<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.1 20151215//EN" "http://jats.nlm.nih.gov/publishing/1.1/JATS-journalpublishing1.dtd">
<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" article-type="review-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" xml:lang="en">
  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abcic</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Imagem Cardiovasc.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">2318-8219</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Departamento de Imagem Cardiovascular da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiolodia (DIC/SBC)</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">Wv8rLvz3qxthCWV5dqPJKSr</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S2675-312X2026000201409</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">01409</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20260070i</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>My Approach to Left Atrial Function: From Basic Assessment to Atrial Stiffness</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0000-4977-4056</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Silva</surname>
            <given-names>Halsted Alarc&#227;o Gomes Pereira da</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>analysis and interpretation of the data and writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0006-4963-2078</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Gomes</surname>
            <given-names>Helder Moura</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>analysis and interpretation of the data and writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0842-8223</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Souza</surname>
            <given-names>Alexandre Costa</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <label>1</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital S&#227;o Geraldo</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Ju&#237;na</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">MT</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital S&#227;o Geraldo, Ju&#237;na, MT &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff2">
          <label>2</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Metropolitano Dom Jos&#233; Maria Pires</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Jo&#227;o Pessoa</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">PB</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Metropolitano Dom Jos&#233; Maria Pires, Jo&#227;o Pessoa, PB &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff3">
          <label>3</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital S&#227;o Rafael</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital S&#227;o Rafael, Salvador, BA &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><label>Mailing Address:</label><bold>Halsted Alarc&#227;o Gomes Pereira da SilvaX</bold> &#8226; Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia. Rua Dr Dante Pazzanese, 500. Postal code: <postal-code>04012-909</postal-code>. S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil E-mail: <email>halstedufg@hotmail.com</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <label>Editor responsible for the review:</label>
          <p>Marcelo Tavares</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="coi-statement">
          <label>Potential conflict of interest</label>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>27</day>
        <month>07</month>
        <year>2026</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <year>2026</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>39</volume>
      <issue>2</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20260070</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>04</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2026</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>04</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2026</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>04</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2026</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <p>The left atrium (LA) has historically been considered a passive chamber that conducts blood flow between the pulmonary veins and the left ventricle (LV). Advances in cardiovascular physiology and imaging techniques have highlighted its active role in modulating cardiac output, ventricular diastolic function, and the stratification of various heart diseases. Assessment of the LA has evolved over the years into a multiparametric functional approach, consolidated as an essential component of modern echocardiography. The systematic incorporation of volumetric parameters, atrial strain, and atrial stiffness allows for a more precise characterization of cardiovascular pathophysiology and improves prognostic stratification, thus supporting more informed clinical decisions.</p>
      </abstract>
      <abstract abstract-type="graphical">
        <p>
          <fig id="f12">
            <caption>
              <title>Temporal evolution of integrated left atrial analysis: a practical illustration of the technological evolution of echocardiography in the assessment of left atrial function. 2D: two-dimensional; 3D: three-dimensional; A2C: apical two-chamber view; A4C: apical four-chamber view; LA: left atrium.</title>
            </caption>
            <alternatives>
              <graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/2675-312X/Wv8rLvz3qxthCWV5dqPJKSr/88f8eca0a433af7589abc32406ab7679d80cd98f.tif"/>
              <graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/2675-312X/Wv8rLvz3qxthCWV5dqPJKSr/97a8cc6e4a5813826b3aabe279987ad419930cf2.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
              <graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/2675-312X/Wv8rLvz3qxthCWV5dqPJKSr/6272c9b9f430b518141ceecc6357a74364622bf6.jpg" specific-use="scielo-web" content-type="scielo-267x140"/>
            </alternatives>
          </fig>
        </p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords</title>
        <kwd>Strain, Left atrium</kwd>
        <kwd>Ejection fraction</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <funding-group>
        <funding-statement><bold>Sources of funding</bold> There were no external funding sources for this study.</funding-statement>
      </funding-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="24"/>
        <table-count count="10"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="19"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>For many years, the left atrium (LA) was analyzed solely as a segment of transition between the pulmonary veins and the left ventricle (LV), traditionally considered the primary pump of the heart. Over time, with a better understanding of the physiology of systolic and diastolic flows, this concept has given way to that of a chamber that plays a fundamental role in maintaining adequate cardiac output. It has likewise been established that alterations related to the LA directly influence pulmonary pressures and right chamber hemodynamics.</p>
      <p>This review article provides a discussion ranging from the most basic concepts related to the LA to the new frontiers that have recently emerged with the understanding of the complex mechanics of this chamber in relation to cardiac function (Central Illustration).</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Left atrial function and anatomy</title>
        <p>The LA is located in the most posterior position of the heart, posterior and slightly superior to the right atrium (RA). It is separated from the RA by a fibromuscular wall called the interatrial septum. The posterior part of the LA is smooth and generally receives four pulmonary veins (two superior and two inferior), which return oxygenated blood from the lungs. The anterior portion of the LA is trabeculated and contains pectinate muscles, which are less numerous than those of the RA.</p>
        <p>The LA fulfills three main physiological functions that influence the filling and performance of the LV (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
        <fig id="f1">
          <label>Figure 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Phases of left atrial function throughout the cardiac cycle. The reservoir, conduit, and contraction phases are shown considering a volume &#215; time curve. LA: left atrium. Source: The authors.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-0070i-gf01.tif"/></fig>
        <list list-type="order">
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Reservoir function:</bold> During this phase, the LA functions as a reservoir, receiving blood from the pulmonary veins. It begins with the closure of the mitral valve (isovolumetric contraction), encompassing ventricular systole, and extends until isovolumetric relaxation.</p>
            <list list-type="simple">
              <list-item>
                <label>&#8211;</label>
                <p><bold>Main modulators:</bold> The reservoir function of the LA is modulated by both biventricular contraction and LA compliance (chamber relaxation and stiffness).</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Conduit function:</bold> During this phase, the LA acts as a conduit, with flow occurring passively, originating in the pulmonary veins and directed towards the LV. It begins immediately after mitral valve opening, encompassing the initial ventricular relaxation period and diastasis. It ends shortly before atrial contraction (P wave on the electrocardiogram).</p>
            <list list-type="simple">
              <list-item>
                <label>&#8211;</label>
                <p><bold>Main modulators:</bold> The conduit function of the LA is predominantly modulated by LV relaxation and compliance, as well as early diastolic pressures.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Contractile function:</bold> During the contraction phase, the LA empties actively, contributing 20% to 30% of cardiac output in the absence of heart disease. This phase begins at the end of ventricular diastole, during the atrial contraction period.</p>
            <list list-type="simple">
              <list-item>
                <label>&#8211;</label>
                <p><bold>Main modulators:</bold> LA contractile function is predominantly modulated by LV end-diastolic pressure and the intrinsic contractility of the LA.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>There is currently extensive literature supporting the understanding of the prognostic correlation between LA function and maximum volume in diverse conditions, including atrial fibrillation (AF), heart failure (HF), coronary artery disease, mitral regurgitation, mitral stenosis, diastolic dysfunction, stroke, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, and chronic kidney disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> These data are essential for correct anatomical and functional characterization of this chamber during echocardiographic examination, avoiding erroneous diagnoses and inadequate treatment.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Linear dimensions and area measurements</title>
        <p>The first method for quantifying LA dimensions was derived from linear measurements performed using M-mode. This parameter was fundamental for establishing normality and follow-up values, allowing studies to be conducted with more regular measurements and low variability in longitudinal follow-up. The most widely used linear dimension measurement is the anteroposterior diameter of the LA in the parasternal longitudinal axis, initially using M-mode echocardiography, subsequently performed using anatomical M-mode, and more recently guided by two-dimensional (2D) echocardiography.</p>
        <p>It is worth noting that assessment of LA size using only the anteroposterior diameter assumes that, when the LA increases in size, all of its dimensions change proportionally, which is often not the case during atrial remodeling.</p>
        <p>LA area has emerged as a more accurate analytical parameter than anteroposterior diameter for quantifying the size of both the LA and RA. For this measurement, atrial area planimetry should be performed in the apical two- and four-chamber views. Normal values for these cavities have been standardized and established over the years (LA &#8804; 20 cm<sup>2</sup> and RA &#8804; 18 cm<sup>2</sup>). Despite this improved accuracy in relation to diameter measurement, area assessment has not been shown to be a perfect substitute given that atrial volume is the ultimate measurement to be obtained. With the progressive improvement of 2D imaging, associated with the automation of volume acquisition and the more robust literature on normal values and prognostic data of atrial volumes, it is currently unnecessary to include LA area in the final report.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>2D echocardiographic assessment of left atrial volumes</title>
        <p>Assessment of volumes and their prognostic correlation is supported by robust scientific evidence. Considerations regarding their acquisition and measurement are fundamental to avoid errors in measurement and consequent clinical interpretation.</p>
        <p>First, it is necessary to understand that the longitudinal axes of the LV and LA often lie in different planes; consequently, dedicated LA acquisitions from the apical window should be obtained for more reliable measurements of atrial volume. The LA base should be visualized at its maximal diameter, indicating that the image plane passes through the maximum area of the central axis. The length should also be maximized to ensure correct alignment along the true axis of the LA (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
        <fig id="f2">
          <label>Figure 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Dedicated echocardiographic acquisition of the LA. Left: A schematic drawing of the acquisition planes of the largest LA and LV axes. Right: The same schematic representation on 2D echocardiography in apical two- and four-chamber views. The longitudinal axes drawn for the LA (green line) and the LV (red line) are situated in different planes. LA: left atrium; LV: left ventricle; RA: right atrium; RV: right ventricle. Source: The authors.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-0070i-gf02.tif"/></fig>
        <p>Length is measured from the mitral annulus to the superior wall of the LA. Long-axis lengths should not vary by more than 5 mm between the two echocardiographic views. If this variation is greater than 5 mm, the apical images should be reassessed. When tracing the endocardial borders, the LA appendage and pulmonary veins should be excluded from final analysis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Most ultrasound systems automatically calculate biplanar LA volume, after correctly delineating the atrial endocardium, using both the area-length method and the disc summation method (modified Simpson). For the area-length method, the shorter length obtained (in the two- or four-chamber view) is used to calculate LA volume. In contrast, for the disc summation method, the longer of the two measured lengths is used. It is worth noting that the area-length method consistently produces larger LA volumes than the disk summation method.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The American Society of Echocardiography currently recommends the disk summation method for calculating LA volume, as it involves fewer geometric assumptions about LA shape. More recently, the semi-automated use of endocardial border tracking has provided volumes that correlate well with volumes acquired by three-dimensional (3D) echocardiography, computed tomography (CT), and cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMR), demonstrating lower interobserver variability than manual tracing. It is worth emphasizing that, despite the correlation, 2D echocardiographic volumes will always yield smaller values than those acquired by 3D methods. Given that volume calculation varies according to the technique, it is important for laboratories to consistently use the same technique.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Patient size is one of the main determinants of LA size, and absolute LA volumes are larger in men than in women; therefore, indexing by body surface area partially corrects for this variability. Since 2015, the American Society of Echocardiography guideline for cardiac chamber quantification considers LA volume index values &gt; 34 mL/m<sup>2</sup> to be abnormal. This value was based on observational studies with more than 6,000 patients without a history of AF or valvular heart disease, demonstrating that an indexed volume above 34 mL/m<sup>2</sup> was an independent predictor of death, HF, AF, and stroke (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
        <fig id="f3">
          <label>Figure 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Calculation of left atrial volume using the biplane method (Simpson) and grading of enlargement according to the 2015 American Society of Echocardiography Guideline. LA: left atrium.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-0070i-gf03.tif"/></fig>
        <p>The main issue with the currently recommended grading values for LA volume (mildly enlarged = 35 to 41 mL/m<sup>2</sup>, moderately enlarged = 42 to 48 mL/m<sup>2</sup>, and severely enlarged &gt; 48 mL/m<sup>2</sup>) is the narrow range between different categories. Consequently, even small measurement errors can result in incorrect classification of the degree of LA enlargement.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A study published by Esther et al. in the <italic>Journal of the American College of Cardiology</italic> in 2022 demonstrated greater accuracy in classifying and stratifying LA dilation when using height-indexed and height-squared values in patients with overweight or obesity. Using individual data from over 17,000 patients, the use of height-indexed values reclassified LA abnormalities in up to 28% of patients when compared to indexing by body surface area, the parameter classically used in clinical practice. <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref> displays normal values for these parameters.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Table 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Normal and left atrial dilation values, considering body surface area, height, and height squared</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="25%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <tbody style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="center" rowspan="4" valign="middle">
                  <alternatives>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/2675-312X/Wv8rLvz3qxthCWV5dqPJKSr/0183935541a82cbd820f6b7bade92166b136e0bf.tif"/>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/2675-312X/Wv8rLvz3qxthCWV5dqPJKSr/84c9a5481ca6c56d7cddcf15bbcdb0faec373822.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                  </alternatives>
                </td>
                <td align="left" style="background-color:#C58874" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" style="background-color:#C58874" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Normal values</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color:#C58874" valign="middle">
                  <bold>LA dilation</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"><bold>LA volume indexed</bold><break/> by body surface area</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Men: &#8804; 34 mL/m<sup>2</sup><break/> Women: &#8804; 34 mL/m<sup>2</sup></td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Men: &#8805; 35 mL/m<sup>2</sup><break/> Women: &#8805; 35 mL/m<sup>2</sup></td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
                <td align="center" valign="middle"><bold>LA volume indexed</bold><break/> by height</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Men: &#8804; 35.7 mL/m<break/> Women: &#8804; 33.7 mL/m</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Men: &#8805; 35.8 mL/m<break/> Women: &#8805; 33.8 mL/m</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"><bold>LA volume indexed</bold><break/> by height<sup>2</sup></td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Men: &#8804; 18.5 mL/m<sup>2</sup><break/> Women: &#8804; 16.5 mL/m<sup>2</sup></td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Men: &#8805; 18.6 mL/m<sup>2</sup><break/> Women: &#8805; 16.6 mL/m<sup>2</sup></td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN1">
              <p>LA: left atrium. Adapted from Davis et al. J Am Coll Cardiol Img, 2022.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>These calculations, even with the various additional indexing corrections, still consider geometric assumptions that underestimate the final volume, which should also be considered in interpretation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>2D echocardiographic assessment of left atrial ejection fraction</title>
        <p>After accurate volumetric acquisition of the LA during the cardiac cycle, an important parameter of atrial function can be obtained, namely, left atrial ejection fraction (LAEF). As shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 4</xref>,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> LAEF, similar to LV ejection fraction, is calculated considering volumetric variation in different phases, at the following three moments of the cardiac cycle:</p>
        <list list-type="bullet">
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Atrial volume at the end of ventricular systole:</bold> maximum LA volume (LAVmax)</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Atrial volume immediately before atrial contraction:</bold> LA volume before the P wave (LAVpreA)</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Atrial volume at the end of ventricular diastole:</bold> minimum LA volume (LAVmin).</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <fig id="f4">
          <label>Figure 4</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Left atrial volumes throughout the cardiac cycle: LAVmax (end of T wave), LAVpreA (before P wave), and LAVmin (R wave). LA: left atrium; LAVmax: maximum left atrial volume; LAVmin: minimum left atrial volume; LAVpreA: left atrial volume immediately before atrial contraction.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-0070i-gf04.tif"/></fig>
        <p>Based on these volumes, the following three main values are obtained: total ejection fraction (reservoir) derived from LAVmax and LAVmin, passive ejection fraction (conduit) derived from LAVmax and LAVpreA, and active ejection fraction (contraction) derived from LAVpreA and LAVmin, according to the formulas below:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
        <list list-type="order">
          <list-item>
            <p>
              <bold>Total LAEF (global reservoir function) = (LAVmax &#8211; LAVmin) / LAVmax &#215; 100</bold>
            </p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>
              <bold>Passive LAEF = (LAVmax &#8211; LAVpreA) / LAVmax &#215; 100</bold>
            </p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>
              <bold>Active LAEF = (LAVpreA &#8211; LAVmin) / LAVpreA &#215; 100</bold>
            </p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p><bold>Note:</bold> In the literature, ejection fraction and emptying fraction can be found as equivalent terms.</p>
        <p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 5</xref> illustrates an example of LA volume calculation, as well as the derivation of LAEF, which showed the strongest prognostic correlation in most studies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
        <fig id="f5">
          <label>Figure 5</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Biplane tracing of the LA and calculation of the total ejection fraction, which in this case is preserved. 2C: two-chamber view; 4C: four-chamber view; LA: left atrium; LAEF: left atrial ejection fraction; LAVmax: maximum left atrial volume; LAVmin: minimum left atrial volume; LAVpreA: left atrial volume immediately before atrial contraction.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-0070i-gf05.tif"/></fig>
        <p>It is worth noting that the active ejection fraction, as it depends on atrial contraction, cannot be assessed in the absence of sinus rhythm.</p>
        <p>These parameters can be assessed using different imaging techniques: 2D and 3D echocardiography, CT, or CMR. Using dedicated software for quantifying LA volume, volumetric and functional assessment at different stages has become more accurate, reproducible, and less time-consuming compared to classic 2D analysis.</p>
        <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tables 2</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">3</xref> show the normal values for LA volumes and function according to published data from a study conducted by the World Alliance Societies of Echocardiography. Despite these international data, it is important to emphasize that reference values for analysis of atrial function by 2D and 3D methods have not yet been standardized and incorporated into echocardiography guidelines.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
        <table-wrap id="t2">
          <label>Table 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Comparison of left atrial volumetric and functional parameters between 2D and 3D methods (WASE Study, 2022)</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="33%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#C58874">
                <th align="left" colspan="3" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="middle">Normal values for LA size and function derived from 1,765 healthy adults (results from the World Alliance Societies of Echocardiography Study)</th>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C58874">
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Volume parameters</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">2D</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">3D</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Maximum volume (mL)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">45.9 &#177; 15.7</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">49.9 &#177; 14.1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Maximum indexed volume (mL/m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">25.7 &#177; 7.9</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">28.1 &#177; 6.9</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Minimum volume (mL)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">*</xref>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">19.0 &#177; 7.2</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Minimum indexed volume (mL/m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">*</xref>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">10.7 &#177; 3.7</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Pre-A volume (mL/m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">*</xref>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">31.6 &#177; 10.8</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Indexed pre-A volume (mL/m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">*</xref>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">17.8 &#177; 5.5</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Reservoir volume (mL)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">*</xref>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">30.9 &#177; 9.0</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Indexed reservoir volume (mL/m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">*</xref>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">17.4 &#177; 4.5</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Conduit volume (mL)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">*</xref>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">18.4 &#177; 6.4</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Indexed conduit volume (mL/m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">*</xref>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">10.4 &#177; 3.4</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN2">
              <p>Values are shown as mean &#177; standard deviation. 2D: two-dimensional echocardiography; 3D: three-dimensional echocardiography; LA: left atrium; pre-A: immediately before atrial contraction.</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN3">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>Data not provided by WASE, 2022.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <table-wrap id="t3">
          <label>Table 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Reference values for left atrial volumes and ejection fractions (WASE Study, 2022)</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="33%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#C58874">
                <th align="left" colspan="3" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="middle">Normal values for LA size and function derived from 1,765 healthy adults (results from the World Alliance Societies of Echocardiography Study)</th>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C58874">
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Function parameters</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">2D</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">3D</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Ejection fraction (%)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">65.7 &#177; 8.4</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">62.2 &#177; 7.7</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Passive ejection fraction (%)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">*</xref>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">37.7 &#177; 11.0</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Active ejection fraction (%)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">*</xref>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">39.5 &#177; 9.5</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Reservoir strain (%)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">42.1 &#177; 10.0</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">*</xref>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Conduit strain (%)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">27.7 &#177; 9.7</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">*</xref>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Contractile strain (%)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">14.4 &#177; 6.3</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">*</xref>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN4">
              <p>Values are shown as mean &#177; standard deviation.2D: two-dimensional echocardiography; 3D: three-dimensional echocardiography; LA: left atrium.</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN5">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>Data not provided by WASE, 2022.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>In patients with severe aortic stenosis, LAEF has proven useful for prognostic assessment. Cutoff values below 37% have shown superiority even in relation to maximum velocity and mean gradient for predicting mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Regarding arrhythmias, when evaluating only patients with AF, reduced LAEF was associated with worse cardiovascular outcomes, regardless of LV ejection fraction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Considering the clinical importance of LAEF and the increasing availability of this tool in echocardiography equipment, this parameter should be routinely reported.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3D echocardiographic assessment of left atrial volumes</title>
        <p>In the last two decades, 3D echocardiography has become the modality of choice for volumetric quantification of cardiac chambers, with stronger correlation with CMR and less inter- and intraobserver variability. In a multicenter study with 92 patients with varying LA volumes, the agreement for the classification of enlarged LA using a cutoff point &gt; 34 mL/m<sup>2</sup> showed a kappa coefficient of agreement of 0.88 between 3D echocardiography and CMR, compared to a kappa of 0.71 for the same analysis with 2D echocardiography and CMR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Some of the main advantages of this method include:</p>
        <list list-type="order">
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>High accuracy:</bold> No geometric assumptions regarding LA shape, resulting in less underestimation compared to CMR</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Greater reproducibility:</bold> Semi-automatic identification of cardiac borders, reducing foreshortened measurements.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Acceptable temporal resolution:</bold> Resolution &gt; 20 volumes per second compared to CT and CMR</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Dynamic characterization of size and shape:</bold> Continuous analysis throughout the cardiac cycle, allowing assessment of atrial functional phases.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Single-beat acquisition:</bold> Feasible analysis in patients who present frequent atrial or ventricular arrhythmias</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 6</xref> shows the volumetric values and calculations performed using specific software for semi-automatic measurement.</p>
        <fig id="f6">
          <label>Figure 6</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Semi-automatic 3D volumetric analysis of the LA (example of dedicated software). 3D: three-dimensional; LAEF: left atrial ejection fraction; pre-A: immediately before atrial contraction.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-0070i-gf06.tif"/></fig>
        <p>Similar to 2D echocardiographic assessment of LA volumes, indexing 3D LA volumes to body surface area reduced sex differences. A small, yet significant increase in LA volume on 3D echocardiography has been observed with aging.</p>
        <p>Currently, the main limitations of this analysis are temporal resolution, as well as the limited data regarding normal reference and prognostic values among diverse diseases.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Left atrial strain</title>
        <p>Assessment of LA function by means of strain allows for more detailed analysis of each phase of atrial physiology. The ability to discriminate between passive and active movement, angle independence, reduced tethering effects, lower load dependence, and tracking of the movement of each segment of the atrial wall allow for a better understanding of atrial function.</p>
        <p>LA strain is preferably measured by the speckle tracking method. For this purpose, the endocardial borders of the LA are manually or automatically traced on high-quality 2D images obtained at a frame rate between 50 and 90 frames/second. The need to acquire images in dedicated, non-shortened windows (as opposed to a conventional window optimized for the LV) to obtain LA strain measurements is a relatively recent concept and an essential parameter.</p>
        <p>The European Society of Cardiovascular Imaging and the American Society of Echocardiography recommend using the LA strain value obtained from apical two- and four-chamber images, avoiding shortening, although strain analysis from the apical four-chamber window alone is also commonly performed and has proven accurate and reproducible. Dedicated software for LA strain analysis should be used, when available, to reduce variability and measurement errors.</p>
        <p>As an additional recommendation, it is advised to obtain an image with the acquisition focused on the LA and a region of interest with a thickness of approximately 3 mm, due to the thin atrial wall.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Two different temporal trigger approaches are available to quantify LA strain using the speckle tracking method. The first approach uses the beginning of the QRS complex derived from the electrocardiogram as a starting point (R-R trigger) and measures two key types of LA strain:</p>
        <list list-type="order">
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Left atrial reservoir strain (LASr):</bold> Analyzed at the end of LV systole (corresponding to aortic valve closure)</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Left atrial contraction strain (LASct):</bold> Analyzed subsequently, corresponding to LA contraction.</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>The difference between LASr and LASct represents left atrial conduit strain (LAScd).</p>
        <p>The second approach uses the P wave of the electrocardiogram as a starting point (P-P trigger), allowing the measurement of two deformations: the first descending, which corresponds to SAEct, and the second ascending, which corresponds to atrial relaxation and reservoir function.</p>
        <p>Atrial parameters are smaller for the P-P interval-gated analysis compared to R-R gating. It is important to emphasize the impossibility of applying this analysis to patients with AF when P-P gating is used. Another point to highlight is that most studies published around the world have used R-R gating, making it the recommended method for measuring LA deformation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
        <p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figure 7</xref> shows the main phases of LA deformation using R-R interval-gated analysis as a parameter.</p>
        <fig id="f7">
          <label>Figure 7</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Left atrial strain curve (speckle tracking) with R-R gating: reservoir, conduit, and contraction strain.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-0070i-gf07.tif"/></fig>
        <p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figure 8</xref> shows both LA strain curve patterns, R-R or P-P interval, depending on the gating chosen.</p>
        <fig id="f8">
          <label>Figure 8</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Two zero-reference approaches for left atrial strain assessment, and their respective curves. The strain values obtained with both techniques can be mathematically converted to one another. ECG: electrocardiogram; LAScd: left atrial conduit strain; LASct: left atrial contraction strain; LASr: left atrial reservoir strain.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-0070i-gf08.tif"/></fig>
        <p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">Figure 9</xref> illustrates the analysis of these three components of LA strain in a patient with hypertension, but without structural heart abnormalities.</p>
        <fig id="f9">
          <label>Figure 9</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Analysis of left atrial strain in three phases (arrows: yellow = LASr; red = LAScd; green = LASct) in a patient with hypertension. Analysis was performed using dedicated software to measure left atrial longitudinal strain using automated left atrial endocardial tracking in apical two- and four-chamber views, following the recommendations of the European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging/American Society of Echocardiography/Industry Task Force to standardize deformation imaging.13 2C: two-chamber view; 4C: four-chamber view; LA: left atrium; LAScd: left atrial conduit strain; LASct: left atrial contraction strain; LASr: left atrial reservoir strain.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-0070i-gf09.tif"/></fig>
        <p>The clinical importance of LASr has been reinforced by several studies demonstrating its independent prognostic value. The main studies conducted to date have validated this parameter as a prognostic marker in the following scenarios:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
        <list list-type="bullet">
          <list-item>
            <p>Acute myocardial infarction</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Chronic coronary syndrome</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Cardio-oncology</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>&#8805; moderate valvular disease (single or multiple valves)</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Dilated cardiomyopathy</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Acute or chronic HF</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Cardiac resynchronization therapy</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Athlete's heart</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Takotsubo syndrome</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>Normal LASr, LAScd, and LASct values are provided in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tables 4</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">5</xref>; however, the only recommended deformation parameter for LA function is global longitudinal deformation or LASr.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t4">
          <label>Table 4</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Reference values for left atrial reservoir, conduit, and contraction strain<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="33%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#C58874">
                <th align="left" colspan="3" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="middle">Normal values<break/> Meta-analysis including 2,542 healthy individuals</th>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C58874">
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Phases</th>
                <th align="left" colspan="2" valign="middle">Valores de refer&#234;ncia</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>LASr</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <alternatives>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/2675-312X/Wv8rLvz3qxthCWV5dqPJKSr/38bc92931568fd08f8c91dde656440d21dfe0d2c.tif"/>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/2675-312X/Wv8rLvz3qxthCWV5dqPJKSr/837c7e80b31a570970649391f90cd8386b7907f7.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                  </alternatives>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>39%</bold><break/> (95% CI: 38%&#8211;41%)<break/> <list list-type="bullet"><list-item><p>Values &lt; 23% associated with worse prognosis</p></list-item><list-item><p>Diastolic guidelines (values &lt; 18% associated with increased LV filling pressures)</p></list-item></list> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>LAScd</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <alternatives>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/2675-312X/Wv8rLvz3qxthCWV5dqPJKSr/59f4e2cc224e56eef01d2f973b8f2f1b3fb82601.tif"/>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/2675-312X/Wv8rLvz3qxthCWV5dqPJKSr/3e959ce06995ea3420aa3f176a45b43b09c27169.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                  </alternatives>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>23%</bold><break/> (95% CI: 21%&#8211;25%)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>LASct</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <alternatives>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/2675-312X/Wv8rLvz3qxthCWV5dqPJKSr/7f383352ee840dc2632b02a042831424d8b063d2.tif"/>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/2675-312X/Wv8rLvz3qxthCWV5dqPJKSr/be326b98feff41192ea04a426235e95bd87c643f.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                  </alternatives>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>18%</bold><break/> (95% CI: 16%&#8211;19%)</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN6">
              <p>CI: confidence interval; LAScd: left atrial conduit strain; LASct: left atrial contraction strain; LASr: left atrial reservoir strain; LV: left ventricle.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <table-wrap id="t5">
          <label>Table 5</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Main reference studies on LASr in relation to prognosis in various scenarios<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="33%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#C58874">
                <th align="center" colspan="3" valign="middle">LASr</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Atrial fibrillation<break/> Her et al. JACC, 2021</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <alternatives>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/2675-312X/Wv8rLvz3qxthCWV5dqPJKSr/38bc92931568fd08f8c91dde656440d21dfe0d2c.tif"/>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/2675-312X/Wv8rLvz3qxthCWV5dqPJKSr/837c7e80b31a570970649391f90cd8386b7907f7.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                  </alternatives>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">LASr &lt; 23% predicts recurrence of AF after ablation.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">HFpEF<break/> Singh et al. JACC, 2022</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <alternatives>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/2675-312X/Wv8rLvz3qxthCWV5dqPJKSr/38bc92931568fd08f8c91dde656440d21dfe0d2c.tif"/>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/2675-312X/Wv8rLvz3qxthCWV5dqPJKSr/837c7e80b31a570970649391f90cd8386b7907f7.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                  </alternatives>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">LASr was an early and sensitive marker of increased LV filling pressure.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Valvular diseases<break/> Addetia et al. JASE, 2023</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <alternatives>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/2675-312X/Wv8rLvz3qxthCWV5dqPJKSr/38bc92931568fd08f8c91dde656440d21dfe0d2c.tif"/>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/2675-312X/Wv8rLvz3qxthCWV5dqPJKSr/837c7e80b31a570970649391f90cd8386b7907f7.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                  </alternatives>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">LASr &lt; 25% in severe mitral regurgitation identified patients with worse prognosis regardless of ejection fraction.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Oncology<break/> Zhang et al. EHJ CV Imaging, 2024</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <alternatives>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/2675-312X/Wv8rLvz3qxthCWV5dqPJKSr/38bc92931568fd08f8c91dde656440d21dfe0d2c.tif"/>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/2675-312X/Wv8rLvz3qxthCWV5dqPJKSr/837c7e80b31a570970649391f90cd8386b7907f7.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                  </alternatives>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">LASr &lt; 25% predicts cardiotoxicity earlier than LV strain.</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN7">
              <p>HFpEF: heart failure with preserved left ventricular ejection fraction; LASr: left atrial reservoir strain; LV: left ventricle; AF: atrial fibrillation</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Segments adjacent to the mitral annulus, particularly in the inferior wall, normally exhibit higher strain values than those in the mid and superior (roof) segments of the LA. The lowest LA strain values are found in the LA roof, in the region of pulmonary vein insertion, where the heart is anchored to the mediastinum.</p>
        <p>Regional differences in LA strain may potentially be useful for assessing LA dyssynchrony, a parameter used as an indirect measure of heterogeneous LA fibrosis and dysfunction that can predict AF recurrence after radiofrequency ablation.</p>
        <p>Mechanical dispersion of the LA or LA dyssynchrony, calculated as the standard deviation of the time to maximum strain of LA segments, was also evaluated for both reservoir and contractile strain, and both measures demonstrated value in predicting AF recurrence.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The main limitations are related to the very thin LA walls, the interatrial septum which is often associated with hypermobility or aneurysm, the dependence on geometric assumptions in the regions of pulmonary vein and LA appendage insertion, in addition to the image field being presented in the most distal segment on echocardiographic analysis, and the fact that the LA is located in the most distant field during echocardiographic analysis.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>The LA in assessment of diastolic function</title>
        <p>Initially based on invasive hemodynamic studies, the assessment of LV stiffness and compliance constituted the initial pillars for identifying increased filling pressures and the development of LV diastology. In the case of patients with reduced ejection fraction, the elevation of filling pressures was more easily understood in light of systolic dysfunction. In patients with preserved ejection fraction, this interpretation became less straightforward, which prompted a deeper study of diastolic function.</p>
        <p>With the incorporation of Doppler into echocardiography, there was a leap in quality in the non-invasive assessment of filling pressures, and studies emerged classifying another type of HF, diastolic HF, a term that would later be superseded by the preferred term heart failure with preserved left ventricular ejection fraction (HFpEF). The first guideline that guided the systematic assessment of LV diastole was published in 2009, already considering atrial variables for this assessment.</p>
        <p>The LA and LV are structures arranged in series in the circulatory system, with the atrium serving the antechamber for the LV. Due to this close connection, LV diastolic function has a great influence on LA pressure and function. LA assessment, therefore, provides valuable information that can corroborate the identification and grading of LV diastolic dysfunction. This assessment was initially limited to analysis of transmitral flow and pulmonary venous flow. With the advent of new technologies, the identification of increased LA pressure has been made possible by more accurate variables: tissue Doppler of the mitral annulus during initial ventricular filling (e&#8242; wave) and its relationship with the mitral E wave, with a mean E/e&#8242; ratio greater than 14 being indicative of increased LA pressure. These variables, although important, may not be conclusive in some scenarios such as an E/e&#8242; ratio between 8 and 14, mitral annulus calcification, atrial arrhythmias, and fusion of the E and A waves.</p>
        <p>In 2025, the latest update of the guidelines for assessing LV diastolic function expanded the range of tools for this assessment. Among other variables, LASr less than or equal to 18% was included as another data point to be considered in this analysis. This addition was especially useful in the analysis of patients with preserved ejection fraction, a group in which strain alteration has high specificity for identifying increased LA pressure. With these additions and a new assessment flowchart, all patients previously classified as having indeterminate diastolic function (18.8% applying the 2016 criteria) were classified as having normal diastolic function or classified as having some degree of diastolic dysfunction, reducing the likelihood of inadequate quantification of diastolic dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In practice, this new guideline added parameters that increased the importance of the LA in diastology. The American Society of Echocardiography's Recommendations for the Evaluation of Left Ventricular Diastolic Function by Echocardiography and for HF With Preserved Ejection Fraction can be consulted for further guidance on diastolic assessment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Left atrial stiffness index</title>
        <p>Impaired LA strain is closely related to the clinical presentation and diagnosis of HFpEF. When LA strain is used in conjunction with pulmonary artery occlusion pressure, invasively measured by catheterization, or with the E wave velocity/mitral e&#8242; velocity ratio (E/e&#8242;), the LA stiffness index can be derived.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The LA stiffness index can be estimated using the following two echocardiographic variables:</p>
        <list list-type="bullet">
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>LASr:</bold> peak longitudinal LA strain</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>E/e&#8242; ratio</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>The E/e&#8242;/LASr ratio is a relatively simple and non-invasive parameter to obtain and has shown good correlation with NT-proBNP and conventional echocardiographic diastolic parameters, including E/e&#8242;, indexed LA volume, and right ventricular systolic pressure. Kim et al. published an interesting retrospective study in the <italic>Journal of the American College of Cardiology</italic> in 2022, with 307 patients, demonstrating that the LA stiffness index showed stronger prognostic performance in predicting all-cause mortality and HF-related hospitalization than classic diastolic parameters, including E/e&#8242;, indexed LA volume, maximum tricuspid regurgitation velocity, and LASr during follow-up. An E/e&#8242;/LASr value &gt; 0.26 had an area under the curve of 0.743 (95% confidence interval: 0.681 to 0.806; p &lt; 0.001).</p>
        <p>In that study, patients with invasively assessed LV end-diastolic pressure &#8805; 16 mmHg and LV ejection fraction &#8805; 50%, when presenting with an increased LA stiffness index (&gt; 0.26), showed worse medium- and long-term prognosis compared to patients with the same characteristics and LA stiffness index &#8804; 0.26, suggesting the potential use of this parameter as a prognostic biomarker based on echocardiographic imaging.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>New technologies (HeartModel)</title>
        <p>New technologies have been incorporated into echocardiographic analysis, allowing for greater reproducibility and speed in acquiring images and volumetric data. Volumetric assessments on 3D echocardiography, classically available on ultrasound devices, are presented as semi-automatic measurements, often requiring additional adjustments for each of the analyzed cardiac segments, which would ultimately consume additional time that is often unavailable in clinical practice.</p>
        <p>Companies such as Philips and General Electric have developed specific software for accurate and fully automatic measurements with single-click acquisition, allowing even echocardiography operators without extensive experience to easily perform this analysis.</p>
        <p>In a feasibility and accuracy study with 159 patients, Tsang et al. demonstrated that the fully automatic software (HeartModel, Philips Healthcare) showed a strong correlation with the semi-automatic measurement with manual correction (r = 0.87 to 0.96). Additionally, the agreement between automated volumetric analysis and CMR was also significant (r = 0.84 to 0.95). The average acquisition and analysis time for LV and LA volumes was 37 seconds for the automatic HeartModel software, compared to 79 seconds for the same acquisition, but with minor manual adjustments made by the operator, and 212 seconds for 2D assessment by Simpson's method, with a final reduction of 82% in acquisition time.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> An interesting finding of this analysis was that human post-processing changes did not lead to significant improvements compared to automatic volumetric analysis, using CMR as a reference.</p>
        <p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figure 10</xref> illustrates acquisition using the Philips HeartModel A.I. software with automatic volumetric evaluation.</p>
        <fig id="f10">
          <label>Figure 10</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Automated 3D transthoracic quantification of left heart chambers using specific HeartModel A.I. software. LA: left atrium; 3D: three-dimensional.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-0070i-gf10.tif"/></fig>
        <p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11">Figure 11</xref> presents a step-by-step approach to structured left atrial (LA) analysis, encompassing the essential data that should be obtained from the echocardiographic study, as well as a summary table highlighting the strengths and limitations of the main parameters discussed throughout the text.</p>
        <fig id="f11">
          <label>Figure 11</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Top: Comparison of the pros and cons of different techniques: linear dimensions, LA volumes by the 2D biplane method, LA volumes by the 3D method, and LA reservoir strain. Bottom: Flowchart for a structured analysis of the left atrium using anatomical, functional, and hemodynamic data. These parameters should be reported at the end of the echocardiography report. 2D: two-dimensional; 3D: three-dimensional; LA: left atrium; HFpEF: heart failure with preserved left ventricular ejection fraction; LV: left ventricle. 2D: two-dimensional; 3D: three-dimensional; HFpEF: heart failure with preserved left ventricular ejection fraction; LA: left atrium; LV: left ventricle.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-0070i-gf11.tif"/></fig>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclusion</title>
      <p>LA assessment has evolved from morphological analysis restricted to the anteroposterior diameter to an integrated functional approach that is capable of characterizing the three phases of the atrial cycle (reservoir, conduit, and contraction). This progression, which ranges from 2D volumetry to strain and atrial stiffness index, reflects a conceptual shift in recent literature. The LA is not a passive chamber, but rather an active determinant of cardiac performance and an independent prognostic marker in various clinical settings, such as AF, HF, and valvular heart disease.</p>
      <p>The systematic incorporation of these parameters into routine echocardiography is, therefore, clinically justified. The inclusion of LA reservoir strain in the most recent diastolic function guideline exemplifies how this integration is already underway. As new technologies increase reproducibility and reduce acquisition time, LA functional analysis is likely to become consolidated as an essential component of echocardiographic reports, supporting more precise characterization and more informed clinical decision-making.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1">
        <label>Sources of funding</label>
        <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
        <label>Study association</label>
        <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
        <label>Ethics approval and consent to participate</label>
        <p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors. This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn4">
        <label>Use of Artificial Intelligence</label>
        <p>The authors did not use any artificial intelligence tools in the development of this work.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <sec sec-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-in-article">
      <title>Data Availability Statement</title>
      <p>The underlying content of the research text is contained within the manuscript.</p>
    </sec>
    <ref-list>
      <title>References</title>
      <ref id="B1">
        <label>1</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Thomas</surname>
              <given-names>L</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Muraru</surname>
              <given-names>D</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Popescu</surname>
              <given-names>BA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sitges</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Rosca</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Pedrizzetti</surname>
              <given-names>G</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Evaluation of Left Atrial Size and Function: Relevance for Clinical Practice</article-title>
          <source>J Am Soc Echocardiogr</source>
          <year>2020</year>
          <volume>33</volume>
          <issue>8</issue>
          <fpage>934</fpage>
          <lpage>952</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.echo.2020.03.021</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>1 Thomas L, Muraru D, Popescu BA, Sitges M, Rosca M, Pedrizzetti G, et al. Evaluation of Left Atrial Size and Function: Relevance for Clinical Practice. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2020;33(8):934-952. doi: 10.1016/j.echo.2020.03.021.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B2">
        <label>2</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Mangia</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>D&#8217;Andrea</surname>
              <given-names>E</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Cecchetto</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Beccari</surname>
              <given-names>R</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Mele</surname>
              <given-names>D</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Nistri</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Current and Clinically Relevant Echocardiographic Parameters to Analyze Left Atrial Function</article-title>
          <source>J Cardiovasc Dev Dis</source>
          <year>2024</year>
          <volume>11</volume>
          <issue>8</issue>
          <fpage>241</fpage>
          <lpage>241</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.3390/jcdd11080241</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>2 Mangia M, D&#8217;Andrea E, Cecchetto A, Beccari R, Mele D, Nistri S. Current and Clinically Relevant Echocardiographic Parameters to Analyze Left Atrial Function. J Cardiovasc Dev Dis. 2024;11(8):241. doi: 10.3390/jcdd11080241.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B3">
        <label>3</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Mitchell</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Rahko</surname>
              <given-names>PS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Blauwet</surname>
              <given-names>LA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Canaday</surname>
              <given-names>B</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Finstuen</surname>
              <given-names>JA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Foster</surname>
              <given-names>MC</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Guidelines for Performing a Comprehensive Transthoracic Echocardiographic Examination in Adults: Recommendations from the American Society of Echocardiography</article-title>
          <source>J Am Soc Echocardiogr</source>
          <year>2019</year>
          <volume>32</volume>
          <issue>1</issue>
          <fpage>1</fpage>
          <lpage>64</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.echo.2018.06.004</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>3 Mitchell C, Rahko PS, Blauwet LA, Canaday B, Finstuen JA, Foster MC, et al. Guidelines for Performing a Comprehensive Transthoracic Echocardiographic Examination in Adults: Recommendations from the American Society of Echocardiography. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2019;32(1):1-64. doi: 10.1016/j.echo.2018.06.004.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B4">
        <label>4</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Badano</surname>
              <given-names>LP</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Miglioranza</surname>
              <given-names>MH</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Mih&#259;il&#259;</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Peluso</surname>
              <given-names>D</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Xhaxho</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Marra</surname>
              <given-names>MP</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Left Atrial Volumes and Function by Three-Dimensional Echocardiography: Reference Values, Accuracy, Reproducibility, and Comparison with Two-Dimensional Echocardiographic Measurements</article-title>
          <source>Circ Cardiovasc Imaging</source>
          <year>2016</year>
          <volume>9</volume>
          <issue>7</issue>
          <elocation-id>e004229</elocation-id>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIRCIMAGING.115.004229</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>4 Badano LP, Miglioranza MH, Mih&#259;il&#259; S, Peluso D, Xhaxho J, Marra MP, et al. Left Atrial Volumes and Function by Three-Dimensional Echocardiography: Reference Values, Accuracy, Reproducibility, and Comparison with Two-Dimensional Echocardiographic Measurements. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging. 2016;9(7):e004229. doi: 10.1161/CIRCIMAGING.115.004229.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B5">
        <label>5</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Agner</surname>
              <given-names>BF</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>K&#252;hl</surname>
              <given-names>JT</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Linde</surname>
              <given-names>JJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Kofoed</surname>
              <given-names>KF</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>&#197;keson</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Rasmussen</surname>
              <given-names>BV</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Assessment of Left Atrial Volume and Function in Patients with Permanent Atrial Fibrillation: Comparison of Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Imaging, 320-Slice Multi-Detector Computed Tomography, and Transthoracic Echocardiography</article-title>
          <source>Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging</source>
          <year>2014</year>
          <volume>15</volume>
          <issue>5</issue>
          <fpage>532</fpage>
          <lpage>540</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1093/ehjci/jet239</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>5 Agner BF, K&#252;hl JT, Linde JJ, Kofoed KF, &#197;keson P, Rasmussen BV, et al. Assessment of Left Atrial Volume and Function in Patients with Permanent Atrial Fibrillation: Comparison of Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Imaging, 320-Slice Multi-Detector Computed Tomography, and Transthoracic Echocardiography. Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging. 2014;15(5):532-40. doi: 10.1093/ehjci/jet239.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B6">
        <label>6</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Lang</surname>
              <given-names>RM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Badano</surname>
              <given-names>LP</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Mor-Avi</surname>
              <given-names>V</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Afilalo</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Armstrong</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ernande</surname>
              <given-names>L</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Recommendations for Cardiac Chamber Quantification by Echocardiography in Adults: An Update from the American Society of Echocardiography and the European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging</article-title>
          <source>J Am Soc Echocardiogr</source>
          <year>2015</year>
          <volume>28</volume>
          <issue>1</issue>
          <fpage>1</fpage>
          <lpage>39.e14</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.echo.2014.10.003</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>6 Lang RM, Badano LP, Mor-Avi V, Afilalo J, Armstrong A, Ernande L, et al. Recommendations for Cardiac Chamber Quantification by Echocardiography in Adults: An Update from the American Society of Echocardiography and the European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2015;28(1):1-39.e14. doi: 10.1016/j.echo.2014.10.003.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B7">
        <label>7</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Davis</surname>
              <given-names>EF</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Crousillat</surname>
              <given-names>DR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>He</surname>
              <given-names>W</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Andrews</surname>
              <given-names>CT</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Hung</surname>
              <given-names>JW</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Danik</surname>
              <given-names>JS</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Indexing Left Atrial Volumes: Alternative Indexing Methods Better Predict Outcomes in Overweight and Obese Populations</article-title>
          <source>JACC Cardiovasc Imaging</source>
          <year>2022</year>
          <volume>15</volume>
          <issue>6</issue>
          <fpage>989</fpage>
          <lpage>997</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.jcmg.2022.02.006</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>7 Davis EF, Crousillat DR, He W, Andrews CT, Hung JW, Danik JS. Indexing Left Atrial Volumes: Alternative Indexing Methods Better Predict Outcomes in Overweight and Obese Populations. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2022;15(6):989-97. doi: 10.1016/j.jcmg.2022.02.006.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B8">
        <label>8</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Thomas</surname>
              <given-names>L</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Marwick</surname>
              <given-names>TH</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Popescu</surname>
              <given-names>BA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Donal</surname>
              <given-names>E</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Badano</surname>
              <given-names>LP</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Left Atrial Structure and Function, and Left Ventricular Diastolic Dysfunction: JACC State-of-the-Art Review</article-title>
          <source>J Am Coll Cardiol</source>
          <year>2019</year>
          <volume>73</volume>
          <issue>15</issue>
          <fpage>1961</fpage>
          <lpage>1977</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.jacc.2019.01.059</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>8 Thomas L, Marwick TH, Popescu BA, Donal E, Badano LP. Left Atrial Structure and Function, and Left Ventricular Diastolic Dysfunction: JACC State-of-the-Art Review. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2019;73(15):1961-77. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2019.01.059.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B9">
        <label>9</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Singh</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Singulane</surname>
              <given-names>CC</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Miyoshi</surname>
              <given-names>T</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Prado</surname>
              <given-names>AD</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Addetia</surname>
              <given-names>K</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Bellino</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Normal Values of Left Atrial Size and Function and the Impact of Age: Results of the World Alliance Societies of Echocardiography Study</article-title>
          <source>J Am Soc Echocardiogr</source>
          <year>2022</year>
          <volume>35</volume>
          <issue>2</issue>
          <fpage>154.e3</fpage>
          <lpage>164.e3</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.echo.2021.08.008</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>9 Singh A, Singulane CC, Miyoshi T, Prado AD, Addetia K, Bellino M, et al. Normal Values of Left Atrial Size and Function and the Impact of Age: Results of the World Alliance Societies of Echocardiography Study. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2022;35(2):154-164.e3. doi: 10.1016/j.echo.2021.08.008.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B10">
        <label>10</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Ferreira</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Gon&#231;alves</surname>
              <given-names>V</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Marques-Alves</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Martins</surname>
              <given-names>R</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Monteiro</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Teixeira</surname>
              <given-names>R</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Left Atrial Functional Assessment and Mortality in Patients with Severe Aortic Stenosis with Sinus Rhythm</article-title>
          <source>Cardiovasc Ultrasound</source>
          <year>2021</year>
          <volume>19</volume>
          <issue>1</issue>
          <fpage>1</fpage>
          <lpage>1</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1186/s12947-020-00231-0</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>10 Ferreira J, Gon&#231;alves V, Marques-Alves P, Martins R, Monteiro S, Teixeira R, et al. Left Atrial Functional Assessment and Mortality in Patients with Severe Aortic Stenosis with Sinus Rhythm. Cardiovasc Ultrasound. 2021;19(1):1. doi: 10.1186/s12947-020-00231-0.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B11">
        <label>11</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Inciardi</surname>
              <given-names>RM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Giugliano</surname>
              <given-names>RP</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Claggett</surname>
              <given-names>B</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Gupta</surname>
              <given-names>DK</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Chandra</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ruff</surname>
              <given-names>CT</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Left Atrial Structure and Function and the Risk of Death or Heart Failure in Atrial Fibrillation</article-title>
          <source>Eur J Heart Fail</source>
          <year>2019</year>
          <volume>21</volume>
          <issue>12</issue>
          <fpage>1571</fpage>
          <lpage>1579</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1002/ejhf.1606</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>11 Inciardi RM, Giugliano RP, Claggett B, Gupta DK, Chandra A, Ruff CT, et al. Left Atrial Structure and Function and the Risk of Death or Heart Failure in Atrial Fibrillation. Eur J Heart Fail. 2019;21(12):1571-9. doi: 10.1002/ejhf.1606.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B12">
        <label>12</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Mor-Avi</surname>
              <given-names>V</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Yodwut</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Jenkins</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>K&#252;hl</surname>
              <given-names>H</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Nesser</surname>
              <given-names>HJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Marwick</surname>
              <given-names>TH</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Real-Time 3D Echocardiographic Quantification of Left Atrial Volume: Multicenter Study for Validation with CMR</article-title>
          <source>JACC Cardiovasc Imaging</source>
          <year>2012</year>
          <volume>5</volume>
          <issue>8</issue>
          <fpage>769</fpage>
          <lpage>777</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.jcmg.2012.05.011</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>12 Mor-Avi V, Yodwut C, Jenkins C, K&#252;hl H, Nesser HJ, Marwick TH, et al. Real-Time 3D Echocardiographic Quantification of Left Atrial Volume: Multicenter Study for Validation with CMR. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2012;5(8):769-77. doi: 10.1016/j.jcmg.2012.05.011.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B13">
        <label>13</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Thomas</surname>
              <given-names>JD</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Edvardsen</surname>
              <given-names>T</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Abraham</surname>
              <given-names>T</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Appadurai</surname>
              <given-names>V</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Badano</surname>
              <given-names>L</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Banchs</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Clinical Applications of Strain Echocardiography: A Clinical Consensus Statement from the American Society of Echocardiography Developed in Collaboration with the European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging of the European Society of Cardiology</article-title>
          <source>Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging</source>
          <year>2026</year>
          <volume>27</volume>
          <issue>3</issue>
          <fpage>335</fpage>
          <lpage>368</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1093/ehjci/jeag006</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>13 Thomas JD, Edvardsen T, Abraham T, Appadurai V, Badano L, Banchs J, et al. Clinical Applications of Strain Echocardiography: A Clinical Consensus Statement from the American Society of Echocardiography Developed in Collaboration with the European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging of the European Society of Cardiology. Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging. 2026;27(3):335-68. doi: 10.1093/ehjci/jeag006.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B14">
        <label>14</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Pathan</surname>
              <given-names>F</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>D&#8217;Elia</surname>
              <given-names>N</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Nolan</surname>
              <given-names>MT</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Marwick</surname>
              <given-names>TH</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Negishi</surname>
              <given-names>K</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Normal Ranges of Left Atrial Strain by Speckle-Tracking Echocardiography: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis</article-title>
          <source>J Am Soc Echocardiogr</source>
          <year>2017</year>
          <volume>30</volume>
          <issue>1</issue>
          <fpage>59.e8</fpage>
          <lpage>70.e8</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.echo.2016.09.007</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>14 Pathan F, D&#8217;Elia N, Nolan MT, Marwick TH, Negishi K. Normal Ranges of Left Atrial Strain by Speckle-Tracking Echocardiography: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2017;30(1):59-70.e8. doi: 10.1016/j.echo.2016.09.007.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B15">
        <label>15</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Hafez</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Farina</surname>
              <given-names>JM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ahmed</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Awad</surname>
              <given-names>K</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Pietri</surname>
              <given-names>MP</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Scalia</surname>
              <given-names>IG</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Reclassifying Left Ventricular Diastolic Function with the 2025 American Society of Echocardiography Guideline versus the 2016 Algorithm</article-title>
          <source>J Am Soc Echocardiogr</source>
          <year>2026</year>
          <volume>S0894-7317</volume>
          <issue>26</issue>
          <fpage>00087</fpage>
          <lpage>00088</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.echo.2026.02.013</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>15 Hafez A, Farina JM, Ahmed S, Awad K, Pietri MP, Scalia IG, et al. Reclassifying Left Ventricular Diastolic Function with the 2025 American Society of Echocardiography Guideline versus the 2016 Algorithm. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2026:S0894-7317(26)00087-8. doi: 10.1016/j.echo.2026.02.013.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B16">
        <label>16</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Nagueh</surname>
              <given-names>SF</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sanborn</surname>
              <given-names>DY</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Oh</surname>
              <given-names>JK</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Anderson</surname>
              <given-names>B</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Billick</surname>
              <given-names>K</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Derumeaux</surname>
              <given-names>G</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Recommendations for the Evaluation of Left Ventricular Diastolic Function by Echocardiography and for Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction Diagnosis: An Update from the American Society of Echocardiography</article-title>
          <source>J Am Soc Echocardiogr</source>
          <year>2025</year>
          <volume>38</volume>
          <issue>7</issue>
          <fpage>537</fpage>
          <lpage>569</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.echo.2025.03.011</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>16 Nagueh SF, Sanborn DY, Oh JK, Anderson B, Billick K, Derumeaux G, et al. Recommendations for the Evaluation of Left Ventricular Diastolic Function by Echocardiography and for Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction Diagnosis: An Update from the American Society of Echocardiography. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2025;38(7):537-69. doi: 10.1016/j.echo.2025.03.011.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B17">
        <label>17</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Mathias</surname>
              <given-names>IS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Rahi</surname>
              <given-names>W</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ramos</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Na</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Angulo</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Rothstein</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Validation of Noninvasive Left Atrial Stiffness Against Left Atrial Operating Chamber Stiffness by Cardiac Catheterization</article-title>
          <source>JACC Cardiovasc Imaging</source>
          <year>2024</year>
          <volume>17</volume>
          <issue>8</issue>
          <fpage>1000</fpage>
          <lpage>1002</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.jcmg.2024.03.004</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>17 Mathias IS, Rahi W, Ramos A, Na J, Angulo C, Rothstein P, et al. Validation of Noninvasive Left Atrial Stiffness Against Left Atrial Operating Chamber Stiffness by Cardiac Catheterization. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2024;17(8):1000-2. doi: 10.1016/j.jcmg.2024.03.004.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B18">
        <label>18</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Kim</surname>
              <given-names>D</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Seo</surname>
              <given-names>JH</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Choi</surname>
              <given-names>KH</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Lee</surname>
              <given-names>SH</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Choi</surname>
              <given-names>JO</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Jeon</surname>
              <given-names>ES</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Prognostic Implications of Left Atrial Stiffness Index in Heart Failure Patients with Preserved Ejection Fraction</article-title>
          <source>JACC Cardiovasc Imaging</source>
          <year>2023</year>
          <volume>16</volume>
          <issue>4</issue>
          <fpage>435</fpage>
          <lpage>445</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.jcmg.2022.11.002</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>18 Kim D, Seo JH, Choi KH, Lee SH, Choi JO, Jeon ES, et al. Prognostic Implications of Left Atrial Stiffness Index in Heart Failure Patients with Preserved Ejection Fraction. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2023;16(4):435-45. doi: 10.1016/j.jcmg.2022.11.002.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B19">
        <label>19</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Tsang</surname>
              <given-names>W</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Salgo</surname>
              <given-names>IS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Medvedofsky</surname>
              <given-names>D</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Takeuchi</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Prater</surname>
              <given-names>D</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Weinert</surname>
              <given-names>L</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Transthoracic 3D Echocardiographic Left Heart Chamber Quantification Using an Automated Adaptive Analytics Algorithm</article-title>
          <source>JACC Cardiovasc Imaging</source>
          <year>2016</year>
          <volume>9</volume>
          <issue>7</issue>
          <fpage>769</fpage>
          <lpage>782</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.jcmg.2015.12.020</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>19 Tsang W, Salgo IS, Medvedofsky D, Takeuchi M, Prater D, Weinert L, et al. Transthoracic 3D Echocardiographic Left Heart Chamber Quantification Using an Automated Adaptive Analytics Algorithm. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2016;9(7):769-82. doi: 10.1016/j.jcmg.2015.12.020.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
    </ref-list>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="S1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20260070</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Como Eu Fa&#231;o a Avalia&#231;&#227;o da Fun&#231;&#227;o Atrial Esquerda: Da Jornada B&#225;sica &#224; Rigidez Atrial</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0000-4977-4056</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Silva</surname>
            <given-names>Halsted Alarc&#227;o Gomes Pereira da</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>an&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados e reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0006-4963-2078</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Gomes</surname>
            <given-names>Helder Moura</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>an&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados e reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0842-8223</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Souza</surname>
            <given-names>Alexandre Costa</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff4">
          <label>1</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Ju&#237;na</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">MT</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital S&#227;o Geraldo, Ju&#237;na, MT &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff5">
          <label>2</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Jo&#227;o Pessoa</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">PB</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Metropolitano Dom Jos&#233; Maria Pires, Jo&#227;o Pessoa, PB &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff6">
          <label>3</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital S&#227;o Rafael, Salvador, BA &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><label>Correspond&#234;ncia:</label><bold>Halsted Alarc&#227;o Gomes Pereira da SilvaX</bold> &#8226; Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia. Rua Dr Dante Pazzanese, 500. CEP: <postal-code>04012-909</postal-code>. S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil E-mail: <email>halstedufg@hotmail.com</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <label>Editor respons&#225;vel pela revis&#227;o:</label>
          <p>Marcelo Tavares</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="coi-statement">
          <label>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</label>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p> O &#225;trio esquerdo (AE) foi historicamente considerado uma c&#226;mara passiva de condu&#231;&#227;o do fluxo sangu&#237;neo entre as veias pulmonares e o ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (VE). Avan&#231;os no entendimento da fisiologia cardiovascular e nas t&#233;cnicas de imagem evidenciaram seu papel ativo na modula&#231;&#227;o do d&#233;bito card&#237;aco, na fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica ventricular e na estratifica&#231;&#227;o das diversas cardiopatias. A avalia&#231;&#227;o do AE evoluiu ao longo dos anos para uma abordagem funcional multiparam&#233;trica, consolidando se como componente essencial do exame ecocardiogr&#225;fico moderno. A incorpora&#231;&#227;o sistem&#225;tica de par&#226;metros volum&#233;tricos, strain atrial e rigidez atrial permite caracteriza&#231;&#227;o mais precisa da fisiopatologia cardiovascular e aprimora a estratifica&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica, sustentando decis&#245;es cl&#237;nicas mais embasadas.</p>
      </abstract>
      <abstract abstract-type="graphical">
        <p>
          <fig id="f24">
            <caption>
              <title>Evolu&#231;&#227;o temporal da an&#225;lise integrada do &#225;trio esquerdo: ilustra&#231;&#227;o pr&#225;tica da evolu&#231;&#227;o tecnol&#243;gica da ecocardiografia na avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o atrial esquerda. 2D: bidimensional; 3D: tridimensional A2C: janela apical de duas c&#226;maras; A4C: janela apical de quatro c&#226;maras; AE: &#225;trio esquerdo; AP: anteroposterior; FEAE: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do AE.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-0070i-gf01-pt.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave</title>
        <kwd><italic>Strain</italic>, &#193;trio esquerdo</kwd>
        <kwd>Fra&#231;&#227;o de Eje&#231;&#227;o</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <funding-group>
        <funding-statement><bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold> O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</funding-statement>
      </funding-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>O &#225;trio esquerdo (AE) foi por muitos anos analisado apenas como um segmento de transi&#231;&#227;o do fluxo entre as veias pulmonares e o ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (VE), a bomba considerada primordial do cora&#231;&#227;o. Com o passar dos anos e o melhor entendimento da fisiologia dos fluxos sistodiast&#243;licos, este conceito deu lugar ao de uma cavidade que apresenta papel fundamental na manuten&#231;&#227;o de um adequado d&#233;bito card&#237;aco, assim como foi sedimentado a compreens&#227;o de que altera&#231;&#245;es relacionadas ao mesmo influenciam diretamente as press&#245;es pulmonares e a hemodin&#226;mica das cavidades direitas.</p>
        <p>Neste artigo de revis&#227;o, iremos discutir desde os conceitos mais b&#225;sicos relacionados ao AE, at&#233; as novas fronteiras que surgiram com a compreens&#227;o da complexa mec&#226;nica que esta cavidade apresenta em rela&#231;&#227;o ao funcionamento card&#237;aco (Figura Central).</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Conceitos anat&#244;micos e funcionais do AE</title>
          <p>O AE est&#225; localizado na posi&#231;&#227;o mais posterior do cora&#231;&#227;o, ligeiramente acima e atr&#225;s do &#225;trio direito (AD). Ele &#233; separado do AD por uma parede fibromuscular denominada septo interatrial. A parte posterior do AE &#233; lisa e recebe, geralmente, quatro veias pulmonares (duas superiores e duas inferiores), que trazem sangue oxigenado dos pulm&#245;es. A por&#231;&#227;o anterior do AE &#233; trabeculada e cont&#233;m m&#250;sculos pect&#237;neos, que s&#227;o menos numerosos do que os do AD.</p>
          <p>Esta c&#226;mara atrial cumpre tr&#234;s fun&#231;&#245;es fisiol&#243;gicas principais que influenciam o enchimento e o desempenho do VE (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f13">Figura 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
          <list list-type="order">
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Fun&#231;&#227;o de reservat&#243;rio:</bold> Nesta fase, o AE funciona como um reservat&#243;rio, recebendo o sangue oriundo das veias pulmonares. Inicia-se com o fechamento da valva mitral (contra&#231;&#227;o isovolum&#233;trica), englobando a s&#237;stole ventricular, e se estende at&#233; o relaxamento isovolum&#233;trico.</p>
              <list list-type="simple">
                <list-item>
                  <label>&#8211;</label>
                  <p><bold>Principais moduladores:</bold> A fun&#231;&#227;o de reservat&#243;rio do AE &#233; modulada tanto pela contra&#231;&#227;o biventricular quanto pela complac&#234;ncia do AE (relaxamento e rigidez da c&#226;mara).</p>
                </list-item>
              </list>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Fun&#231;&#227;o de conduto:</bold> Nesta fase, o AE atua como um conduto, com o fluxo ocorrendo de maneira passiva, originando-se nas veias pulmonares e dirigindo-se ao VE. Inicia-se imediatamente ap&#243;s a abertura da valva mitral, abrangendo o per&#237;odo de relaxamento ventricular inicial e a di&#225;stase. Seu t&#233;rmino ocorre pouco antes da contra&#231;&#227;o atrial (onda P no eletrocardiograma).</p>
              <list list-type="simple">
                <list-item>
                  <label>&#8211;</label>
                  <p><bold>Principais moduladores:</bold> A fun&#231;&#227;o do conduto do AE &#233; predominantemente modulada pelo relaxamento e pela complac&#234;ncia do VE, assim como pelas press&#245;es diast&#243;licas iniciais.</p>
                </list-item>
              </list>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Fun&#231;&#227;o contr&#225;til:</bold> Nesta fase, h&#225; o esvaziamento ativo do &#225;trio, contribuindo com 20% a 30% do d&#233;bito card&#237;aco na aus&#234;ncia de cardiopatias. Inicia-se ao final da di&#225;stole ventricular, durante o per&#237;odo de contra&#231;&#227;o atrial.</p>
              <list list-type="simple">
                <list-item>
                  <label>&#8211;</label>
                  <p><bold>Principais moduladores:</bold> A fun&#231;&#227;o de contra&#231;&#227;o do AE &#233; modulada predominantemente pela press&#227;o diast&#243;lica final do VE e pela contratilidade intr&#237;nseca do AE.</p>
                </list-item>
              </list>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <fig id="f13">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Fases da fun&#231;&#227;o atrial esquerda ao longo do ciclo card&#237;aco. As fases de reservat&#243;rio, conduto e contra&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o demonstradas considerando uma curva de volume &#215; tempo. AE: &#225;trio esquerdo. Fonte: Autores.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-0070i-gf02-pt.tif"/></fig>
          <p>Atualmente &#233; extensa a literatura que embasa o conhecimento da correla&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica da fun&#231;&#227;o e do volume m&#225;ximo do AE (VAEmax) em diversas condi&#231;&#245;es como a fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial (FA), insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC), doen&#231;a coron&#225;ria, insufici&#234;ncia mitral, estenose mitral, disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica, acidente vascular cerebral (AVC), cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica e doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Estes dados s&#227;o de fundamental import&#226;ncia para a correta caracteriza&#231;&#227;o anat&#244;mica e funcional desta cavidade durante o exame ecocardiogr&#225;fico, evitando diagn&#243;sticos equivocados e orienta&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas inadequadas.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Dimens&#245;es lineares e medidas de &#225;rea</title>
          <p>O primeiro m&#233;todo de quantifica&#231;&#227;o das dimens&#245;es do AE foi derivado de medidas lineares realizadas pelo modo M. Esse par&#226;metro foi fundamental para estabelecer valores de normalidade e acompanhamento, permitindo que estudos fossem realizados com medidas mais regulares e com baixa variabilidade no acompanhamento longitudinal. A medida de dimens&#227;o linear mais amplamente utilizada &#233; a do di&#226;metro anteroposterior do AE no eixo paraesternal longitudinal utilizando a ecocardiografia pelo modo M inicialmente, posteriormente realizada pelo modo M anat&#244;mico e mais atualmente guiado pelo ecocardiograma bidimensional (2D).</p>
          <p>Vale a pena ressaltar que a avalia&#231;&#227;o do tamanho do AE utilizando apenas o di&#226;metro anteroposterior assume que, quando o AE aumenta de tamanho, todas as suas dimens&#245;es mudam de forma proporcional, o que na maioria das vezes n&#227;o &#233; o que realmente ocorre durante o remodelamento atrial.</p>
          <p>A &#225;rea do AE apareceu como um par&#226;metro de an&#225;lise mais acurado que o di&#226;metro anteroposterior para quantificar o tamanho tanto do AE quanto do AD. Para esta medida a planimetria da &#225;rea atrial deve ser realizada nas janelas apicais de quatro e duas c&#226;maras, e valores de normalidade para essas cavidades foram padronizados e estabelecidos ao longo dos anos (AE &#8804; 20 cm<sup>2</sup> e AD &#8804; 18 cm<sup>2</sup>). Apesar desta melhor acur&#225;cia em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; medida de di&#226;metro, a avalia&#231;&#227;o da &#225;rea n&#227;o se mostrou um substituto perfeito j&#225; que, em &#250;ltima an&#225;lise, a medida a ser obtida &#233; o volume atrial. Com a progressiva melhora da imagem 2D, associada &#224; automatiza&#231;&#227;o da aquisi&#231;&#227;o dos volumes e &#224; literatura mais robusta existente sobre valores de normalidade e dados progn&#243;sticos dos volumes atriais, torna-se desnecess&#225;rio, atualmente, o relato da &#225;rea do AE no laudo final.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Avalia&#231;&#227;o de volumes do AE ao ecocardiograma 2D</title>
          <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o de volumes e sua correla&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica apresenta s&#243;lida evid&#234;ncia cient&#237;fica. Considera&#231;&#245;es em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; sua aquisi&#231;&#227;o e medida s&#227;o fundamentais para evitar erros de aferi&#231;&#227;o e consequentemente interpreta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica.</p>
          <p>Primeiramente, deve-se entender que os eixos longitudinais do VE e do AE frequentemente se situam em planos diferentes; consequentemente, aquisi&#231;&#245;es dedicadas do AE a partir da janela apical devem ser obtidas para medidas mais fidedignas do volume atrial. A base do AE deve estar em seu maior di&#226;metro de apresenta&#231;&#227;o, indicando que o plano de imagem passa pela &#225;rea m&#225;xima do eixo central. O comprimento tamb&#233;m deve ser maximizado para garantir o correto alinhamento ao longo do verdadeiro eixo do AE (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f14">Figura 2</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
          <fig id="f14">
            <label>Figura 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Aquisi&#231;&#227;o ecocardiogr&#225;fica dedicada do AE. Na imagem &#224; esquerda, evidenciam-se os planos de aquisi&#231;&#227;o dos maiores eixos do AE e VE em um desenho esquem&#225;tico. Na imagem &#224; direita, observa-se a mesma representa&#231;&#227;o esquem&#225;tica ao ecocardiograma 2D nas janelas apicais de 4 e 2 c&#226;maras. Os eixos longitudinais tra&#231;ados para o AE (linha verde) e o VE (linha vermelha) est&#227;o em planos diferentes. AD: &#225;trio direito; AE: &#225;trio esquerdo; VD: ventr&#237;culo direito; VE: ventr&#237;culo esquerdo. Fonte: Autores.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-0070i-gf03-pt.tif"/></fig>
          <p>Este comprimento &#233; medido a partir do anel mitral at&#233; a parede superior do AE. Os comprimentos do eixo longo n&#227;o devem apresentar varia&#231;&#227;o maior que 5 mm entre as duas janelas ecocardiogr&#225;ficas. Se esta varia&#231;&#227;o for maior que 5 mm, as imagens apicais devem ser reavaliadas. Ao tra&#231;ar as bordas endoc&#225;rdicas, o ap&#234;ndice atrial esquerdo e as veias pulmonares devem ser exclu&#237;dos da an&#225;lise final.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A maioria dos sistemas de ultrassom calcula de forma autom&#225;tica, ap&#243;s o correto delineamento do endoc&#225;rdio atrial, o volume biplanar do AE usando tanto o m&#233;todo da &#225;rea-comprimento quanto o m&#233;todo de soma de discos (Simpson modificado). Com o m&#233;todo da &#225;rea-comprimento, o comprimento mais curto obtido (na janela de duas ou quatro c&#226;maras) &#233; utilizado para o c&#225;lculo do volume do AE. Com o m&#233;todo dos discos, a avalia&#231;&#227;o &#233; contr&#225;ria, de maneira que o maior dos dois comprimentos acaba sendo o utilizado. Vale ressaltar que o m&#233;todo de &#225;rea-comprimento produz sistematicamente volumes de AE maiores do que o m&#233;todo da soma de discos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
          <p>O m&#233;todo de discos &#233; atualmente o recomendado para calcular o volume do AE segundo a Sociedade Americana de Ecocardiografia, pois envolve menor suposi&#231;&#227;o sobre a forma geom&#233;trica do AE. Mais recentemente, o uso semiautom&#225;tico do rastreamento de bordas endoc&#225;rdicas tem fornecido volumes que se correlacionam bem com os volumes adquiridos pelo ecocardiograma tridimensional (3D), tomografia computadorizada (TC) e resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca (RMC), ao mesmo tempo em que demonstram menor variabilidade entre observadores do que o tra&#231;ado manual. Vale a pena destacar que, apesar da correla&#231;&#227;o, os volumes ecocardiogr&#225;ficos 2D sempre apresentar&#227;o valores menores que os adquiridos por m&#233;todos 3D. Como o c&#225;lculo do volume varia conforme a t&#233;cnica, &#233; importante que o laborat&#243;rio utilize consistentemente a mesma t&#233;cnica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
          <p>O tamanho do paciente &#233; um dos principais determinantes do tamanho do AE, e os volumes absolutos do AE s&#227;o maiores em homens do que em mulheres, deste modo a indexa&#231;&#227;o pela &#225;rea de superf&#237;cie corporal (VAEi) corrige em parte o efeito desta variabilidade. Desde 2015, a diretriz de quantifica&#231;&#227;o de c&#226;maras card&#237;acas da Sociedade Americana de Ecocardiografia considera que valores de volumes indexados do AE &gt; 34 mL/m<sup>2</sup> s&#227;o considerados patol&#243;gicos. Este valor foi embasado em estudos observacionais com mais de 6 mil pacientes sem antecedentes de FA ou valvopatias, demonstrando que o volume indexado acima de 34 mL/m<sup>2</sup> foi preditor independente de morte, IC, FA e AVC (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f15">Figura 3</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
          <fig id="f15">
            <label>Figura 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>C&#225;lculo do volume do AE pelo m&#233;todo biplano (Simpson) e gradua&#231;&#227;o de aumento segundo a diretriz da Sociedade Americana de Ecocardiografia 2015. AE: &#225;trio esquerdo.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-0070i-gf04-pt.tif"/></fig>
          <p>O maior problema com os valores de gradua&#231;&#227;o atualmente recomendados (aumento discreto = 35 a 41 mL/m<sup>2</sup>, aumento moderado = 42 a 48 mL/m<sup>2</sup> e aumento importante do AE &gt; 48 mL/m<sup>2</sup>) &#233; a estreita faixa entre as diferentes categorias. Assim, at&#233; mesmo pequenos erros de medi&#231;&#227;o podem resultar na classifica&#231;&#227;o incorreta do grau de aumento do AE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Trabalho publicado por Esther et al. na revista <italic>Journal of the American College of Cardiology</italic> em 2022 demonstrou uma maior acur&#225;cia na classifica&#231;&#227;o e estratifica&#231;&#227;o da dilata&#231;&#227;o do AE ao se utilizar valores indexados pela altura e altura ao quadrado, em pacientes com sobrepeso e obesidade. Considerando dados individuais de mais de 17 mil pacientes, o uso de valores indexados pela altura reclassificou as altera&#231;&#245;es do AE em at&#233; 28% dos pacientes em compara&#231;&#227;o com a indexa&#231;&#227;o pela superf&#237;cie corporal, par&#226;metro classicamente utilizado na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica. Para estes par&#226;metros, os valores de normalidade s&#227;o apresentados na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">Tabela 1</xref>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
          <table-wrap id="t6">
            <label>Tabela 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Valores de normalidade e dilata&#231;&#227;o do AE considerando a superf&#237;cie corporal, altura e altura ao quadrado</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="25%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <tbody style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" rowspan="4" valign="middle">
                    <alternatives>
                      <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/2675-312X/Wv8rLvz3qxthCWV5dqPJKSr/ba443aee5dc00bb50c964305d08f7e6f9cbb9eb1.tif"/>
                      <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/2675-312X/Wv8rLvz3qxthCWV5dqPJKSr/714e4f719a63d5519bd9a5e7abe38fda01bce3e6.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                    </alternatives>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color:#C58874" valign="middle"/>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color:#C58874" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Valor de normalidade</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color:#C58874" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Dilata&#231;&#227;o do AE</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle"><bold>Volume indexado AE</bold><break/> Superf&#237;cie corporal</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Homem: &#8804; 34 mL/m<sup>2</sup><break/> Mulher: &#8804; 34 mL/m<sup>2</sup></td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Homem: &#8805; 35 mL/m<sup>2</sup><break/> Mulher: &#8805; 35 mL/m<sup>2</sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
                  <td align="center" valign="middle"><bold>Volume indexado AE</bold><break/> Altura</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Homem: &#8804; 35,7 mL/m<break/> Mulher: &#8804; 33,7 mL/m</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Homem: &#8805; 35,8 mL/m<break/> Mulher: &#8805; 33,8 mL/m</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle"><bold>Volume indexado AE</bold><break/> Altura<sup>2</sup></td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Homem: &#8804; 18,5 mL/m<sup>2</sup><break/> Mulher: &#8804; 16,5 mL/m<sup>2</sup></td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Homem: &#8805; 18,6 mL/m<sup>2</sup><break/> Mulher: &#8805; 16,6 mL/m<sup>2</sup></td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN8">
                <p>AE: &#225;trio esquerdo. Adaptado de Davis et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>Esses c&#225;lculos, mesmo com as v&#225;rias corre&#231;&#245;es de indexa&#231;&#227;o adicionais, ainda consideram premissas geom&#233;tricas que subestimam o volume final, o que tamb&#233;m deve ser considerado na interpreta&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Avalia&#231;&#227;o da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do AE ao ecocardiograma 2D</title>
          <p>Ap&#243;s a correta aquisi&#231;&#227;o volum&#233;trica do AE durante o ciclo card&#237;aco, um importante par&#226;metro de fun&#231;&#227;o atrial pode ser obtido, a fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do AE (FEAE). Conforme apresentado na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f16">Figura 4</xref>,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> a FEAE, semelhante &#224; fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do VE, &#233; calculada considerando a varia&#231;&#227;o volum&#233;trica em diferentes fases, em tr&#234;s momentos do ciclo card&#237;aco:</p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Volume atrial ao final da s&#237;stole ventricula</bold>r<bold>:</bold> VAEmax</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Volume atrial imediatamente antes da contra&#231;&#227;o atrial:</bold> volume do AE antes da onda P (VAEpre-A)</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Volume atrial ao final da di&#225;stole ventricular:</bold> volume m&#237;nimo do AE (VAEmin).</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <fig id="f16">
            <label>Figura 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Volumes do AE ao longo do ciclo card&#237;aco: VAEmax (fim da onda T), VAEpre-A (antes da onda P) e VAEmin (onda R). AE: &#225;trio esquerdo; VAEmax: volume m&#225;ximo do &#225;trio esquerdo; VAEmin: volume m&#237;nimo do &#225;trio esquerdo; VAEpre-A: volume do &#225;trio esquerdo imediatamente antes da contra&#231;&#227;o atrial.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-0070i-gf05-pt.tif"/></fig>
          <p>Desses volumes obt&#234;m-se tr&#234;s valores principais: a fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o total (reservat&#243;rio) que considera o VAEmax e VAEmin, a fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o passiva (conduto) considerando o VAEmax e o VAEpre-A, e a fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o ativa (contra&#231;&#227;o) que avalia o VAEpre-A e o VAEmin, conforme as f&#243;rmulas abaixo:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
          <list list-type="order">
            <list-item>
              <p>
                <bold>FEAE total (fun&#231;&#227;o global de reservat&#243;rio) = (VAEmax &#8211; VAEmin) / VAEmax &#215; 100</bold>
              </p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>
                <bold>FEAE passiva = (VAEmax &#8211; VAEpre-A) / VAEmax &#215; 100</bold>
              </p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>
                <bold>FEAE ativa = (VAEpre-A &#8211; VAEmin) / VAEpre-A &#215; 100</bold>
              </p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p><bold>Observa&#231;&#227;o:</bold> Na literatura, os termos fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o e fra&#231;&#227;o de esvaziamento podem ser encontrados como equivalentes.</p>
          <p>A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f17">Figura 5</xref> apresenta um caso exemplificando o c&#225;lculo dos volumes do AE e suas respectivas fases, assim como a deriva&#231;&#227;o da FEAE que, na maioria dos estudos, foi a an&#225;lise que apresentou maior correla&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
          <fig id="f17">
            <label>Figura 5</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Tra&#231;ado biplano do AE e c&#225;lculo da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o total, que neste caso est&#225; preservada. 2C: duas c&#226;maras; 4C: quatro c&#226;maras; AE: &#225;trio esquerdo; FEAE: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do &#225;trio esquerdo; VAEmax: volume m&#225;ximo do &#225;trio esquerdo; VAEmin: volume m&#237;nimo do &#225;trio esquerdo; VAEpre-A: volume do &#225;trio esquerdo imediatamente antes da contra&#231;&#227;o atrial.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-0070i-gf06-pt.tif"/></fig>
          <p>&#201; importante notar que a fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o ativa, por ser dependente da contra&#231;&#227;o atrial, n&#227;o pode ser avaliada na aus&#234;ncia de ritmo sinusal.</p>
          <p>Esses par&#226;metros podem ser avaliados por diferentes t&#233;cnicas de imagem: 2D e 3D, TC ou RMC. Usando softwares dedicados para quantifica&#231;&#227;o do volume do AE, a avalia&#231;&#227;o volum&#233;trica e funcional em diferentes fases tornou-se mais precisa, reprodut&#237;vel e menos demorada em compara&#231;&#227;o &#224; an&#225;lise 2D cl&#225;ssica.</p>
          <p>As <xref ref-type="table" rid="t7">Tabelas 2</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="t8">3</xref> apresentam os valores de normalidade para volumes e fun&#231;&#227;o do AE segundo dados publicados do estudo realizado pelo World Alliance Societies of Echocardiography Study. Apesar destes dados internacionais, &#233; importante ressaltar que valores de refer&#234;ncia para an&#225;lise de fun&#231;&#227;o atrial pelos m&#233;todos 2D e 3D ainda n&#227;o foram padronizados e incorporados &#224;s diretrizes de ecocardiografia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
          <table-wrap id="t7">
            <label>Tabela 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Compara&#231;&#227;o de par&#226;metros volum&#233;tricos e funcionais do AE entre m&#233;todos bidimensionais e tridimensionais (WASE Study, 2022)</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#C58874">
                  <th align="left" colspan="3" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="middle">Valores normais do tamanho e da fun&#231;&#227;o do AE foram derivados de 1.765 adultos saud&#225;veis (Resultados do World Alliance Societies of Echocardiography Study)</th>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C58874">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Par&#226;metros de volume</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">2D</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">3D</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Volume m&#225;ximo (mL)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">45,9 &#177; 15,7</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">49,9 &#177; 14,1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Volume m&#225;ximo indexado (mL/m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">25,7 &#177; 7,9</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">28,1 &#177; 6,9</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Volume m&#237;nimo (mL)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN10">*</xref>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">19,0 &#177; 7,2</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Volume m&#237;nimo indexado (mL/m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN10">*</xref>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">10,7 &#177; 3,7</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Volume pr&#233;-A (mL/m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN10">*</xref>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">31,6 &#177; 10,8</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Volume pr&#233;-A indexado (mL/m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN10">*</xref>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">17,8 &#177; 5,5</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Volume de reservat&#243;rio (mL)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN10">*</xref>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">30,9 &#177; 9,0</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Volume de reservat&#243;rio indexado (mL/m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN10">*</xref>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">17,4 &#177; 4,5</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Volume de conduto (mL)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN10">*</xref>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">18,4 &#177; 6,4</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Volume de conduto indexado (mL/m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN10">*</xref>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">10,4 &#177; 3,4</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN9">
                <p>Valores s&#227;o apresentados como m&#233;dias &#177; desvio padr&#227;o. 2D: ecocardiograma bidimensional; 3D: ecocardiograma tridimensional; AE: &#225;trio esquerdo; pr&#233;-A: imediatamente antes da contra&#231;&#227;o atrial.</p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN10">
                <label>*</label>
                <p>Dados n&#227;o apresentados no artigo WASE 2022.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <table-wrap id="t8">
            <label>Tabela 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Valores de refer&#234;ncia para volumes e fra&#231;&#245;es de eje&#231;&#227;o do AE (WASE Study, 2022)</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#C58874">
                  <th align="left" colspan="3" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="middle">Valores normais do tamanho e da fun&#231;&#227;o do AE foram derivados de 1.765 adultos saud&#225;veis (Resultados do World Alliance Societies of Echocardiography Study)</th>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C58874">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Par&#226;metros de fun&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">2D</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">3D</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o (%)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">65,7 &#177; 8,4</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">62,2 &#177; 7,7</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o passiva (%)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN12">*</xref>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">37,7 &#177; 11,0</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o ativa (%)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN12">*</xref>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">39,5 &#177; 9,5</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">SAEr (%)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">42,1 &#177; 10,0</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN12">*</xref>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Strain de conduto (%)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">27,7 &#177; 9,7</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN12">*</xref>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">SAEct (%)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">14,4 &#177; 6,3</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN12">*</xref>
                  </td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN11">
                <p>Valores s&#227;o apresentados como m&#233;dias &#177; desvio padr&#227;o. 2D: ecocardiograma bidimensional; 3D: ecocardiograma tridimensional; AE: &#225;trio esquerdo; SAEr: strain de reservat&#243;rio.</p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN12">
                <label>*</label>
                <p>Dados n&#227;o apresentados no artigo WASE 2022.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>Em pacientes com estenose a&#243;rtica grave a FEAE se mostrou &#250;til para avalia&#231;&#227;o de progn&#243;stico, com um ponto de corte menor que 37% sendo superior inclusive &#224; velocidade m&#225;xima e ao gradiente m&#233;dio para prever mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o a arritmias, quando avaliados apenas pacientes com FA, a redu&#231;&#227;o da FEAE se relacionou a piores desfechos cardiovasculares, independentemente da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do VE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Considerando a import&#226;ncia cl&#237;nica da FEAE e a crescente disponibilidade da ferramenta nos aparelhos de ecocardiografia, o registro desse dado deve ser estimulado.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Avalia&#231;&#227;o de volumes do AE ao ecocardiograma 3D</title>
          <p>Nas &#250;ltimas duas d&#233;cadas, a ecocardiografia 3D tornou-se a modalidade de escolha para quantifica&#231;&#227;o volum&#233;trica das c&#226;maras card&#237;acas, com maior correla&#231;&#227;o com a RMC e menor variabilidade inter e intra-observador. Em um estudo multic&#234;ntrico com 92 pacientes com volumes de AE variados, a concord&#226;ncia para a classifica&#231;&#227;o de AE aumentado usando um ponto de corte &gt; 34 mL/m<sup>2</sup> apresentou um coeficiente kappa de concord&#226;ncia de 0,88 entre a ecocardiografia 3D e a RMC, em compara&#231;&#227;o com um kappa de 0,71 para a mesma an&#225;lise com o ecocardiograma 2D e a RMC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Algumas das principais vantagens deste m&#233;todo s&#227;o:</p>
          <list list-type="order">
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Alta acur&#225;cia:</bold> N&#227;o assume suposi&#231;&#245;es geom&#233;tricas em rela&#231;&#227;o ao formato do AE, apresentando menor subestima&#231;&#227;o em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; RMC.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Maior reprodutibilidade:</bold> Identifica&#231;&#227;o semiautom&#225;tica das bordas card&#237;acas, evitando o encurtamento de medidas.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Aceit&#225;vel resolu&#231;&#227;o temporal:</bold> Resolu&#231;&#227;o &gt; 20 volumes por segundo em compara&#231;&#227;o &#224; TC e &#224; RMC.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Caracteriza&#231;&#227;o din&#226;mica do tamanho e forma:</bold> An&#225;lise cont&#237;nua ao longo do ciclo card&#237;aco avalia as fases da fun&#231;&#227;o atrial.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Aquisi&#231;&#227;o em batimento &#250;nico:</bold> An&#225;lise fact&#237;vel nos pacientes que apresentam arritmias atriais ou ventriculares frequentes.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f18">Figura 6</xref> mostra os valores e c&#225;lculos volum&#233;tricos realizados usando software espec&#237;fico para a medida semiautom&#225;tica.</p>
          <fig id="f18">
            <label>Figura 6</label>
            <caption>
              <title>An&#225;lise volum&#233;trica 3D semiautom&#225;tica do AE (exemplo de software dedicado). 3D: tridimensional; FEAE: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do &#225;trio esquerdo; pr&#233;-A: imediatamente antes da contra&#231;&#227;o atrial.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-0070i-gf07-pt.tif"/></fig>
          <p>Semelhante ao volume do AE ao ecocardiograma 2D, a indexa&#231;&#227;o para a &#225;rea de superf&#237;cie corporal dos volumes de AE 3D reduziu as diferen&#231;as entre os sexos. Foi observado um pequeno, mas significativo, aumento no volume de AE por ecocardiograma 3D com o envelhecimento.</p>
          <p>As principais limita&#231;&#245;es desta an&#225;lise atualmente s&#227;o a resolu&#231;&#227;o temporal, assim como a escassez de dados tanto para valores de normalidade quanto valores progn&#243;sticos entre as diversas patologias.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Strain do AE</title>
          <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o do AE pelo m&#233;todo de strain permite uma an&#225;lise mais detalhada de cada uma das fases da fisiologia atrial. A capacidade de discrimina&#231;&#227;o entre movimento passivo e ativo, a independ&#234;ncia do &#226;ngulo, redu&#231;&#227;o dos efeitos de tethering, menor depend&#234;ncia da carga e o rastreamento da movimenta&#231;&#227;o de cada um dos segmentos da parede atrial permitem um melhor conhecimento da fun&#231;&#227;o atrial.</p>
          <p>A deforma&#231;&#227;o do AE &#233; preferencialmente medida pelo m&#233;todo de speckle tracking (rastreamento de pontos). Para isso, as bordas endoc&#225;rdicas do AE s&#227;o tra&#231;adas manualmente ou automaticamente em imagens 2D de alta qualidade obtidas com uma taxa de quadros entre 50 e 90 quadros/segundo. A necessidade de aquisi&#231;&#227;o de imagens em janelas dedicadas e n&#227;o encurtadas (em contraste com janela convencional otimizada para o VE) para obter medi&#231;&#245;es de deforma&#231;&#227;o do AE &#233; um conceito relativamente recente e um par&#226;metro essencial.</p>
          <p>O grupo de trabalho da Sociedade Europeia de Imagem Cardiovascular e da Sociedade Americana de Ecocardiografia recomenda usar o valor da deforma&#231;&#227;o do AE obtido a partir de imagens apicais de quatro e duas c&#226;maras, evitando o encurtamento, embora a an&#225;lise da deforma&#231;&#227;o apenas da janela apical de quatro c&#226;maras tamb&#233;m seja comumente realizada e tenha se mostrado acurada e reprodut&#237;vel. Deve-se utilizar software dedicado para an&#225;lise de deforma&#231;&#227;o do AE, quando dispon&#237;vel, para reduzir a variabilidade e erros das medi&#231;&#245;es.</p>
          <p>Como recomenda&#231;&#227;o adicional, orienta-se obter imagem com a aquisi&#231;&#227;o focada no AE e uma regi&#227;o de interesse (ROI) com espessura de aproximadamente 3 mm, devido &#224; fina espessura parietal da cavidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Duas abordagens diferentes de gatilho (trigger) temporal est&#227;o dispon&#237;veis para quantificar a deforma&#231;&#227;o do AE pelo m&#233;todo de speckle tracking. A primeira abordagem utiliza o in&#237;cio do QRS derivado do eletrocardiograma como ponto de partida (gatilho R-R) e mede duas deforma&#231;&#245;es chave do AE:</p>
          <list list-type="order">
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Strain de reservat&#243;rio (SAEr):</bold> Analisado ao final da s&#237;stole do VE (correspondente ao fechamento da valva a&#243;rtica)</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Strain de contra&#231;&#227;o (SAEct):</bold> Analisado mais tardiamente e corresponde &#224; contra&#231;&#227;o do AE.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>A diferen&#231;a entre SAEr e SAEct representa o strain de conduto (SAEcd).</p>
          <p>A segunda abordagem utiliza a onda P do eletrocardiograma como ponto de partida (gatilho P-P), permitindo a medi&#231;&#227;o de duas deforma&#231;&#245;es, a primeira descendente, que corresponde ao SAEct, e a segunda ascendente, que corresponde ao relaxamento atrial e &#224; fun&#231;&#227;o de reservat&#243;rio.</p>
          <p>Nota-se que os par&#226;metros atriais s&#227;o menores para a an&#225;lise gateada pelo intervalo P-P em compara&#231;&#227;o ao gating R-R. &#201; importante ressaltar a impossibilidade de aplica&#231;&#227;o desta an&#225;lise aos pacientes com FA quando o gating P-P &#233; utilizado. Outro dado a ser ressaltado &#233; que a maioria dos estudos publicados mundialmente utilizou o gating R-R, tornando este o m&#233;todo recomendado de fato para medir a deforma&#231;&#227;o do AE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f19">Figura 7</xref> mostra as principais fases da deforma&#231;&#227;o do AE utilizando como par&#226;metro a an&#225;lise gateada pelo intervalo R-R.</p>
          <fig id="f19">
            <label>Figura 7</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Curva de strain atrial esquerdo (speckle tracking) com gatilho R-R: strain de reservat&#243;rio, conduto e contra&#231;&#227;o; SAEcd: Strain de conduto do &#225;trio esquerdo; SAEct: Strain de contra&#231;&#227;o do &#225;trio esquerdo; SAEr: Strain de reservat&#243;rio.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-0070i-gf08-pt.tif"/></fig>
          <p>A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f20">Figura 8</xref> mostra os dois padr&#245;es de curvas de deforma&#231;&#227;o do AE a depender do gating escolhido, se o intervalo R-R ou P-P.</p>
          <fig id="f20">
            <label>Figura 8</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Dois tipos de pontos de refer&#234;ncia do valor zero, selecionados para a avalia&#231;&#227;o do strain do AE, e suas respectivas curvas. Os valores de deforma&#231;&#227;o obtidos com qualquer uma das duas t&#233;cnicas podem ser matematicamente convertidos entre si. ECG: eletrocardiograma; SAEcd: strain de conduto; SAEct: strain de contra&#231;&#227;o; SAEr: strain de reservat&#243;rio.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-0070i-gf09-pt.tif"/></fig>
          <p>A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f21">Figura 9</xref> mostra a an&#225;lise dos 3 componentes do strain do AE em um paciente hipertenso, por&#233;m sem altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais.</p>
          <fig id="f21">
            <label>Figura 9</label>
            <caption>
              <title>An&#225;lise do strain atrial esquerdo em tr&#234;s fases (setas: amarela = SAEr; vermelha = SAEcd; verde = SAEct) em paciente com hipertens&#227;o arterial. Esta an&#225;lise foi realizada com software dedicado para medir a deforma&#231;&#227;o longitudinal do AE usando rastreamento automatizado do endoc&#225;rdio do AE na janela apical de quatro e duas c&#226;maras, e seguindo as recomenda&#231;&#245;es da For&#231;a-Tarefa da Sociedade Europeia de Imagem Cardiovascular /Sociedade Americana de Ecocardiografia/Ind&#250;stria para padroniza&#231;&#227;o da deforma&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> 2C: duas c&#226;maras; 4C: quatro c&#226;maras; AE: &#225;trio esquerdo; SAEcd: strain de conduto; SAEct: strain de contra&#231;&#227;o; SAEr: strain de reservat&#243;rio.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-0070i-gf10-pt.tif"/></fig>
          <p>A import&#226;ncia cl&#237;nica do SAEr &#233; refor&#231;ada por diversos estudos que demonstraram seu valor progn&#243;stico independente. Os principais trabalhos realizados at&#233; o presente momento validaram este par&#226;metro como marcador de progn&#243;stico nos seguintes cen&#225;rios:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p>Infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>S&#237;ndrome coron&#225;ria cr&#244;nica</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Cardio-oncologia</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Doen&#231;a valvar &#8805; moderada (uni ou multivalvar)</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Cardiomiopatia dilatada</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>IC aguda e cr&#244;nica</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Terapia de ressincroniza&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Cora&#231;&#227;o de atleta</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Takotsubo</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>Os valores de normalidade para o SAEr, SAEcd e SAEct est&#227;o citados nas <xref ref-type="table" rid="t9">Tabelas 4</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="t10">5</xref>, por&#233;m o &#250;nico par&#226;metro de deforma&#231;&#227;o recomendado da fun&#231;&#227;o do AE &#233; a deforma&#231;&#227;o longitudinal global ou SAEr.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t9">
            <label>Tabela 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Valores de refer&#234;ncia para o SAEr, conduto e contra&#231;&#227;o do AE<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#C58874">
                  <th align="left" colspan="3" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="middle">Valores de normalidade<break/> Metan&#225;lise incluindo 2.542 indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis</th>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C58874">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Fases</th>
                  <th align="left" colspan="2" valign="middle">Valores de refer&#234;ncia</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>SAEr</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <alternatives>
                      <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/2675-312X/Wv8rLvz3qxthCWV5dqPJKSr/e47c682e4e9836c176a73f00db7cfd6f691de85d.tif"/>
                      <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/2675-312X/Wv8rLvz3qxthCWV5dqPJKSr/18520591e9a606d66455debfcf4f5cd46d06d816.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                    </alternatives>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>39%</bold><break/> (IC 95%: 38%&#8211;41%)<break/> <list list-type="bullet"><list-item><p>Valores &lt; 23% associados a pior progn&#243;stico</p></list-item><list-item><p>Diretrizes de di&#225;stole (valores &lt; 18% associados com aumento das press&#245;es de enchimento do VE)</p></list-item></list> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>SAEcd</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <alternatives>
                      <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/2675-312X/Wv8rLvz3qxthCWV5dqPJKSr/fbc7ce619b8a9a7b79ac70d7346b16570f5e7cd7.tif"/>
                      <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/2675-312X/Wv8rLvz3qxthCWV5dqPJKSr/1ddc7f02937f37d52a33a49286ee4772ca07d4ed.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                    </alternatives>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>23%</bold><break/> (IC 95%: 21%&#8211;25%)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>SAEct</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <alternatives>
                      <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/2675-312X/Wv8rLvz3qxthCWV5dqPJKSr/4f446761a72ea28a2c7384fc4a2ccf46e5c7a37c.tif"/>
                      <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/2675-312X/Wv8rLvz3qxthCWV5dqPJKSr/7871408bcfb5f6ed799ee4d93fa49e54f3ec99f3.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                    </alternatives>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>18%</bold><break/> (IC 95%: 16%&#8211;19%)</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN13">
                <p>IC: intervalo de confian&#231;a; SAEcd: strain de conduto; SAEct: strain de contra&#231;&#227;o; SAEr: strain de reservat&#243;rio; VE: ventr&#237;culo esquerdo.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <table-wrap id="t10">
            <label>Tabela 5</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Principais trabalhos de refer&#234;ncia do SAEr do AE em rela&#231;&#227;o ao progn&#243;stico em diversos cen&#225;rios<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#C58874">
                  <th align="center" colspan="3" valign="middle">SAEr</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial<break/> Her et al. JACC, 2021</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <alternatives>
                      <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/2675-312X/Wv8rLvz3qxthCWV5dqPJKSr/e47c682e4e9836c176a73f00db7cfd6f691de85d.tif"/>
                      <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/2675-312X/Wv8rLvz3qxthCWV5dqPJKSr/18520591e9a606d66455debfcf4f5cd46d06d816.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                    </alternatives>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">SAEr &lt; 23% prediz recorr&#234;ncia de FA ap&#243;s abla&#231;&#227;o.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">ICFEp<break/> Singh et al. JACC, 2022</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <alternatives>
                      <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/2675-312X/Wv8rLvz3qxthCWV5dqPJKSr/e47c682e4e9836c176a73f00db7cfd6f691de85d.tif"/>
                      <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/2675-312X/Wv8rLvz3qxthCWV5dqPJKSr/18520591e9a606d66455debfcf4f5cd46d06d816.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                    </alternatives>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">SAEr foi um marcador precoce e sens&#237;vel de aumento de press&#227;o de enchimento do VE.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Valvopatias<break/> Addetia et al. JASE, 2023</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <alternatives>
                      <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/2675-312X/Wv8rLvz3qxthCWV5dqPJKSr/e47c682e4e9836c176a73f00db7cfd6f691de85d.tif"/>
                      <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/2675-312X/Wv8rLvz3qxthCWV5dqPJKSr/18520591e9a606d66455debfcf4f5cd46d06d816.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                    </alternatives>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">SAEr &lt; 25% em IM grave identificou pacientes com pior progn&#243;stico independentemente da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Oncologia<break/> Zhang et al. EHJ CV Imaging, 2024</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <alternatives>
                      <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/2675-312X/Wv8rLvz3qxthCWV5dqPJKSr/e47c682e4e9836c176a73f00db7cfd6f691de85d.tif"/>
                      <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/2675-312X/Wv8rLvz3qxthCWV5dqPJKSr/18520591e9a606d66455debfcf4f5cd46d06d816.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                    </alternatives>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">SAEr &lt; 25% reduzido prediz cardiotoxicidade de forma mais precoce que o strain do VE.</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN14">
                <p>ICFEp: insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo preservada; IM: insufici&#234;ncia mitral; SAEr: strain de reservat&#243;rio; VE: ventr&#237;culo esquerdo.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>Normalmente, os segmentos adjacentes ao anel mitral, particularmente na parede inferior, exibem valores de deforma&#231;&#227;o maiores do que aqueles nos segmentos m&#233;dio e apical (teto) do AE. Os valores mais baixos de deforma&#231;&#227;o do AE s&#227;o encontrados no teto do AE, na regi&#227;o de inser&#231;&#227;o das veias pulmonares, onde o cora&#231;&#227;o est&#225; ancorado ao mediastino.</p>
          <p>Diferen&#231;as regionais na deforma&#231;&#227;o do AE podem ser potencialmente &#250;teis para a avalia&#231;&#227;o da dissincronia do AE, par&#226;metro este utilizado como uma medida indireta da fibrose heterog&#234;nea do AE e da disfun&#231;&#227;o que pode prever a recorr&#234;ncia de FA ap&#243;s abla&#231;&#227;o por radiofrequ&#234;ncia.</p>
          <p>A dispers&#227;o mec&#226;nica do AE ou dissincronia do AE, calculada como o desvio padr&#227;o do tempo at&#233; a deforma&#231;&#227;o m&#225;xima para os segmentos do AE, tamb&#233;m foi avaliada tanto para a deforma&#231;&#227;o de reservat&#243;rio quanto para a deforma&#231;&#227;o contr&#225;til, com ambas as medidas demonstrando valor na predi&#231;&#227;o da recorr&#234;ncia de FA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
          <p>As principais limita&#231;&#245;es est&#227;o relacionadas ao AE apresentar paredes muito finas, ao septo interatrial que muitas vezes est&#225; associado a hipermobilidade ou aneurisma, &#224; depend&#234;ncia de presun&#231;&#245;es geom&#233;tricas nas regi&#245;es de conex&#227;o das veias pulmonares e do ap&#234;ndice atrial com o AE, al&#233;m do campo de imagem se apresentar no segmento mais distal na an&#225;lise ecocardiogr&#225;fica.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>O AE na avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica</title>
          <p>Inicialmente baseada em estudos hemodin&#226;micos invasivos, a avalia&#231;&#227;o da rigidez e da complac&#234;ncia do VE constitu&#237;ram os pilares iniciais para a identifica&#231;&#227;o do aumento das press&#245;es de enchimento e o desenvolvimento da diastologia do VE. No caso de pacientes com redu&#231;&#227;o da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o, a eleva&#231;&#227;o das press&#245;es de enchimento era mais facilmente compreendida &#224; luz da disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica. J&#225; nos pacientes com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o preservada, essa interpreta&#231;&#227;o tornou-se menos direta, o que impulsionou o aprofundamento do estudo da fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica.</p>
          <p>Com a incorpora&#231;&#227;o do Doppler &#224; ecocardiografia, houve um salto de qualidade na avalia&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o invasiva das press&#245;es de enchimento e surgiram trabalhos classificando mais um tipo de IC, a diast&#243;lica, termo que depois seria preterido, preferindo-se a denomina&#231;&#227;o IC com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo preservada (ICFEp). A primeira diretriz que norteou a avalia&#231;&#227;o sistem&#225;tica da di&#225;stole do VE foi publicada em 2009 e j&#225; considerava vari&#225;veis atriais para essa avalia&#231;&#227;o.</p>
          <p>O AE e o VE s&#227;o estruturas dispostas em s&#233;rie no sistema circulat&#243;rio, com o &#225;trio sendo a antec&#226;mara para o VE. Devido a essa &#237;ntima liga&#231;&#227;o, a fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica do VE tem grande influ&#234;ncia na press&#227;o e fun&#231;&#227;o do AE. O estudo do AE, portanto, nos d&#225; valiosas informa&#231;&#245;es que corroboram para a identifica&#231;&#227;o e gradua&#231;&#227;o da disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica do VE. Essa avalia&#231;&#227;o inicialmente se restringia &#224; an&#225;lise do fluxo transmitral e fluxo venoso pulmonar. Com o advento de novas tecnologias, a identifica&#231;&#227;o do aumento da press&#227;o AE foi poss&#237;vel por vari&#225;veis mais acuradas: o Doppler tecidual do anel mitral durante o enchimento inicial ventricular (onda e&#8242;), e a sua rela&#231;&#227;o com a onda E mitral, sendo a rela&#231;&#227;o E/e&#8242; m&#233;dio maior que 14 um indicativo de aumento da press&#227;o do AE. Essas vari&#225;veis, embora importantes, podem n&#227;o ser conclusivas em alguns cen&#225;rios como a raz&#227;o E/e&#8242; entre 8 e 14, na calcifica&#231;&#227;o do anel mitral, arritmias atriais e na fus&#227;o das ondas E e A.</p>
          <p>Na &#250;ltima atualiza&#231;&#227;o das diretrizes para avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica do VE em 2025, o leque de ferramentas para essa avalia&#231;&#227;o foi ampliado e, dentre outras vari&#225;veis, foi inclu&#237;do o SAEr menor ou igual a 18% como mais um dado a ser considerado nessa an&#225;lise. Essa adi&#231;&#227;o foi especialmente &#250;til na an&#225;lise de pacientes com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o preservada, grupo no qual a altera&#231;&#227;o do strain tem alta especificidade para identificar aumento da press&#227;o do AE. Com esses acr&#233;scimos e novo fluxograma de avalia&#231;&#227;o, todos os pacientes antes classificados como fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica indeterminada (18,8% aplicando-se os crit&#233;rios de 2016) foram classificados em fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica normal ou classificados em algum grau de disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica, tornando remota a possibilidade da disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica n&#227;o ser adequadamente quantificada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Na pr&#225;tica, essa nova diretriz adicionou par&#226;metros que aumentaram a import&#226;ncia do AE na diastologia. Para um melhor entendimento da avalia&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica, consultar as Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica do VE e ICFEp da Sociedade Americana de Ecocardiografia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>&#205;ndice de rigidez do AE</title>
          <p>A deforma&#231;&#227;o AE prejudicada possui &#237;ntima rela&#231;&#227;o com a cl&#237;nica e com o diagn&#243;stico da ICFEp. Quando a deforma&#231;&#227;o AE &#233; utilizada em conjunto com a press&#227;o de oclus&#227;o da art&#233;ria pulmonar medida de forma invasiva (cateterismo) ou com a rela&#231;&#227;o de velocidade da onda E/velocidade e&#8242; mitral (E/e&#8242;), pode-se derivar o &#237;ndice de rigidez da AE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
          <p>O &#237;ndice de rigidez do AE pode ser estimado atrav&#233;s destas duas vari&#225;veis ecocardiogr&#225;ficas:</p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>SAEr:</bold> Pico de deforma&#231;&#227;o longitudinal do AE</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Rela&#231;&#227;o E/e&#8242;</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>A rela&#231;&#227;o E/e&#8242;/SAEr &#233; um par&#226;metro relativamente simples e n&#227;o invasivo de adquirir e demonstrou boa correla&#231;&#227;o com o NT-proBNP e par&#226;metros diast&#243;licos ecocardiogr&#225;ficos convencionais, incluindo E/e&#8242;, volume do AE indexado e press&#227;o sist&#243;lica do ventr&#237;culo direito. Kim et al. publicaram um interessante estudo retrospectivo na revista <italic>Journal of the American College of Cardiology</italic> em 2022 com 307 pacientes demonstrando que o &#237;ndice de rigidez atrial apresentou desempenho progn&#243;stico mais robusto para predizer mortalidade por todas as causas e hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o relacionada &#224; IC do que os par&#226;metros diast&#243;licos cl&#225;ssicos, incluindo E/e&#8242;, volume indexado do AE, velocidade m&#225;xima da insufici&#234;ncia tric&#250;spide e SAEr durante o acompanhamento. O valor de E/e&#8242;/SAEr &gt; 0,26 apresentou uma &#225;rea sob a curva de 0,743 (intervalo de confian&#231;a de 95%: 0,681 a 0,806; p &lt; 0,001).</p>
          <p>Nesse estudo, pacientes com press&#227;o diast&#243;lica final do VE avaliado de forma invasiva com valores &#8805; 16 mmHg e fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do VE &#8805; 50%, quando apresentavam &#237;ndice de rigidez atrial aumentado (&gt; 0,26), apresentam pior progn&#243;stico a m&#233;dio e longo prazo em compara&#231;&#227;o com pacientes com as mesmas caracter&#237;sticas e &#237;ndice de rigidez atrial &#8804; 0,26, sugerindo a poss&#237;vel utiliza&#231;&#227;o deste par&#226;metro como um biomarcador progn&#243;stico baseado em imagem ecocardiogr&#225;fica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Novas tecnolog-ias (HeartModel)</title>
          <p>Novas tecnologias t&#234;m sido incorporadas &#224; an&#225;lise ecocardiogr&#225;fica, permitindo uma maior reprodutibilidade e agilidade na aquisi&#231;&#227;o de imagens e dados volum&#233;tricos. As avalia&#231;&#245;es volum&#233;tricas apresentadas na ecocardiografia 3D classicamente dispon&#237;vel nos aparelhos de ultrassom, s&#227;o apresentadas como medidas semiautom&#225;ticas com necessidade muitas das vezes de ajustes adicionais de cada um dos segmentos card&#237;acos analisados, o que em &#250;ltima an&#225;lise determina um consumo adicional de tempo, muitas vezes n&#227;o dispon&#237;vel na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica.</p>
          <p>Empresas como a Philips e General Electric desenvolveram softwares espec&#237;ficos para medidas acuradas e totalmente autom&#225;ticas adquiridas atrav&#233;s de um &#250;nico bot&#227;o de aquisi&#231;&#227;o, permitindo que mesmo ecocardiografistas sem grande experi&#234;ncia possam facilmente realizar esta an&#225;lise ecocardiogr&#225;fica.</p>
          <p>Tsang et al. demonstraram, em estudo de factibilidade e acur&#225;cia com 159 pacientes, que o software totalmente autom&#225;tico (HeartModel, Philips Healthcare) apresentou forte correla&#231;&#227;o com a medida semiautom&#225;tica com corre&#231;&#227;o manual (r = 0,87 a 0,96). Adicionalmente, a concord&#226;ncia entre a an&#225;lise volum&#233;trica automatizada e a RMC tamb&#233;m foi significativa (r = 0,84 a 0,95). O tempo m&#233;dio de aquisi&#231;&#227;o e an&#225;lise dos volumes do VE e AE foi de 37 segundos para o software HeartModel autom&#225;tico, em compara&#231;&#227;o com 79 segundos para a mesma aquisi&#231;&#227;o, por&#233;m com pequenas altera&#231;&#245;es manuais realizadas pelo operador, e 212 segundos para a avalia&#231;&#227;o 2D pelo m&#233;todo de Simpson, com uma redu&#231;&#227;o final de 82% do tempo de aquisi&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Um dado interessante dessa an&#225;lise foi que as altera&#231;&#245;es humanas de p&#243;s-processamento n&#227;o levaram a melhorias significativas em compara&#231;&#227;o &#224; an&#225;lise volum&#233;trica autom&#225;tica, tendo como refer&#234;ncia a RMC.</p>
          <p>A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f22">Figura 10</xref> mostra a aquisi&#231;&#227;o do software da empresa Philips HeartModel A.I. com a avalia&#231;&#227;o volum&#233;trica autom&#225;tica.</p>
          <fig id="f22">
            <label>Figura 10</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Quantifica&#231;&#227;o automatizada 3D transtor&#225;cica das c&#226;maras card&#237;acas esquerdas utilizando software espec&#237;fico HeartModel A.I. AE: &#225;trio esquerdo; FEAE: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do AE.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-0070i-gf11-pt.tif"/></fig>
          <p>Na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f23">Figura 11</xref> apresentamos um passo a passo da an&#225;lise estruturada do AE englobando os dados essenciais que devem ser extra&#237;dos ao estudo ecocardiogr&#225;fico, assim como um quadro resumo dos pontos fortes e fracos, considerando os principais par&#226;metros descritos ao longo do texto.</p>
          <fig id="f23">
            <label>Figura 11</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Superior: Compara&#231;&#227;o das vantagens e limita&#231;&#245;es das diferentes t&#233;cnicas: dimens&#245;es lineares, volumes do &#225;trio esquerdo (AE) pelo m&#233;todo biplanar bidimensional (2D), volumes do AE pelo m&#233;todo tridimensional (3D) e strain de reservat&#243;rio do AE. Inferior: Fluxograma para uma an&#225;lise estruturada do &#225;trio esquerdo utilizando dados anat&#244;micos, funcionais e hemodin&#226;micos. Esses par&#226;metros devem ser apresentados ao final do laudo ecocardiogr&#225;fico. 2D: bidimensional; 3D: tridimensional; AE: &#225;trio esquerdo; ICFEp: insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo preservada; VE: ventr&#237;culo esquerdo.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260070-0070i-gf12-pt.tif"/></fig>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
        <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o do AE evoluiu de uma an&#225;lise morfol&#243;gica restrita ao di&#226;metro anteroposterior para uma abordagem funcional integrada, capaz de caracterizar as tr&#234;s fases do ciclo atrial (reservat&#243;rio, conduto e contra&#231;&#227;o). Essa progress&#227;o, que abrange desde a volumetria 2D at&#233; o strain e o &#237;ndice de rigidez atrial, reflete uma mudan&#231;a conceitual na literatura recente: o AE n&#227;o &#233; uma c&#226;mara passiva, mas um determinante ativo do desempenho card&#237;aco e um marcador progn&#243;stico independente em cen&#225;rios distintos, como a FA, a IC e as valvopatias.</p>
        <p>A incorpora&#231;&#227;o sistem&#225;tica desses par&#226;metros na rotina ecocardiogr&#225;fica &#233;, portanto, clinicamente justificada. A inclus&#227;o do SAEr atrial na diretriz mais recente de fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica exemplifica como essa integra&#231;&#227;o j&#225; est&#225; em curso. &#192; medida que novas tecnologias ampliam a reprodutibilidade e reduzem o tempo de aquisi&#231;&#227;o, a an&#225;lise funcional do AE tende a se consolidar como componente essencial do laudo ecocardiogr&#225;fico, apoiando uma caracteriza&#231;&#227;o mais precisa e orientando condutas de forma mais fundamentada.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn5">
          <label>Fontes de Financiamento</label>
          <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
          <label>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</label>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn7">
          <label>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#201;tica e Consentimento Informado</label>
          <p>Este artigo n&#227;o cont&#233;m estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn8">
          <label>Uso de Intelig&#234;ncia Artificial</label>
          <p>Os autores n&#227;o utilizaram ferramentas de intelig&#234;ncia artificial no desenvolvimento deste trabalho.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <sec sec-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-in-article">
        <title>Disponibilidade de Dados</title>
        <p>Os conte&#250;dos subjacentes ao texto da pesquisa est&#227;o contidos no manuscrito.</p>
      </sec>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
