. 2011;104(12):611-8. doi: 10.1016/j.acvd.2011.10.004.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B55">
<label>55</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Mohty</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Petitalot</surname><given-names>V</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Magne</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Fadel</surname><given-names>BM</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Boulogne</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Rouabhia</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Left Atrial Function in Patients with Light Chain Amyloidosis: a Transthoracic 3D Speckle Tracking Imaging Study</article-title>
<source>J Cardiol</source>
<year>2018</year>
<volume>71</volume>
<issue>4</issue>
<fpage>419</fpage>
<lpage>427</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.jjcc.2017.10.007</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Mohty D, Petitalot V, Magne J, Fadel BM, Boulogne C, Rouabhia D, et al. Left Atrial Function in Patients with Light Chain Amyloidosis: a Transthoracic 3D Speckle Tracking Imaging Study. J Cardiol. 2018;71(4):419-27. doi: 10.1016/j.jjcc.2017.10.007.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B56">
<label>56</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Nochioka</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Quarta</surname><given-names>CC</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Claggett</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Roca</surname><given-names>GQ</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Rapezzi</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Falk</surname><given-names>RH</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Left Atrial Structure and Function in Cardiac Amyloidosis</article-title>
<source>Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging</source>
<year>2017</year>
<volume>18</volume>
<issue>10</issue>
<fpage>1128</fpage>
<lpage>1137</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1093/ehjci/jex097</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Nochioka K, Quarta CC, Claggett B, Roca GQ, Rapezzi C, Falk RH, et al. Left Atrial Structure and Function in Cardiac Amyloidosis. Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging. 2017;18(10):1128-37. doi: 10.1093/ehjci/jex097.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B57">
<label>57</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Nishimura</surname><given-names>RA</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Otto</surname><given-names>CM</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Bonow</surname><given-names>RO</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Carabello</surname><given-names>BA</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Erwin</surname><given-names>JP</given-names><suffix>3rd</suffix></name>
<name><surname>Fleisher</surname><given-names>LA</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>2017 AHA/ACC Focused Update of the 2014 AHA/ACC Guideline for the Management of Patients with Valvular Heart Disease: a Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines</article-title>
<source>Circulation</source>
<year>2017</year>
<volume>135</volume>
<issue>25</issue>
<fpage>e1159</fpage>
<lpage>e1195</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIR.0000000000000503</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Nishimura RA, Otto CM, Bonow RO, Carabello BA, Erwin JP 3rd, Fleisher LA, et al. 2017 AHA/ACC Focused Update of the 2014 AHA/ACC Guideline for the Management of Patients with Valvular Heart Disease: a Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. Circulation. 2017;135(25):e1159-95. doi: 10.1161/CIR.0000000000000503.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B58">
<label>58</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Yang</surname><given-names>LT</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Liu</surname><given-names>YW</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Shih</surname><given-names>JY</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Li</surname><given-names>YH</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Tsai</surname><given-names>LM</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Luo</surname><given-names>CY</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Predictive Value of Left Atrial Deformation on Prognosis in Severe Primary Mitral Regurgitation</article-title>
<source>J Am Soc Echocardiogr</source>
<year>2015</year>
<volume>28</volume>
<issue>11</issue>
<fpage>1309.e4</fpage>
<lpage>1317.e4</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.echo.2015.07.004</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Yang LT, Liu YW, Shih JY, Li YH, Tsai LM, Luo CY, et al. Predictive Value of Left Atrial Deformation on Prognosis in Severe Primary Mitral Regurgitation. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2015;28(11):1309-17.e4. doi: 10.1016/j.echo.2015.07.004.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B59">
<label>59</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Ring</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Rana</surname><given-names>BS</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Wells</surname><given-names>FC</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Kydd</surname><given-names>AC</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Dutka</surname><given-names>DP</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Atrial Function as a Guide to Timing of Intervention in Mitral Valve Prolapse with Mitral Regurgitation</article-title>
<source>JACC Cardiovasc Imaging</source>
<year>2014</year>
<volume>7</volume>
<issue>3</issue>
<fpage>225</fpage>
<lpage>232</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.jcmg.2013.12.009</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Ring L, Rana BS, Wells FC, Kydd AC, Dutka DP. Atrial Function as a Guide to Timing of Intervention in Mitral Valve Prolapse with Mitral Regurgitation. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2014;7(3):225-32. doi: 10.1016/j.jcmg.2013.12.009.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
</ref-list>
</back>
<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S1" xml:lang="pt">
<front-stub>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20240003</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject></subj-group></article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title><italic>Strain</italic> Atrial Esquerdo: Aplicações Clínicas e Implicações Prognósticas</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0001-4696-3895</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Figueiredo</surname><given-names>Fernanda de Azevedo</given-names></name><role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role><role>análise e interpretação dos dados</role><role>redação do manuscrito</role><role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5418-6646</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Costa</surname><given-names>Admilson Lemos da</given-names><suffix>Filho</suffix></name><role>redação do manuscrito</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3100-2565</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Figueiredo</surname><given-names>Flávio de Azevedo</given-names></name><role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role><role>redação do manuscrito</role><role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0000-3595-6350</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Chavez</surname><given-names>Luz Marina Tacuri</given-names></name><role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role><role>redação do manuscrito</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0003-5806-9465</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Teixeira</surname><given-names>Marcia Fabrícia Almeida</given-names></name><role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0004-2008-4245</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Barbosa</surname><given-names>William Silva</given-names></name><role>obtenção de dados</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0002-4100-3438</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Bronzatto</surname><given-names>Pedro Henrique</given-names></name><role>obtenção de dados</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0008-6430-7999</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Cintra</surname><given-names>Priscila Rabelo</given-names></name><role>redação do manuscrito</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8801-1828</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Nunes</surname><given-names>Maria Carmo Pereira</given-names></name><role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role><role>obtenção de dados</role><role>análise e interpretação dos dados</role><role>obtenção de financiamento</role><role>redação do manuscrito</role><role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/></contrib>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff4">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Lavras</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Lavras, Lavras, MG – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspondência: Maria do Carmo Pereira Nunes</bold> • Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais. Professor Alfredo Balena, 190, Santa Efigênia. CEP: <postal-code>30130-100</postal-code>. Belo Horizonte, MG – Brasil E-mail: <email>mcarmo@waymail.com.br</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><p><bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</bold></p>
<p>Declaro não haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><p>Editor responsável pela revisão: Marcelo Dantas Tavares de Melo</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<abstract>
<title>Resumo</title>
<p>O <italic>strain</italic> do átrio esquerdo (AE), obtido por meio da técnica do <italic>speckle-tracking (</italic>ST) no ecocardiograma bidimensional, emerge como um método preciso para avaliação da função atrial esquerda. Recentemente, tem ganhado destaque na prática clínica devido ao seu significativo valor prognóstico em diversas doenças cardiovasculares, destacando-se por sua maior sensibilidade em comparação aos métodos tradicionais de análise volumétrica e parâmetros do Doppler.</p>
<p>Este artigo de revisão aborda a complexa função do AE e sua estreita interdependência com a função ventricular esquerda, ressaltando sua relevância no desempenho cardíaco. O AE desempenha três funções distintas, atuando como reservatório durante a sístole ventricular, como conduto na diástole precoce e como contrátil durante a fase de contração atrial.</p>
<p>Essa revisão analisa os padrões de normalidade do <italic>strain</italic> atrial esquerdo e sua aplicação em diversas condições clínicas, como fibrilação atrial (FA), insuficiência cardíaca, doença arterial coronariana, obesidade, diabetes mellitus, cardiomiopatia hipertrófica e amiloidose cardíaca. Destaca-se o papel crucial do <italic>strain</italic> atrial na estenose mitral (EM) reumática por sua capacidade em predizer desfechos clínicos.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
<title>Palavras-chave</title>
<kwd>Deformação Longitudinal Global</kwd>
<kwd>Função do Átrio Esquerdo</kwd>
<kwd>Fibrilação Atrial</kwd>
<kwd>Ecocardiografia</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<fig id="f6">
<caption><title>AE: átrio esquerdo; Dcd_DF AE: strain atrial esquerdo na fase de conduto na diástole final; Dct_DF AE: strain atrial esquerdo na fase contrátil na diástole final; Dr_DF AE: strain atrial esquerdo na fase de reservatório na diástole final; EM: estenose mitral; IM: insuficiência mitral; VE: ventrículo esquerdo.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-01-e20240003-gf01-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<sec>
<title>Função do AE</title>
<p>A função do AE mantém uma estreita interdependência com a função ventricular esquerda e tem um papel crucial na preservação de um desempenho cardíaco ideal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> A avaliação da função do AE, tanto em estados fisiológicos quanto patológicos é essencial para predizer desfechos adversos em diversas condições cardiovasculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> O AE desempenha três funções fundamentais: atua como reservatório, funciona como conduto e exerce uma função contrátil<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura 1</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f7">
<label>Figura 1</label>
<caption><title>Função atrial esquerda: variação do volume do AE durante o ciclo cardíaco em condições fisiológicas</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-01-e20240003-gf02-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<sec>
<title>1) Função de reservatório:</title>
<p>O AE funciona como um reservatório recebendo o sangue das veias pulmonares. Inicia-se com o fechamento da valva mitral (VM) e engloba a sístole ventricular, o relaxamento isovolumétrico e o relaxamento do AE. Esta função atrial é modulada pela contração ventricular descida da base do ventrículo esquerdo (VE), pela pressão sistólica do ventrículo direito (VD) transmitida através da circulação pulmonar, e pelas propriedades do AE, como relaxamento e complacência da câmara.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>2) Função de conduto:</title>
<p>Durante a diástole precoce o AE atua como um conduto. O fluxo ocorre de maneira passiva, originando-se nas veias pulmonares e dirigindo-se em direção ao VE. Essa função tem início imediatamente após a abertura da VM, abrangendo o período de relaxamento ventricular e diástase. Seu término ocorre pouco antes da contração atrial, antes da inscrição da onda P no eletrocardiograma (ECG). Essa função é especialmente modulada pelas propriedades diastólicas do VE em indivíduos saudáveis, considerando o relaxamento e a pressão diastólica do VE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>3)Função contrátil:</title>
<p>Esta fase ocorre no final da diástole ventricular. Durante a contração atrial, há um esvaziamento ativo do átrio, contribuindo com 20% a 30% do débito cardíaco na ausência de cardiopatias. A eficácia dessa função está diretamente relacionada ao retorno venoso (pré-carga atrial), à pressão diastólica final do VE (pós-carga atrial) e à contratilidade intrínseca do miocárdio atrial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Avaliação ecocardiográfica da função atrial esquerda</title>
<p>A avaliação não invasiva da função do AE evoluiu consideravelmente, superando análises volumétricas e parâmetros do Doppler. Modalidades como a tomografia computadorizada e a ressonância nuclear magnética (RNM) foram historicamente empregadas, mas recentemente, técnicas ecocardiográficas avançadas têm proporcionado uma avaliação mais acurada.</p>
<p>As análises do diâmetro e do volume atrial nem sempre refletem a função do AE, especialmente em fases mais tardias de condições patológicas, durante as quais podem sofrer alterações. Assim, parâmetros que expressem mais precisamente a função do AE revelam informações complementares e incrementais em relação às medidas tradicionais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>O advento de técnicas ecocardiográficas avançadas possibilitou uma melhor avaliação da função do AE. O <italic>strain</italic> medido pela técnica de ST bidimensional (2DSTE) é um método não invasivo que permite o rastreamento automático de pontos no miocárdio, quadro a quadro, ao longo do ciclo cardíaco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
<p>As vantagens da avaliação da função do AE por meio do <italic>strain</italic> são notáveis. Destaca-se a capacidade de discriminação entre movimento passivo e ativo do tecido miocárdico. Além disso, os parâmetros de <italic>strain</italic> apresentam relativa independência dos efeitos de <italic>tethering</italic> e menor dependência da carga, permitindo a avaliação das diferentes fases da função atrial ao longo do ciclo cardíaco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p>Esses avanços representam uma contribuição significativa para uma compreensão mais abrangente da função atrial esquerda, oferecendo insights valiosos para a prática clínica.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Avaliação da função atrial pelo <italic>strain</italic></title>
<p>Durante a fase de reservatório, observa-se a expansão do AE à medida que se enche com o sangue proveniente das veias pulmonares. Nesse cenário, o <italic>strain</italic> atrial longitudinal aumenta, atingindo um pico positivo no final do enchimento atrial. Após a abertura da VM, ocorre um rápido esvaziamento do AE, resultando em uma diminuição do <italic>strain</italic> atrial longitudinal até atingir um platô, correspondente ao período de diástase atrial. Na fase de contração atrial, observa-se uma redução adicional nos valores do <italic>strain</italic> devido ao encurtamento da parede desta câmara.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<p>A contribuição das funções de reservatório, conduto e contrátil do AE para o enchimento do VE são, aproximadamente 50%, 30% e 20%, respectivamente, em indivíduos saudáveis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Existem diferenças na nomenclatura usada para descrever o <italic>strain</italic> atrial, as quais dependem de qual ciclo (atrial ou ventricular) está sendo usado como ponto de referência, ou seja, como linha de base zero.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Se o ciclo ventricular é utilizado, o complexo QRS é a referência zero. Dessa forma, o pico positivo longitudinal corresponde à função de reservatório atrial (LASr), ocorrendo durante a contração e relaxamento isovolumétrico do VE. Os períodos de enchimento rápido e de contração atrial correspondem, respectivamente, à função atrial de conduto (LAScd) e à bomba ou contração (LASct)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figuras 2</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">3</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f8">
<label>Figura 2</label>
<caption><title>Nomenclatura do strain baseada na escolha do ponto de referência zero. ECG: eletrocardiograma; LAScd: strain atrial esquerdo na fase de conduto; LASct: strain atrial esquerdo na fase contrátil; LASr: strain atrial esquerdo na fase de reservatório.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-01-e20240003-gf03-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<fig id="f9">
<label>Figura 3</label>
<caption><title>Análise do strain atrial esquerdo usando o QRS como referência. Conduit: fase de conduto; Contractile: fase contrátil ou de bomba; LAScd_ED: strain atrial esquerdo na fase de conduto _ diástole final; LASct_ED: strain atrial esquerdo na fase contrátil _ diástole final; LASr_ED: strain atrial esquerdo na fase de reservatório _ diástole final; Reservoir: fase de reservatório.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-01-e20240003-gf04-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>No caso do ciclo atrial como referência, o início da onda P do ECG é a referência zero. O primeiro pico negativo representa a função de bomba, o pico positivo corresponde à função de conduto, e sua soma representa a função de reservatório<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figuras 2</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">4</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f10">
<label>Figura 4</label>
<caption><title>A) Medições do strain do AE usando o QRS como referência; B) Medições do strain do AE usando a onda P como referência. LAScd_AC: strain atrial esquerdo na fase de conduto _ pré-contração atrial; LAScd_ED: strain atrial esquerdo na fase de conduto _ diástole final; LASct_AC: strain atrial esquerdo na fase contrátil _ pré-contração atrial; LASct_ED: strain atrial esquerdo na fase contrátil _ diástole final; LASr_AC: strain atrial esquerdo na fase de reservatório _ pré-contração atrial; LASr_ED: Strain atrial esquerdo na fase de reservatório _ diástole final.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-01-e20240003-gf05-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>A adoção da diástole final como ponto de referência apresenta vantagens, como a viabilidade de obtenção de medidas em todos os pacientes, independentemente do ritmo cardíaco. Destaca-se a facilidade na obtenção da medida do <italic>strain</italic> de reservatório, clinicamente relevante, pois representa o parâmetro de <italic>strain</italic> atrial com maior respaldo de evidências quanto à sua utilidade prognóstica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
<p>Em relação aos valores normais do <italic>strain</italic> do AE, uma metanálise compreendendo 40 estudos e abrangendo 2.542 indivíduos saudáveis, estabeleceu os seguintes valores de referência:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> LASr: 39% (intervalo de confiança de 95%, 38% a 41%), LAScd: 23% (intervalo de confiança de 95%, 21% a 25%) e LASct: 17% (intervalo de confiança de 95%, 16% a 19%).</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title><italic>Strain</italic> atrial esquerdo no contexto clínico</title>
<sec>
<title>Strain atrial esquerdo como preditor de FA</title>
<p>A disfunção atrial associa-se à presença de fibrose, particularmente em casos de FA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Embora a RNM seja considerada padrão ouro para avaliação da fibrose atrial, sua limitação de custo e disponibilidade motivou a busca por alternativas. A medida do <italic>strain</italic> do AE pelo 2DSTE revelou correlação inversa com a extensão da fibrose, apresentando-se como alternativa viável.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Correlações entre <italic>strain</italic> do AE e fibrose histológica foram estabelecidas em pacientes com doença valvar mitral, destacando uma relação negativa entre a extensão da fibrose e os valores do <italic>strain</italic>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Estudo recente também mostrou que o <italic>strain</italic> do AE de reservatório correlacionou-se com a ocorrência de FA paroxística, precedendo a dilatação atrial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
<p>Em pacientes com FA submetidos à ablação por cateter, o <italic>strain</italic> do AE de pico sistólico demonstrou relação com a recorrência da FA após o procedimento. Essas descobertas ressaltam o potencial do strain do AE como preditor de FA e sua utilidade clínica em diferentes contextos cardiovasculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
<p>Hauser <italic>et al</italic>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> conduziram um estudo prospectivo com 4.466 participantes com o objetivo primário de avaliar a incidência de FA ao longo de um seguimento médio de 5 anos. Durante esse período, 154 (4,3%) participantes desenvolveram FA. Nas análises univariadas, observou-se que o <italic>strain</italic> do AE longitudinal (PALS), o <italic>strain</italic> de pico contrátil (PACS) e o <italic>strain</italic> na fase de conduto estavam significativamente associados ao desenvolvimento de FA. Os resultados das análises multivariadas indicaram que tanto PALS quanto PACS permaneceram como preditores independentes de FA. Além disso, PALS e PACS mantiveram associação significativa com o desenvolvimento de FA, mesmo em participantes com tamanho normal do AE e função sistólica do VE preservada. Pacientes com um <italic>strain</italic> atrial inferior a 23% apresentaram um risco 6,8 vezes maior de desenvolver FA em comparação com aqueles que tinham um <italic>strain</italic> igual ou superior a 23%.</p>
<p>Em outro estudo,<italic></italic> Candan <italic>et al.</italic><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup><italic></italic> incluíram 53 pacientes com regurgitação mitral significativa em ritmo sinusal, submetidos à cirurgia valvar mitral. Durante o pós-operatório, 15 pacientes (28,3%) apresentaram FA. Os resultados revelaram que tanto o <italic>strain</italic> atrial esquerdo de pico sistólico quanto o <italic>strain</italic> longitudinal de contração atrial foram significativamente mais baixos no grupo de pacientes que desenvolveram FA.</p>
<p>Em um estudo conduzido por Park <italic>et al</italic>.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> que analisou 2.461 pacientes com insuficiência cardíaca aguda ao longo de 5 anos de seguimento, foi observado que 397 pacientes (16,1%) desenvolveram FA de início recente. A incidência de FA foi significativamente maior em pacientes com valores reduzidos de <italic>strain</italic> atrial esquerdo longitudinal em comparação àqueles com valores normais de <italic>strain</italic>. Esses achados sugerem uma associação entre a disfunção atrial, medida pelo <italic>strain</italic>, e o desenvolvimento de FA em pacientes com insuficiência cardíaca aguda.</p>
<p>Na avaliação de acidente vascular cerebral isquêmico criptogênico, Pathan <italic>et al</italic>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> incluíram 538 pacientes submetidos a ecocardiograma transtorácico com realização do <italic>strain</italic> do AE. Ao longo do seguimento, 61 (11%) desenvolveram FA. Esses pacientes apresentaram valores de <italic>strain</italic> atrial significativamente menores em comparação àqueles que não desenvolveram FA durante o acompanhamento.</p>
<p>Os índices de <italic>strain</italic>, especialmente o LASr com um ponto de corte de ≤ 21,4% e o LASct com um ponto de corte de &gt; 10,4%, foram identificados como marcadores de risco elevado. A análise isolada desses índices revelou um subgrupo de pacientes com risco consideravelmente elevado, tornando-os candidatos à anticoagulação empírica. Isso se deve ao valor incremental e independente do <italic>strain</italic> atrial na predição do risco de eventos tromboembólicos, superior ao escore de CHA2DS2-VASc.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title><italic>Strain</italic> atrial esquerdo na EM reumática</title>
<p>A função atrial esquerda desempenha um papel crucial na EM reumática, influenciando o fluxo sanguíneo através da valva estenosada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
<p>Na EM, a função de reservatório do AE, essencial para o enchimento ventricular na diástole, é comprometida devido à elevação compensatória na pressão atrial, fibrose e dilatação. A função de conduto, responsável pelo enchimento passivo do VE, também é afetada devido à redução na duração da diástole ventricular. Em pacientes com EM, observa-se um aumento inicial na função contrátil do AE como resposta compensatória, porém, essa função diminui com a progressão da doença.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Estudos mostram que, mesmo na EM leve, as funções de <italic>strain</italic> de reservatório e conduto do AE podem estar diminuídas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
<p>A avaliação do <italic>strain</italic> atrial esquerdo revela-se valiosa na predição de eventos adversos em pacientes com EM, como hospitalizações, FA, tromboembolismo, sintomas de insuficiência cardíaca e necessidade de intervenção valvar mitral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> O LASr (<italic>strain</italic> na fase de reservatório) emerge como um indicador prognóstico significativo, sendo reduzido mesmo em estágios iniciais da EM leve.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Em estudos de seguimento, o LASr mostrou-se um preditor consistente de FA e outros desfechos adversos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
<p>A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 1</xref> apresenta uma visão geral dos principais estudos que empregaram o <italic>strain</italic> atrial esquerdo para avaliação da EM reumática, destacando seu papel na estratificação de risco e prognóstico desses pacientes.</p>
<table-wrap id="t2">
<label>Tabela 1</label>
<caption><title>Principais estudos empregando o strain atrial no contexto da EM reumática</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="25%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874;">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Estudo</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">População</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Objetivos</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Principais achados</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Ancona et al., 2013</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">101 pacientes assintomáticos com EM <break/>70 controles</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Avaliar a função do AE na EM pelo strain do AE e seu valor em predizer FA em 4 anos de seguimento.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">As dimensões e volumes do AE e a PSAP foram significativamente aumentados, e o LAS foi significativamente diminuído nos pacientes com EM. Pacientes que evoluíram para FA (20%) eram mais velhos, sem diferença nas dimensões ou volumes do AE. <break/>O melhor preditor de FA em 4 anos de seguimento foi o strain de pico sistólico do AE, com valor de corte de 17,4%.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Pourafkari et al., 2015</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">603 pacientes com EM (33% com FA)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">O objetivo foi estabelecer um modelo matemático para predição de risco de FA em pacientes com EM.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Os fatores independentemente associados à FA foram o strain do AE, pressão do átrio direito, idade e fração de ejeção.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Chien et al., 2018</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">69 pacientes com EM estáveis</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Identificar os determinantes da classe funcional NYHA em pacientes com EM e avaliar a relação entre o strain atrial e sintomas de IC.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Em análises multivariadas, ajustadas para o uso de diuréticos, LASr foi preditor independente da classe funcional NYHA.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Mahfouz et al., 2020</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">75 pacientes com EM leve em ritmo sinusal <break/>40 controles saudáveis</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Avaliar o strain atrial em pacientes com EM leve e correlacionar com a tolerância ao exercício.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Pacientes com EM leve tiveram valores significativamente menores de LASr e LAScd. <break/>Pacientes com intolerância ao exercício (MET &lt; 8) tiveram valores menores de LASr, LAScd e LASct. <break/>LASr ≤ 26,5% foi preditor independente de baixa capacidade de exercício em pacientes com EM leve.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Vriz et al., 2021</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">101 pacientes com EM grave</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Determinar a correlação entre o strain atrial e a PSAP e outros parâmetros de função do VD. <break/>Verificar se o strain atrial é preditor do desenvolvimento de FA.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Com o aumento do LASr houve queda na PSAP e na RVP. <break/>A função do VD aumentou significativamente com o aumento do LASr. <break/>LASr foi um dos melhores preditores de FA.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Kaur V et al., 2021</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">83 pacientes com EM submetidos à PTMC</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Avaliar a associação entre a razão do <italic>strain</italic> do AE pelo <italic>strain</italic> do AD com aumento da RVP medida pela hemodinâmica.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">LA-RAs baixo correlacionou com EM mais grave, mais alta pressão média da artéria pulmonar e pressão de cunha capilar pulmonar quando comparados com pacientes com LA-RAs alto. <break/>LA-RAs mostrou forte correlação com HP. <break/>LA-RAs aumentou significativamente após PTMC.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Stassen et al., 2022</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">125 pacientes com EM sem história de FA</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Avaliar a associação do strain atrial com o desenvolvimento de FA no seguimento dos pacientes com EM.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Durante tempo médio de seguimento de 32 meses, 41 pacientes (32,8%) desenvolveram FA de início recente. <break/>Pacientes que desenvolveram FA tiveram LASr significativamente mais comprometido comparado aos que permaneceram em ritmo sinusal. <break/>LASr &lt; 21% foi independentemente associado ao desenvolvimento de FA no seguimento.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Mehta et al., 2022</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">80 pacientes com EM grave em ritmo sinusal <break/>40 controles</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Avaliar a função do AE pelo strain e sua correlação com a classe funcional NYHA e parâmetros ecocardiográficos na EM grave e HP, comparando com o grupo-controle.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Os valores médios do LASr, LAScd e LASct nos pacientes com EM foram significativamente mais baixos em relação aos controles.</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN2"><p>AE: átrio esquerdo; LAS: strain atrial esquerdo; EM: estenose mitral; FA: fibrilação atrial; HP: hipertensão pulmonar; IC: insuficiência cardíaca; LA-RAs: razão do strain do AE pelo strain do átrio direito; LAScd: strain atrial esquerdo durante a fase de conduto; LASct: strain atrial esquerdo durante a fase contrátil; LASr: strain atrial esquerdo durante a fase de reservatório; NYHA: New York Heart Association; PSAP: pressão sistólica da artéria pulmonar; PTMC: comissurotomia mitral percutânea; RVP: resistência vascular pulmonar; VD: ventrículo direito.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
</sec>
<sec>
<title><italic>Strain</italic> atrial esquerdo na insuficiência cardíaca</title>
<p>O aumento das pressões de enchimento representa uma condição crucial na fisiopatologia da insuficiência cardíaca. Neste contexto, o <italic>strain</italic> do AE pode ser usado como ferramenta diagnóstica e prognóstica, especialmente na insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção reduzida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
<p>Um LASr (<italic>strain</italic> atrial esquerdo na fase de reservatório) reduzido associa-se a uma maior disfunção sistólica do VE, bem como a disfunção sistólica e diastólica do VD, risco de FA, níveis elevados do peptídeo natriurético cerebral, e a uma piora da classe funcional New York Heart Association (NYHA), além de ser um importante preditor de morte e hospitalização por IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
<p>Além dessas associações prognósticas, o <italic>strain</italic> do AE pode ser usado na avaliação da resposta terapêutica. A terapia otimizada reduz a pré e a pós-carga, além de diminuir a demanda metabólica do miócito, reduzindo o trabalho miocárdico. Esses efeitos levam à redução da sobrecarga do AE, melhorando os parâmetros do <italic>strain</italic>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
<p>O <italic>strain</italic> do AE também se mostra promissor como marcador prognóstico na insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção preservada. Pacientes com insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção preservada apresentam redução dos valores do LASr e do LASct, com forte associação ao aumento da pressão e resistência na artéria pulmonar, à redução do débito cardíaco e à baixa tolerância ao exercício.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
<p>Apesar das evidências supracitadas, o valor do <italic>strain</italic> do AE como preditor de hospitalização e morte na insuficiência cardíaca, independentemente do <italic>strain</italic> do VE, permanece incerto.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title><italic>Strain</italic> atrial esquerdo em diversas condições cardiovasculares</title>
<p>A disfunção atrial esquerda no contexto da doença arterial coronariana, apesar de inicialmente ser discreta, pode ser identificada por meio da análise do <italic>strain</italic> do AE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> Observou-se que o <italic>strain</italic> atrial da fase de reservatório (LASr) está significativamente diminuído em pacientes com acometimento da artéria descendente anterior, e valores reduzidos estão correlacionados a uma maior gravidade da lesão coronariana. Essa evidência sustenta a visão de que o <italic>strain</italic> atrial esquerdo não apenas desempenha um papel diagnóstico, mas também oferece informações prognósticas cruciais. Portanto, ao ponderar entre abordagens de tratamento conservadoras e intervencionistas, a inclusão da análise do <italic>strain</italic> do AE pode contribuir para tomada de decisões clínicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
<p>A obesidade leva a aumento do débito cardíaco e do volume sistólico, aumento da pós-carga, inflamação sistêmica (com efeito miopático), além do efeito parácrino da gordura epicárdica. Estes fatores estão associados à ocorrência de remodelamento atrial, o qual pode ser detectado precocemente pela análise do <italic>strain</italic> do AE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> Em estudo realizado por Chirinos <italic>et al.,</italic><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> envolvendo 1.531 pacientes, o aumento do índice de massa corpórea se associou à redução do LASr e LASct (<italic>strain</italic> atrial nas fases de reservatório e conduto), e a um aumento compensatório no <italic>strain</italic> contrátil (LASct), quando ajustado para idade e sexo. Os autores igualmente observaram que, à medida que o índice de massa corpórea aumenta, há uma diminuição dessa função contrátil compensatória atrial, o que aumenta a probabilidade de desenvolvimento de insuficiência cardíaca.</p>
<p>O diabetes mellitus é um importante fator de risco cardiovascular e sua prevalência vem crescendo de forma significativa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> O diabetes mellitus de longa data está associado com disfunção diastólica do VE, dilatação do AE e maior predisposição à insuficiência cardíaca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> Estudos prévios mostram redução do <italic>strain</italic> do AE nas fases de reservatório e conduto (LASr e LASct) em pacientes diabéticos,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> mesmo na ausência de hipertensão arterial sistêmica e hipertrofia do VE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> O impacto do diabetes mellitus no remodelamento atrial colabora para maior risco de desenvolvimento de FA nos pacientes diabéticos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
<p>A cardiomiopatia hipertrófica induz uma progressiva disfunção diastólica do VE, com consequente aumento das pressões de enchimento, as quais são transmitidas para o AE, culminando com o remodelamento e dilatação progressiva dessa câmara. Como manifestação clínica, os pacientes apresentam insuficiência cardíaca, FA, arritmias ventriculares e morte súbita.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> Estudos prévios mostram que a cardiomiopatia hipertrófica leva a um enrijecimento progressivo do miocárdio atrial esquerdo com redução da função de reservatório dessa câmara.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup> Em estudo com 76 pacientes com cardiomiopatia hipertrófica, evidenciou-se uma associação entre essa condição e índices reduzidos do <italic>strain</italic> de conduto e contrátil do AE (LAScd e LASct).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> Nesse estudo, constatou-se que valores inferiores de LASct correlacionaram-se com um aumento significativo nas taxas de hospitalização por IC e FA.</p>
<p>A amiloidose cardíaca leva a espessamento progressivo do miocárdio do VE com consequente disfunção diastólica e elevação das pressões de enchimento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> Essa elevação das pressões de enchimento do VE, associadas a deposição de proteínas amilóides no miocárdio atrial, causam progressiva disfunção e dilatação do AE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> Mohty <italic>et al.,</italic>55 em um estudo com 77 pacientes com amiloidose cardíaca (tipo AL – amiloidose tipo cadeia leve), mostraram valores reduzidos do <italic>strain</italic> do AE na fase de reservatório (LASr), com sobrevida em 2 anos significativamente menor nos pacientes com LASr &lt; 14%. Outro estudo conduzido por Nochioka <italic>et al.,</italic>56 encontrou valores reduzidos do <italic>strain</italic> atrial nas fases de reservatório, conduto e contrátil em indivíduos com amiloidose cardíaca, independente do subtipo.</p>
<p>A insuficiência mitral crônica causa a dilatação progressiva e disfunção do AE, levando ao aumento do risco de desenvolvimento de FA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> Em um estudo conduzido por Yang <italic>et al.,</italic><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> envolvendo pacientes com insuficiência mitral primária de grau importante, a redução do <italic>strain</italic> do AE na fase de reservatório associou-se à maiores taxas de mortalidade e necessidade de cirurgia de troca ou plastia valvar mitral após um período de seguimento de 13,2 meses. Em outro estudo, Ring <italic>et al.</italic>,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup> avaliaram 192 pacientes com prolapso e insuficiência mitral, e notaram que os valores do <italic>strain</italic> do AE nas fases de reservatório e contrátil foram preditores independentes de necessidade de troca valvar mitral. Embora pequenos, esses estudos mostram a relevância das medidas do <italic>strain</italic> atrial para estratificação de risco e possível otimização do momento ideal para a realização das intervenções cirúrgicas nesse grupo de pacientes.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Desafios nas aplicações clínicas atuais do strain atrial esquerdo</title>
<p>A aplicação ampla e rotineira do <italic>strain</italic> do AE como marcador prognóstico em diferentes condições cardiovasculares ainda é limitada. Uma avaliação abrangente da função do AE requer a análise conjunta tanto da pressão quanto do volume atrial. Na ausência de modalidades para avaliação direta da pressão do AE, as estimativas são realizadas indiretamente, podendo ser influenciadas tanto pela disfunção do VE quanto por anormalidades primárias no AE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Ademais, destaca-se a variação nos valores de <italic>strain</italic> do AE obtidos por distintas plataformas de <italic>software.</italic></p>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusões e perspectivas futuras</title>
<p>O <italic>strain</italic> do AE emerge como uma ferramenta promissora na avaliação de diversas condições cardiovasculares, oferecendo insights valiosos para a estratificação de risco e o monitoramento da progressão de doenças cardíacas.</p>
<p>Contudo, existe a necessidade de estudos prospectivos e multicêntricos e a padronização de técnicas e elaboração de diretrizes específicas para a interpretação e aplicação clínica do strain atrial.</p>
<p>O estabelecimento de diretrizes específicas garantirá a consistência e confiabilidade na interpretação do <italic>strain</italic> do AE, impulsionando seu uso generalizado na prática clínica.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn5"><p><bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold></p>
<p>O presente estudo foi parcialmente financiado por CNPq. Maria do Carmo P Nunes tem bolsa de produtividade científica (PQ-1A)- Edital CNPq N º 09/2020.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6"><p><bold>Vinculação Acadêmica</bold></p>
<p>Este artigo é parte de dissertação de Mestrado de Fernanda de Azevedo Figueiredo pela Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn7"><p><bold>Aprovação Ética e Consentimento Informado</bold></p>
<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
</back>
</sub-article>
</article>
