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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abcimg</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq Bras Cardiol: Imagem cardiovasc.</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20230113i</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abcimg.20230113i</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Review Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>The Indiscriminate Use Of Androgenic Anabolic Steroids: The Contribution of Cardiovascular Imaging</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0107-8104</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Bispo</surname>
						<given-names>Irving Gabriel Araöşjo</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>writing of the manuscript and critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2200-7671</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Zago</surname>
						<given-names>Isabella Montanher</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>acquisition of data</role>
					<role>analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff1">
					<label>1</label>
					<institution content-type="orgname">UNIFESP</institution>
					<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Cardiologia</institution>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">UNIFESP, Cardiologia, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
				</aff>
				<aff id="aff2">
					<label>2</label>
					<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Municipal de São Caetano do Sul</institution>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">São Caetano do Sul</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Universidade Municipal de São Caetano do Sul, São Caetano do Sul, SP – Brazil</institution>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailings Addess: Irving Gabriel Araöşjo Bispo •</bold> UNIFESP, Cardiologia. Rua Napoleão de Barros, 715. Postal code: <postal-code>04021-001</postal-code>. Vila Clementino, São Paulo, SP – Brazil E-mail: <email>irvingbispo@yahoo.com.br</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p><bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold></p>
					<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>21</day>
				<month>03</month>
				<year>2024</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<year>2024</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>37</volume>
			<issue>1</issue>
			<elocation-id>e20230113</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>08</day>
					<month>12</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>31</day>
					<month>01</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>04</day>
					<month>02</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>Abstract</title>
				<p>Anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) are natural or synthetic compounds similar to the male hormone testosterone. The literature also describes cases of AAS abuse, such as in bodybuilding, cosmetics, recreational use, and aesthetic enhancement. It was discovered that AAS alone directly induce myocardial injury, with the main pathological finding in autopsied hearts being left ventricle (LV) hypertrophy in frequent association with myocyte hypertrophy, increased collagen deposition in the matrix, increased activity of the cardiac angiotensin, and myocardial fibrosis.</p>
				<p>Patients who used illicit AAS present decreased LV systolic function. In athletes who self-administer AAS, LV hypertrophy and elevated sympathetic modulation were observed, as well as elevated blood pressure (BP). High doses of AAS can cause the user to have ventricular arrhythmias and sudden death. Furthermore, AAS users demonstrated greater coronary artery plaque volume than non-users. The objective of this review is to revisit the main effects of the use of AAS on cardiac changes through cardiovascular imaging as well as to establish a difference in relation to athletic heart syndrome.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords</title>
				<kwd>Steroids</kwd>
				<kwd>Global Longitudinal Strain</kwd>
				<kwd>Doppler Echocardiography</kwd>
				<kwd>Tomography</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="4"/>
				<table-count count="2"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="45"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introduction</title>
			<p>Anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) are natural or synthetic compounds that mimic the effects of the male hormone testosterone. Alterations to their molecular structure are made to modify their bioactivity, delay absorption into the bloodstream, minimize androgenic effects, and maximize anabolic effects. While testosterone replacement therapy is the current standard treatment for pathological hypogonadism in men, the increasing and indiscriminate use of AAS for aesthetic and competitive purposes lacks support in the literature.</p>
			<p>The misuse of anabolic steroids is also reported in bodybuilding, cosmetics, recreational use, and aesthetic enhancement.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Illicit AAS use has been linked to decreased left ventricular (LV) systolic function. Long-term AAS use has been associated with LV impairment, while recent use has been linked to decreased LV ejection fraction, myocardial hypertrophy, and diastolic dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Independent studies have found associations between increased plasma total testosterone levels and decreased LV ejection fraction and LV myocardial hypertrophy. Cardiac hypertrophy resulting from AAS abuse is frequently associated with sudden death and arrhythmias in athletes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Bowman et al. studied autopsies of athletes who used AAS. Their main findings were cardiomegaly (33%) and hypertrophy (30%). The most frequently reported histological changes were foci of fibrosis (79%) and necrosis (52%) of myocardial tissue.</p>
			<p>The increased dimensions of the cavities, wall thickness, and LV mass are typical consequences of high-intensity physical training and are included in the physiological cardiac remodeling of athletic heart syndrome, which can be a confusing factor regarding the use of AAS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
			<p>The objective of this review is to assess the primary effects of AAS use on cardiac changes using cardiovascular imaging and to distinguish these effects from those of athletic heart syndrome.</p>
			<sec>
				<title>Main changes of anabolic steroids in the cardiovascular system</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Metabolic changes</title>
					<p>One well-documented factor related to the effects of AAS on the cardiovascular system is its action on plasma lipids. Studies show that users of these drugs had increased low density liprotein (LDL) and decreased high density liprotein (HDL).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Their actions may be related to the increased activity of the enzyme hepatic triglyceride lipase (HTGL), responsible for regulating lipids and lipoprotein levels, stimulating the formation of atherosclerotic plaques with consequent plaque increase.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Such changes increase the risk of coronary disease three to six times.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Coronary artery disease (CAD)</title>
					<p>AAS use may also be associated with acute myocardial infarction and sudden death in younger people. In a case study, a 20-year-old man using AAS experienced sudden cardiac death (SCD) accompanied by pulmonary hemorrhage.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Similar findings were reported in another case involving a 31-year-old bodybuilder who had been using AAS for ten years and presented with chest pain due to an acute myocardial infarction, which resulted from occlusion of the right coronary artery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
					<fig id="f2">
						<caption>
							<title>CCT: Coronary Tomography; CMR: Cardiac Magnetic Resonance</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-01-e20230113-gf01.tif"/>
					</fig>
					<p>Some studies have shown beneficial effects on the coronary arteries of patients using AAS, through the release of nitric oxide and the inhibition of smooth muscle contraction. However, animal studies have shown that the misuse of AAS, such as nandrolone in high doses, can cause a vasoconstriction response and lead to side effects.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Arterial hypertension</title>
					<p>Another widely discussed topic in the literature is the impact of AAS on blood pressure (BP). Studies indicate that AAS use among athletes leads to an increase in BP, which may persist even after discontinuation of the drug. For instance, one study showed that systolic BP remained approximately 6 mmHg higher at rest in AAS users compared to non-users, even after five months of cessation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
					<p>This increased BP could be attributed to greater sodium and water retention, as the structure of AAS is similar to aldosterone, potentially leading to increased blood volume and BP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Another hypothesis suggests that AAS may affect the sympathetic nervous system. In spontaneously hypertensive rats, blocking the androgen receptor was effective in reducing BP in the early stages, indicating the significant role of testosterone in the initial phase of hypertension. Additionally, changes in endothelium-dependent vasodilatory responses or alterations in baroreflex control could also contribute to increased BP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
					<p>On the other hand, some authors have not observed an increase in BP associated with AAS use. Nottin <italic>et al.</italic> found no differences in BP between bodybuilders using AAS and non-users. Similarly, a study with weight-lifters did not observe increased BP at rest or during exercise in AAS users.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Similar findings were reported in previous studies, where rats treated with AAS and trained by swimming did not exhibit significant changes in BP. The discrepancies in the literature regarding the effects of AAS on BP may be attributed to variations in study methodologies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Ventricular remodeling</title>
					<p>Hypertrophy may be related to the increased afterload of isometric exercise.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Possible associations between AAS and LV hypertrophy can be explained as secondary to hypertension or as a direct effect on the myocardium. Notably, studies on isolated myocytes have shown that AAS bind to androgen receptors and can directly cause hypertrophy, potentially due to tissue regulation of the renin-angiotensin system.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
					<p>In fact, clinical studies suggest a distinct form of LV hypertrophy in AAS users, as evidenced by echocardiographic changes in the myocardium before the onset of visible hypertrophy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Arrhythmias</title>
					<p>Animal experiments suggest that AAS abuse may lead to cardiac ischemia during peak exercise, possibly due to accelerated atherosclerosis caused by lipoprotein abnormalities over years of abuse.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Additionally, AAS can increase platelet aggregation and thrombus formation through various mechanisms, including increasing platelet production of thromboxane A2 (a potent platelet aggregator), reducing prostacyclin production (a platelet aggregation inhibitor), and raising fibrinogen levels.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
					<p>The relative clinical contributions of these mechanisms are uncertain. Still, their combined effects could plausibly explain instances of acute infarction or ventricular arrhythmias in young athletes without traditional cardiac risk factors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Revisiting the concept of athletic heart syndrome</title>
				<p>The physiological hypertrophy of athletic heart syndrome is characterized by homogeneously distributed symmetrical parietal thickening involving all cardiac cavities. The chamber thickening induced by exercise is proportional to the type of physical activity performed and its load (mainly combined power and resistance disciplines). It is reversible after temporary detraining, generally after three (3) months.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A physiological enlargement of both ventricles is usually observed (mainly with endurance athletes), along with proportional atrial dilation. Despite hypertrophy and enlargement of cardiac chambers, cardiac systolic function is not compromised in athletes, with no significant differences compared to non-athlete individuals. Likewise, LV diastolic function is normal, and an increased contribution of early filling velocity can be seen at rest with pulsed Doppler E/A &gt; 2. Aortic root diameters are generally normal in athletes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The human heart feels the demand and adapts in both the short and long terms. Assessing cardiac remodeling in athletes presents several challenges, including the impact of training load — particularly in amateur athletes — and the difficulty in establishing sport- and sex-specific reference ranges. Additionally, factors such as race and the use of performance-enhancing substances, like AAS, further complicate the assessment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The morphology of the LV in the athlete's heart is typically studied using echocardiography, revealing a distinct pattern of LV dilation and hypertrophy. Current recommendations from the European Association of Preventive Cardiology (EAPC) and the European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging (EACVI) suggest echocardiography as a secondary investigative tool to differentiate between an athlete's physiological heart adaptations and underlying cardiac conditions. However, contrary to these guidelines, echocardiography is often used as a primary screening tool in the cardiovascular assessment of both professional and amateur athletes, even when clinical and electrocardiographic assessments are normal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
				<p>For endurance athletes exhibiting LV and/or right ventricular (RV) dilation with mildly reduced ejection fraction at rest, stress echocardiography can be used to evaluate contractile reserve during exercise. A significant improvement in contractility during exercise indicates physiological cardiac remodeling, whereas a lack of improvement or subnormal response suggests a pathological condition (e.g., dilated cardiomyopathy, non-compacted LV, arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy). Likewise, exercise-induced ventricular arrhythmias also support the hypothesis of underlying heart disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) can more accurately assess cardiac structure and function, as well as characterize the myocardium, detecting relevant changes, including the quantification of myocardial fibrosis. CMR also enables the assessment of myocardial tissue characteristics, including fat and water content, fibrosis, and cardiomyocyte mass.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
				<p>While the vast majority of athletes have suitable echo windows, it is important to note that echocardiography is not used as the gold standard for measuring cavity, mass, and intracavitary volumes. Instead, its routine use in suspected athletic heart syndrome is primarily due to its ability, within a coherent clinical context, for tissue characterization. Therefore, CMR is useful for assessing athletic heart syndrome, as the precision of the measurements is superior to echocardiography.</p>
				<p>Given the complex structure of RV morphological assessment, CMR is more reproducible than echocardiography. Increases in RV mass, end-diastolic volumes, and stroke volumes relative to non-athletes have been described. The relationship between LV and RV size was maintained, leading to the conclusion that athlete's heart syndrome involves balanced remodeling of both ventricles' diameter.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Anabolic androgen steroids and changes in the echocardiogram</title>
				<p>AAS use resulted in impaired LV systolic function, as assessed by left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) and longitudinal strain, and demonstrated in a study by Baggish <italic>et al</italic>. This finding was driven almost entirely by AAS users who were under the influence of drugs at the time of the study, suggesting that LV dysfunction may be dynamically related to AAS use.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In subsequent analyses examining the association of outcomes with duration and use of AAS: 41 (71%) of the 58 AAS users had an LVEF below the limit of 52% calculated by the Simpson method. In contrast, non-users had a largely normal LVEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In another analysis, the primary outcome variables LVEF and E', AAS users showed significant deficits compared to non-users, therefore compromising the parameters of systolic and diastolic function in parallel.</p>
				<p>Regarding ventricular remodeling, AAS users exhibited higher LV mass index, thicker LV walls, and more concentric LV geometry than non-users.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
				<p>AAS users also showed impaired diastolic function, both in relation to non-users and also as defined by current diagnostic criteria according to the American Society of Echocardiography. Twenty-nine (50%) drug users had values below the normal E' threshold of 8.5 cm/s. Similar associations with AAS use have been found in other studies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
				<p>No association was found between the duration of AAS use and the primary outcome variables (for every additional 10 years of AAS exposure, the estimated mean change [95% CI] in LVEF was −3.3% [−8.3% to 1.6%], p = 0.19; and the estimated mean change in E' was 0.1 cm/s [-1.0 to 1.2cm/s], p = 0, 90).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
				<p>When assessing the associations separately for AAS users and non-users, there was a significant association between increased LV mass index and decreased LVEF among AAS users (estimated mean change [95% CI] in LVEF for each increase of 10 g in LV mass index −1.6% [-2.4 to −0.8%], p &lt; 0.001). In contrast, no significant association between LV mass index and LVEF was seen in non-users (estimated mean change in LVEF for each 10 g increase in LV mass index −0.2% [−1.5 to 1.2%], p = 0.80).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The Speckle-Tracking Echocardiography (STE) is another advanced echocardiographic strain imaging technique that provides new insights into the characterization of myocardial properties in athletes, detecting subclinical ventricular systolic function in early-stage heart disease when LVEF is still normal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The LV global longitudinal strain (GLS) obtained by STE is the most used parameter in clinical practice, but there is controversy in the literature, whose studies show differences. Therefore, a reduction in longitudinal deformation in athletes should be considered a subclinical sign of LV contractile dysfunction and should raise the suspicion of myocardial disease, particularly in the presence of hypertrophy or equivocal LV dilation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Data regarding the interpretation of parameters derived from VR and STE in athletes are still controversial. Chronic, strenuous physical training appears to have a detrimental effect on RV function, with reduced RV strain immediately after endurance running, followed by complete recovery. Finally, RV deformation imaging can help differentiate between physiological and pathological conditions by identifying regional wall motion abnormalities in patients with arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Myocardial work is a novel echocardiographic index of LV contractile function, being less dependent on load and adjusting parameters derived from STE for afterload. Increased afterload in various physiological and pathological conditions can result in impaired effort. This is particularly relevant for athletes whose BP and loading conditions may vary between exams and different phases of their training programs, and it may also be beneficial for monitoring AAS users.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>The use of coronary tomography (CCT) in users of anabolic androgen steroids</title>
				<p>Recent technological advances have expanded the role of CCT beyond the evaluation of coronary arteries and large vessels. LV morphological and functional assessment is performed using an ECG-controlled retrospective scanning protocol. The assessment of LV volumes, systolic volume, ejection fraction, and mass showed excellent correlation with the CMR assessment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
				<p>LV functional assessment by CCT is particularly useful in claustrophobic patients, as they are unable to perform CMR, or if there are any contraindications to CMR (although rare among athlete patients). Otherwise, CCT cannot be recommended as a first-line imaging technique for LV functional assessment in athletes, given the greater radiation exposure required. The use of iodinated contrast media allows the assessment of the LV and myocardial fibrosis (with analysis of late iodine enhancement) by CCT, even if not routinely used in clinical practice, with good agreement with the same assessments performed by contrast-enhanced CMR.</p>
				<p>All athletes with ambiguous anomalous coronary artery anatomy, suspected following echocardiography, should undergo CCT based on institutional preferences and knowledge. In cases of suspected coronary atherosclerotic disease, CCT is valuable for coronary artery calcium scoring and non-invasive coronary angiography. When dilation of the aortic root or ascending aorta is suspected or confirmed, a comprehensive tomographic evaluation of the aorta is recommended.</p>
				<p>While regular aerobic exercise is known to be beneficial for the primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular diseases, the impact of lifelong resistance exercise on the heart has only recently been studied. In a minority of susceptible veteran athletes, exercise can trigger adverse events such as SCD, often attributable to silent CAD. Several studies have demonstrated a higher-than-expected prevalence of CAD in veteran athletes, and failure to detect those at risk using routine cardiovascular screenings such as exercise testing has potentially devastating consequences. CCT, including calcium scoring, has revealed CAD in 25-53% of veteran athletes and offers prognostic benefits by determining plaque morphology and total atherosclerotic burden.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
				<p>AAS use has been linked to increased coronary atherosclerosis, with disease severity strongly associated with the cumulative duration of AAS use over a lifetime. Taken together, our findings suggest that prolonged AAS use is associated with adverse cardiovascular phenotypes characterized by both myocardial disease and CAD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
				<p>AAS users had significantly greater coronary plaque volume than non-users. When investigating the relationship between ATT measurements and the duration of AAS use, we observed strong associations between lifetime use time and all angiographic measures of coronary pathology (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>). However, there was no significant change in the association between AAS use and plaque volume (estimated mean difference between users with and without drugs in classifications: −0.07 SD units [-0.56 to 0.41]; p = 0.76). It is noteworthy that three AAS users had experienced prior myocardial infarctions due to atherosclerotic disease, as documented by cardiac catheterization. These events occurred at ages 38 (ST-segment myocardial infarction with complete occlusion of the left anterior descending artery), 43 (Myocardial infarction without ST-segment elevation with 99% occlusion of both the right coronary and left circumflex coronary arteries), and 46 (ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction with complete occlusion of an obtuse 2nd marginal artery), after 17, 11, and 5 years of accumulated exposure to AAS over their lifetime, respectively.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
				<table-wrap id="t1">
					<label>Table 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Main changes in cardiovascular imaging methods with the use of AAS</title>
					</caption>
					<table frame="hsides" rules="none">
						<colgroup width="50%">
							<col/>
							<col/>
						</colgroup>
						<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
							<tr style="background-color:#C58874;">
								<th align="left" valign="middle">Method</th>
								<th align="center" valign="middle">Finding</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Echocardiogram</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Decreased LV systolic function<break/>Hemodynamic and diastolic function analysis<break/>Reduction of cardiac mechanics (strain), <break/>(controversial)</td>
							</tr>
							<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
								<td align="left" valign="middle">CCT</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Increased volume of coronary plaque<break/>Plaque location<break/>Calcium score</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">CMR Imaging</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">LV hypertrophy and RV dysfunction<break/>Auxiliary and tissue analysis in the differential diagnosis of cardiomyopathies</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN1">
							<p>LF: Left Ventricle; RV: Right Ventricle; CCT: Coronary Tomography; CMR: Cardiac Magnetic Resonance</p>
						</fn>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>CMR in AAS users</title>
				<p>CMR is the most valuable imaging method for the differential diagnosis between physiology and pathology in athletes, aiding in the discrimination of diseases where the echocardiography does not provide clarification.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
				<p>CMR is the gold standard for defining myocardial morphology, assessing parietal mobility, size of cardiac chambers, and tissue definition. It provides a precise and reproducible assessment of the volume and mass of the heart chambers, as well as the global and regional contractile function. This method is the preferred choice for accurately assessing the morphology and function of the RV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
				<p>CMR represents the superior method for identifying myocardial fibrosis and its distribution pattern through the assessment of late gadolinium enhancement, native T1, and extracellular volume (ECV) mapping. Furthermore, CMR can identify edema and fat in the myocardial walls.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In particular, the identification of myocardial fibrosis can differentiate between athletic heart syndrome and pathological LV hypertrophy (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>), as fibrosis often accompanies cardiac remodeling due to pathology.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
				<fig id="f1">
					<label>Figure 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>CMR Imaging for the differential diagnosis of cardiomyopathy Hypertrophic x Athlete's Heart</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-01-e20230113-gf02.tif"/>
				</fig>
				<p>In hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, midwall fibrosis is typically found in areas of extreme hypertrophy, although it can also occur in non-hypertrophied segments.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Myocardial fibrosis has been observed in athletes with a higher prevalence than in healthy non-athlete populations. In healthy athletes, myocardial fibrosis involves less than 3% of the myocardium. It varies greatly in quantity, location and pattern, but is generally found in the RV or interventricular septum. The prevalence of myocardial fibrosis in individuals with athletic heart syndrome appears to increase with a longer history of resistance training. However, the prognostic significance of myocardial fibrosis in individuals with athletic heart syndrome is unknown.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> Regarding diffuse interstitial fibrosis, studies comparing ECV in athletes and controls reported similar or lower ECV values in athletes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Stress CMR, usually with exercise, can be used to identify reduced functional reserve and early-stage cardiomyopathy when resting functional assessment is mildly abnormal. However, further studies are needed to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of stress CMR imaging in this setting.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A cross-sectional cohort design was used with 21 strength-trained participants who underwent heart CMR imaging and STE. Thirteen participants (30 ± 5 years) who had been taking AAS for at least two years and were currently on a “use” cycle were compared with age- and training-matched controls (n = 8; 29 ± 6 years) who had never taken AAS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
				<p>AAS users had a significantly greater absolute LV mass (220 ± 45 g) compared to non-users (163 ± 27 g; p &lt; 0.05), but this difference was removed when indexed to fat-free mass. AAS users also had a reduced RV ejection fraction (AS 51 ± 4% vs. NAS 59 ± 5%; p &lt; 0.05) and a significantly lower myocardial tissue velocity ratio E' by LV tissue Doppler (AAS 0.99[0.54] vs. non-AAS users 1.78[0.46]; p &lt; 0.05). Maximum LV longitudinal strain was lower in AAS users (−14.2 ± 2.7% vs. −16.6 ± 1.9%; p &lt; 0.05). There was no evidence of focal fibrosis in any participant. AAS use was associated with significant LV hypertrophy, although in line with greater fat-free mass, reduced LV strain, diastolic function, and reduced RV ejection fraction in male bodybuilders. There was, however, no evidence of focal fibrosis in any AAS user.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusions</title>
			<p>The indiscriminate use of AAS among athletes has been on the rise and is linked to LV hypertrophy and dysfunction. Cardiologists must be vigilant about this public health concern and should assess its impact on users early on using cardiovascular imaging.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn1">
				<p>Editor responsible for the review: Marcelo Dantas Tavares de Melo</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn2">
				<p><bold>Sources of Funding</bold></p>
				<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
				<p><bold>Study Association</bold></p>
				<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn4">
				<p><bold>Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate</bold></p>
				<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
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				<mixed-citation>45 Santora LJ, Marin J, Vangrow J, Minegar C, Robinson M, Mora J, et al. Coronary Calcification in Body Builders using Anabolic Steroids. Prev Cardiol. 2006;9(4):198-201. doi: 10.1111/j.1559-4564.2006.05210.x.</mixed-citation>
			</ref>
		</ref-list>
	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S01" xml:lang="pt">
		<front-stub>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.e20230113</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>O Uso Indiscriminado de Esteroides Anabolizantes Androgênicos: A Contribuição da Imagem Cardiovascular</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0107-8104</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Bispo</surname>
						<given-names>Irving Gabriel Araöşjo</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>redação do manuscrito e revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2200-7671</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Zago</surname>
						<given-names>Isabella Montanher</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff3">
					<label>1</label>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">UNIFESP, Cardiologia, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
				</aff>
				<aff id="aff4">
					<label>2</label>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">São Caetano do Sul</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Universidade Municipal de São Caetano do Sul, São Caetano do Sul, SP – Brasil</institution>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspondência: Irving Gabriel Araöşjo Bispo</bold> • UNIFESP, Cardiologia. Rua Napoleão de Barros, 715. CEP: <postal-code>04021-001</postal-code>. Vila Clementino, São Paulo, SP – Brasil E-mail: <email>irvingbispo@yahoo.com.br</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p><bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</bold></p>
					<p>Declaro não haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumo</title>
				<p>Os esteroides anabolizantes androgênicos (EAA) são compostos naturais ou sintéticos semelhantes ao hormônio masculino testosterona. A literatura também descreve os casos de abuso de EAA, como no uso do fisiculturismo, cosméticos, uso recreativo e melhora estética. Descobriuse que os EAA induzem diretamente lesão miocárdica, apresentando tais achados patológicos em autópsias: hipertrofia dos miócitos, aumento da deposição de colágeno na matriz, aumento da atividade da enzima conversora de angiotensina cardíaca e fibrose miocárdica.</p>
				<p>Os pacientes que fizeram uso de EAA ilícitos apresentam diminuição da função sistólica do ventrículo esquerdo. Em atletas que fazem autoadministração de EAA, foi observada hipertrofia de VE e modulação simpática elevada, bem como o aumento da pressão arterial. Altas doses de EAA podem causar arritmias ventriculares e morte súbita. Além disso, os usuários de EAA demonstraram maior volume de placa da artéria coronária do que os não usuários. O objetivo é revisitar os principais efeitos do uso de EAA nas alterações cardíacas por meio da imagem cardiovascular, bem como estabelecer diferença em relação ao “coração de atleta”.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<title>Palavras-chave</title>
				<kwd>Esteróides</kwd>
				<kwd>Deformação Longitudinal Global</kwd>
				<kwd>Ecocardiografia Doppler</kwd>
				<kwd>Tomografia</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introdução</title>
				<p>Os esteroides anabolizantes androgênicos (EAA) são compostos naturais ou sintéticos semelhantes ao hormônio masculino testosterona. São realizadas modificações em sua estrutura molecular a fim de alterar sua bioatividade, atrasar sua absorção na circulação, minimizar suas ações androgênicas e maximizar as anabólicas. Atualmente, a reposição de testosterona é o tratamento para hipogonadismo patológico em homens. Entretanto, seu uso crescente e indiscriminado carece de embasamento na literatura para fins estéticos e competitivos.</p>
				<p>Além disso, a literatura também descreve os casos de abuso de esteroides anabolizantes, como no uso do fisiculturismo, cosméticos, uso recreativo e melhora estética.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Os pacientes que fizeram uso de EAA de forma ilícita apresentam índices de diminuição da função sistólica do ventrículo esquerdo. Além disso, em usuários que fizeram uso de EAA por longos períodos foram encontrados comprometimento do ventrículo esquerdo (VE) e, em usuários com uso mais recente, diminuição da fração de ejeção do VE associado à hipertrofia miocárdica e disfunção diastólica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Foram observadas também associações independentes entre aumento da testosterona total plasmática e diminuição da fração de ejeção do VE e de hipertrofia miocárdica do VE. A hipertrofia cardíaca causada pelo uso abusivo de EAA é frequentemente associada à morte söşbita e arritmias em atletas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Em um estudo realizado por Bowman e colaboradores, no qual fizeram autópsias de atletas que usavam EAA, os principais achados foram cardiomegalia (33%) e hipertrofia (30%). As alterações histológicas mais frequentemente relatadas foram focos de fibrose (79%) e necrose (52%) do tecido miocárdico.</p>
				<p>O aumento das dimensões das cavidades, espessura da parede e massa ventricular esquerda são consequências típicas de alta intensidade no treinamento físico e estão incluídos na remodelação cardíaca fisiológica do “coração de atleta”, o que pode ser um fator de confusão em relação ao uso dos EAA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
				<p>O objetivo desta revisão é avaliar os principais efeitos do uso de EAA nas alterações cardíacas através da imagem cardiovascular bem como estabelecer diferença em relação ao “coração de atleta”.</p>
				<sec>
					<title>Principais alterações dos esteroides anabolizantes no sistema cardiovascular</title>
					<sec>
						<title>Alterações metabólicas</title>
						<p>Um dos fatores já bastante documentados na literatura relacionados aos efeitos dos EAA sobre o sistema cardiovascular é a sua ação sobre os lipídios plasmáticos. Trabalhos mostram que usuários destas drogas tiveram aumento do LDL e diminuição do HDL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Suas ações podem estar relacionadas ao aumento na atividade da enzima lipase triglicerídeo hepática (HTGL), a qual regula os níveis de lipídios e lipoproteínas, estimulando a formação de placas ateroscleróticas com consequente aumento da placa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Tais alterações aumentam o risco de doença coronariana entre três e seis vezes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
						<fig id="f4">
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-01-e20230113-gf01-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Doença arterial coronariana</title>
						<p>O uso de EAA também pode ser associado ao infarto agudo do miocárdio e morte söşbita em jovens. Em um estudo de caso, um jovem de 20 anos usuário de EAA teve morte cardíaca instantânea, com hemorragia pulmonar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Dados semelhantes também foram observados em outro relato, no qual um indivíduo de 31 anos, o qual foi fisiculturista e fez uso de EAA durante dez anos, apresentou dor torácica devido a um infarto agudo do miocárdio, ocasionado por oclusão da artéria coronária direita.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
						<p>Alguns estudos mostraram efeitos benéficos nas artérias coronárias, em pacientes que fizeram uso de EAA, por meio da liberação de oxido nítrico e a inibição da contração do musculo liso. Entretanto, estudos em animais mostraram que o abuso de EAA, como nandrolona em altas doses, pode causar uma resposta de vasoconstricção e levar a efeitos secundários de resposta.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Hipertensão arterial</title>
						<p>Outro fator muito discutido ainda na literatura refere-se aos efeitos dos EAA sobre a pressão arterial (PA). Trabalhos mostram aumento da PA induzida pelo uso de EAA em atletas, aumento que pode persistir mesmo após a interrupção de seu uso. Em um determinado estudo, foi observado que, mesmo após cinco meses sem o uso da droga, a PA sistólica permaneceu cerca de 6 mmHg maior em repouso nos usuários quando comparados aos não usuários.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
						<p>Uma possível explicação para o aumento da PA seria a maior retenção de sódio e água, pelo fato de a estrutura dos EAA ser similar à da aldosterona, o que levaria ao aumento na volemia e, consequentemente, da PA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Uma segunda hipótese seria a ação dos EAA sobre o sistema nervoso simpático. Em ratos espontaneamente hipertensos, o bloqueio dos receptores androgênicos foi eficaz em reduzir a PA em estágios iniciais, mostrando o importante papel da testosterona na fase inicial da hipertensão. Também não poderiam ser descartadas possíveis alterações sobre respostas vasodilatoras dependentes do endotélio ou ainda alterações sobre o controle barorreflexo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
						<p>Por outro lado, outros autores não observaram aumento da PA induzida pelo uso de EAA. Nottin e cols., mostraram que fisiculturistas usuários de EAA não apresentaram diferenças na PA quando comparados a não usuários. Outro estudo realizado com levantadores de peso não observou aumento da PA em repouso e durante o exercício em usuários de EAA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Dados semelhantes também foram observados em trabalhos anteriores, nos quais ratos tratados com EAA e treinados por natação não apresentaram mudanças significantes da PA. As discrepâncias de resultados encontrados na literatura sobre a administração de EAA induzindo alteração na PA podem estar relacionadas às diferentes metodologias aplicadas nos estudos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Remodelamento ventricular</title>
						<p>A hipertrofia pode estar relacionada ao aumento da pós-carga do exercício isométrico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Possíveis associações entre EAA e hipertrofia de ventrículo esquerdo podem ser explicadas como secundárias à hipertensão ou como um efeito direto no miocárdio. Notavelmente, estudos em miócitos isolados mostraram que os EAA se ligam nos receptores de andrógenos e pode causar diretamente hipertrofia, potencialmente através da regulação tecidual do sistema renina-angiotensina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
						<p>De fato, estudos clínicos sugerem uma forma distinta de hipertrofia de VE em usuários de EAA, sugerida por alterações no miocárdio vistos na ecocardiografia antes do início da hipertrofia visível.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Arritmias</title>
						<p>Em experimentos com animais, considera-se que o abuso de EAA pode causar isquemia cardíaca ao demandar oxigênio no pico do exercício, potencialmente precipitada por aterosclerose acelerada por anormalidades de lipoproteínas ao longo de anos de abuso.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Como um potencial mecanismo direto, a AAS também aumenta a agregação plaquetária e a formação de trombos, aumentando a produção plaquetária de tromboxano A2 (um potente agregador plaquetário), diminuindo a produção de prostaciclina (prostaglandina I2, um inibidor da agregação plaquetária) e aumentando os níveis de fibrinogênio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
						<p>As contribuições clínicas relativas desses mecanismos não são claras. No entanto, sua combinação pode explicar plausivelmente infarto agudo ou arritmias ventriculares em jovens atletas sem fatores de risco cardíaco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Revisitando o conceito “coração de atleta”</title>
					<p>A hipertrofia fisiológica do coração de atleta é caracterizada por um espessamento parietal simétrico, distribuído homogeneamente e envolvendo todas as cavidades cardíacas. O espessamento da câmara induzido pelo exercício é proporcional ao tipo de atividade física realizada e sua carga (principalmente em disciplinas combinadas de potência e resistência) e é reversível após destreinamento temporário, geralmente 3 (três) meses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Geralmente é observado um aumento fisiológico de ambos os ventrículos (principalmente entre atletas de resistência), juntamente com uma dilatação atrial proporcional. Apesar da hipertrofia e aumento das câmaras cardíacas, a função sistólica cardíaca não está comprometida em atletas, sem diferenças significativas em comparação com indivíduos não atletas. Da mesma forma, a função diastólica do VE é normal e pode ser observada uma contribuição aumentada da velocidade de enchimento precoce em repouso com Doppler pulsátil E/A &gt; 2. Os diâmetros da raiz aórtica são, geralmente, normais em atletas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
					<p>O coração humano sente a demanda e se adapta tanto a curto quanto em longo prazo. Alguns dos desafios na avaliação da remodelação cardíaca no atleta são a carga de treinamento - especialmente em amadores - e as dificuldades para obter intervalos de referência específicos para esporte e sexo - bem como o impacto adicional de raça ou uso de substâncias para melhorar o desempenho, como o uso indiscriminado dos EAA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A morfologia do ventrículo esquerdo no coração de atleta foi estudada principalmente pela ecocardiografia, sendo relatado um padrão claro de dilatação e hipertrofia do VE. De acordo com a recomendação atual da Associação Europeia de Cardiologia Preventiva (EAPC) e da Associação Europeia de Imagem Cardiovascular (EACVI), a ecocardiografia é uma ferramenta investigativa de segunda linha para o diagnóstico diferencial entre a adaptação fisiológica do atleta ao exercício e condições cardíacas malignas subjacentes. No entanto, em contraste com as recomendações atuais, a ecocardiografia é frequentemente utilizada como ferramenta de rastreio de primeira linha na avaliação cardiovascular pré-participação de atletas profissionais e amadores, mesmo no contexto de uma avaliação clínica e eletrocardiográfica normal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Em atletas de resistência com dilatação do VE e/ou do ventrículo direito (VD) e fração de ejeção levemente reduzida em repouso, a ecocardiografia sob estresse pode ser usada para avaliar a reserva contrátil durante o exercício. Uma melhora significativa na contratilidade durante o esforço sugere uma remodelação cardíaca fisiológica; por outro lado, uma melhora ausente ou pouco abaixo da normalidade favorece uma condição patológica (por exemplo, cardiomiopatia dilatada, VE não compactado, cardiomiopatia arritmogênica). Da mesma forma, as arritmias ventriculares induzidas pelo exercício apoiam a hipótese de doença cardíaca associada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A RMC pode avaliar com mais precisão a estrutura e função cardíaca, bem como caracterizar o miocárdio, detectando alterações importantes, incluindo a quantificação de fibrose miocárdica. Utilizando imagens de RMC, também é possível avaliar as características do tecido miocárdico, incluindo conteöşdo de gordura e água, fibrose e massa de cardiomiócitos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A imensa maioria dos atletas apresentam janelas apropriadas ao eco. Sabemos que a ressonância é o padrão-ouro para medidas de cavidade, massa e volumes intracavitários, mas isso não a torna o real motivo para seu uso rotineiro na suspeita do coração de atleta e sim, diante de um contexto clínico coerente, a sua capacidade de caracterização tecidual. Portanto a RMC é öştil no coração de atleta porque a precisão das medidas é superior a ecocardiografia.</p>
					<p>Dada a estrutura complexa da avaliação morfológica do VD pela RMC é mais reprodutível que a ecocardiografia. Aumentos na massa do VD, volumes diastólicos finais e volumes sistólicos em relação a não atletas foram descritos. A relação entre o tamanho do VE e do VD foi mantida, levando à conclusão de que a síndrome do coração de atleta envolve remodelação equilibrada de diâmetros de ambos os ventrículos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Esteroides anabolizantes androgênios e alterações ao ecocardiograma</title>
					<p>Os usuários de EAA demonstraram comprometimento da função sistólica do VE, avaliada pela FEVE e pelo <italic>strain</italic> longitudinal como demonstrado no estudo de Baggish e colaboradores. A descoberta foi impulsionada quase inteiramente pelos usuários de EAA que estavam sob efeito de drogas no momento do estudo, sugerindo que a disfunção do VE pode estar dinamicamente relacionada ao uso de EAA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Em análises subsequentes examinando a associação dos resultados com duração e de uso de EAA: 41 (71%) dos 58 usuários de EAA apresentaram FEVE abaixo do limite de 52% calculado pelo método Simpson, enquanto os não usuários apresentaram FEVE em grande parte normais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Em outra análise, as variáveis de desfecho primário FEVE e E', os usuários de EAA apresentaram déficits significativos em comparação com não usuários. Desta forma, comprometendo os parâmetros de função sistólica e diastólica paralelamente.</p>
					<p>Em relação ao remodelamento ventricular, os usuários de EAA exibiram maior índice de massa do VE, paredes mais espessas do VE e mais geometria concêntrica do VE do que não usuários.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Os usuários de EAA também apresentaram função diastólica prejudicada, tanto em relação aos não usuários e também conforme definido pelos critérios diagnósticos atuais segundo a Sociedade Americana de Ecocardiografia. Vinte e nove (50%) usuários de drogas apresentavam valores abaixo do limiar E′ normal de 8,5 cm/s. Associações semelhantes com uso de EAA foram encontradas em outros estudos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
					<p>De outro modo, não foi encontrado nenhuma associação entre a duração do uso de EAA e as variáveis de desfecho primário (para cada 10 anos adicionais de exposição a EAA, a alteração média estimada [IC 95%] na FEVE foi-3,3% [-8,3% a 1,6%], p = 0,19; e a mudança média estimada em E′ foi de 0,1 cm/s [-1,0 a1, 2cm/s], p = 0,90).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Avaliando as associações separadamente para usuários de EAA e não usuários: entre os usuários de EAA, houve uma associação significativa entre aumento do índice de massa do VE e diminuição da FEVE (alteração média estimada [IC 95%] na FEVE para cada aumento de 10 g no índice de massa do VE −1,6% [-2,4 a −0,8%], p &lt; 0,001). Em contraste, entre os não usuários, não houve associação significativa entre o índice de massa do VE e a FEVE (alteração média estimada na FEVE para cada aumento de 10 g no índice de massa do VE −0,2% [–1,5 a 1,2%], p = 0,80).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Outra ferramenta é a ecocardiografia com rastreamento <italic>Speckle-Tracking</italic> (STE) que é uma técnica ecocardiográfica avançada de imagem de deformação que fornece novos insights sobre a caracterização das propriedades miocárdicas dos atletas. É capaz de detectar a função sistólica ventricular subclínica em uma doença cardíaca em estágio inicial, quando a FEVE ainda está normal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
					<p>O <italic>strain</italic> longitudinal global do VE (SLG) obtido por STE é o parâmetro mais utilizado na prática clínica, porém há controversas na literatura, cujos trabalhos mostram diferenças. Portanto, uma redução da deformação longitudinal em atletas deve ser considerada como um sinal subclínico de disfunção contrátil do VE e deve levantar a suspeita de doença miocárdica, particularmente na presença de hipertrofia ou dilatação duvidosa do VE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Os dados relativos à interpretação dos parâmetros derivados do VR e do STE em atletas ainda são controversos. O treinamento físico extenuante e crônico parece ter um efeito prejudicial na função do VD, com redução da tensão do VD imediatamente após a corrida de resistência, seguida de recuperação completa. Finalmente, a imagem da deformação do VD pode ser öştil para distinguir entre fisiologia e patologia, dada a sua capacidade de identificar anomalias regionais da motilidade da parede em pacientes com cardiomiopatia arritmogênica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
					<p>O trabalho miocárdico é um novo índice ecocardiográfico da função contrátil do VE, menos dependente da carga, que corrige os parâmetros derivados do STE para pós-carga. Em diferentes condições fisiológicas e patológicas, uma pós-carga aumentada pode levar ao comprometimento do esforço. Isto pode ser importante para atletas com pressão arterial e condições de carga variáveis de exame para exame e em diferentes fases do programa de treinamento e também pode ser öştil para acompanhar usuários de EAA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>O uso da tomografia de coronária nos usuários de esteroides anabolizantes androgênicos</title>
					<p>Avanços tecnológicos recentes ampliaram o papel da Tomografia de Coronária (TCC) além da avaliação de coronárias e grandes vasos. A avaliação morfológica e funcional do ventrículo esquerdo é realizada usando um protocolo de varredura retrospectiva controlada por ECG. A avaliação dos volumes do VE, volume sistólico, fração de ejeção e massa mostrou excelente correlação com a avaliação da RMC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A avaliação funcional do VE por TCC é particularmente öştil em pacientes claustrofóbicos, incapazes de realizar RMC ou se existirem contraindicações para RMC (embora rara entre pacientes atletas). Caso contrário, a TCC não pode ser recomendada como técnica de imagem de primeira linha para avaliação funcional do VE em atletas, dada a maior exposição à radiação necessária. O uso do meio de contraste iodado permite a avaliação do VE e da fibrose miocárdica (com análise do realce tardio com iodo) pela TCC, mesmo que não seja utilizado rotineiramente na prática clínica, com boa concordância com as mesmas avaliações realizadas pela RMC com contraste .</p>
					<p>Todos os atletas com anatomia anômala da artéria coronária indeterminada, suspeita após ecocardiografia, devem ser submetidos a TCC de acordo com as preferências e conhecimentos institucionais. No caso de suspeita de doença aterosclerótica coronariana, a TCC é uma ferramenta valiosa para escore de cálcio arterial coronariano e angiografia coronariana não invasiva. Se houver suspeita ou confirmação de dilatação da raiz da aorta ou da aorta ascendente, é indicada pelo menos uma avaliação tomográfica da aorta abrangente.</p>
					<p>É indiscutível que o exercício aeróbico regular é benéfico para a prevenção primária e secundária de doenças cardiovasculares; no entanto, o impacto do exercício de resistência ao longo da vida no coração só foi explorado recentemente. Na minoria de atletas veteranos suscetíveis, o exercício pode precipitar eventos adversos como morte cardíaca söşbita (MSC), que em dois terços dos casos é atribuível à doença arterial coronariana (DAC) silenciosa. Vários estudos demonstraram uma prevalência de DAC superior à esperada em atletas veteranos e a falha na detecção daqueles em risco usando exames cardiovasculares de rotina, como testes de esforço, tem consequências potencialmente devastadoras. A TCC, incluindo pontuação de cálcio, mostrou DAC em 25-53% dos atletas veteranos e tem benefícios prognósticos na determinação da morfologia da placa e da carga aterosclerótica total.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
					<p>O uso de EAA foi associado ao aumento da aterosclerose coronariana, e a gravidade da doença aterosclerótica foi fortemente associada com duração cumulativa ao longo da vida do uso de EAA. Em conjunto, nossos achados sugerem que o uso prolongado de EAA está associado a fenótipos cardiovasculares adversos caracterizados tanto por doença miocárdica e doença arterial coronariana.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Usuários de EAA apresentaram volume de placa coronariana significativamente maior que os não usuários. Ao examinar a associação das medidas do ATT com a duração do uso de EAA, encontramos fortes associações entre o tempo de uso ao longo da vida em todos os exames angiográficos medidas de patologia coronariana (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">tabela 1</xref>). No entanto, os autores não encontraram nenhuma mudança significativa associação entre uso e volume de placa (diferença média estimada entre usuários sob e sem drogas em classificações: −0,07 unidades DP [-0,56 a 0,41]; p = 0,76). Notavelmente, três usuários de EAA tiveram infartos do miocárdio anteriores devido a doença aterosclerótica, documentada por cateterismo cardíaco, ocorrendo aos 38 anos (infarto do miocárdio do segmento ST com oclusão completa da artéria descendente anterior esquerda), outro aos 43 anos (Infarto do miocárdio sem segmento ST com oclusão de 99% tanto da coronária direita e artérias coronárias circunflexas esquerdas) e o terceiro aos 46 anos (infarto do miocárdio com supradesnivelamento do segmento ST com oclusão completa de uma 2ª artéria marginal obtusa) e após 17, 11 e 5 anos de exposição acumulada ao longo da vida de EAA, respectivamente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
					<table-wrap id="t2">
						<label>Tabela 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Principais alterações nos métodos de imagem cardiovascular com uso de esteroides anabolizantes androgênicos (EAA)</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="none">
							<colgroup width="50%">
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
								<tr style="background-color:#C58874;">
									<th align="left" valign="middle">Método</th>
									<th align="center" valign="middle">Achado</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
								<tr>
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Ecocardiograma</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Diminuição da função sistólica do VE<break/>Análise hemodinâmica e da função diastólica<break/>Redução da mecânica cardíaca (strain), <break/>(controverso)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Tomografia de Coronária</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Maior volume de placa coronariana<break/>Localização da placa<break/>Escore de Cálcio</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Ressonância Magnética Cardíaca</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Hipertrofia do VE e disfunção do VD<break/>Análise tecidual e auxiliar no diagnóstico diferencial das cardiomiopatias</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN2">
								<p>VE: Ventrículo Esquerdo VD: Ventrículo Direito</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Ressonância magnética cardíaca nos usuários de esteroides anabolizantes androgênicos</title>
					<p>A ressonância magnética cardíaca (RMC) é o método de imagem mais valioso para o diagnóstico diferencial entre fisiologia e patologia em atletas. Pode ajudar a discriminar a patologia em casos que a ecocardiografia não permite dirimir as döşvidas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A RMC é o padrão ouro para a definição da morfologia miocárdica, avaliação da mobilidade parietal, tamanho das câmaras cardíacas e definição tecidual. Avalia, com alta precisão e reprodutibilidade, o volume e a massa das câmaras cardíacas, bem como a função contrátil global e regional. É o método de escolha para avaliação precisa da morfologia e função do ventrículo direito.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A RMC representa o método superior para identificar a fibrose miocárdica e seu padrão de distribuição por meio da avaliação do realce tardio com gadolínio, T1 nativo e mapeamento do volume extracelular (VEC). Além disso, a RMC pode identificar a presença de edema e gordura nas paredes miocárdicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Em particular, a identificação de fibrose miocárdica pode permitir a diferenciação entre coração de atleta e hipertrofia patológica do VE (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">figura 1</xref>), uma vez que a fibrose geralmente ocorre com remodelação cardíaca devido a patologia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
					<fig id="f3">
						<label>Figura 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Ressonância Magnética Cardíaca para diagnóstico diferencial de Miocardiopatia Hipertrófica x Coração do Atleta.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcimg-37-01-e20230113-gf02-pt.tif"/>
					</fig>
					<p>Classicamente, na miocardiopatia hipertrófica, a fibrose da parede média é encontrada predominantemente em áreas de hipertrofia extrema, embora também possa estar presente em segmentos não hipertrofiados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A fibrose miocárdica também foi observada em atletas com maior prevalência do que em populações saudáveis não atletas. Em atletas saudáveis, a fibrose miocárdica envolve menos de 3% do miocárdio. Apresenta grande variação em quantidade, localização e padrão, mas geralmente é encontrada no ventrículo direito ou no septo interventricular. A prevalência de fibrose miocárdica no coração de atleta parece maior quando há uma longa história de treinamento físico, particularmente do tipo resistência. O significado prognóstico da fibrose miocárdica no coração de atleta é desconhecido. Quanto à fibrose intersticial difusa, estudos comparando VCE em atletas e controles relataram valores semelhantes ou inferiores de VCE em atletas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A RMC de estresse, geralmente com exercício, pode ser usada para identificar uma reserva funcional reduzida e cardiomiopatia em estágio inicial quando a avaliação funcional em repouso é levemente anormal. No entanto, mais estudos são necessários para avaliar a relação custo-efetividade da imagem de RMC de estresse neste cenário.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Um desenho de coorte transversal foi utilizado com 21 participantes treinados em força que foram submetidos a imagens de RMC do coração e ecocardiografia com <italic>speckle-tracking</italic>. Treze participantes (30 ± 5 anos) tomando EAA por pelo menos dois anos e atualmente em um ciclo de “uso” foram comparados com controles pareados por idade e treinamento (n = 8; 29 ± 6 anos) que relataram nunca ter tomado EAA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Os usuários de EAA apresentaram maior massa absoluta do VE (220 ± 45 g) em comparação aos não usuários (163 ± 27 g; p &lt; 0,05), mas essa diferença foi removida quando indexada à massa livre de gordura. Usuários de EAA teve uma fração de ejeção do VD reduzida (AS 51 ± 4% vs. NAS 59 ± 5%; p &lt; 0,05) e uma relação de velocidade do tecido miocárdico E' pelo doppler tecidual do ventrículo esquerdo significativamente menor (EAA 0,99[0,54] vs. não usuários de EAA 1,78[0,46] p &lt; 0,05). O <italic>strain</italic> longitudinal máximo do VE foi menor em usuários de EAA (-14,2 ± 2,7% vs. −16,6 ± 1,9%; p &lt; 0,05). Não houve evidência de fibrose focal em nenhum participante. O uso de EAA foi associado à hipertrofia significativa do VE, embora em linha com maior massa livre de gordura, redução da tensão do VE, função diastólica e redução da fração de ejeção do VD em fisiculturistas do sexo masculino. Não houve, no entanto, evidência de fibrose focal em nenhum usuário de EAA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Conclusões</title>
				<p>O uso do EAA vem aumentando de forma indiscriminada também entre os atletas e está associado à hipertrofia ventricular esquerda além de disfunção do ventrículo esquerdo. Os cardiologistas precisam ficar atentos a este problema de saöşde pöşblica e também avaliar precocemente através da imagem cardiovascular a repercussão nos usuários.</p>
			</sec>
		</body>
		<back>
			<fn-group>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn5">
					<p>Editor responsável pela revisão: Marcelo Dantas Tavares de Melo</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn6">
					<p><bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold></p>
					<p>O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn7">
					<p><bold>Vinculação Acadêmica</bold></p>
					<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn8">
					<p><bold>Aprovação Ética e Consentimento Informado</bold></p>
					<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
		</back>
	</sub-article>
</article>