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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abcic</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Imagem Cardiovasc.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">2318-8219</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Departamento de Imagem Cardiovascular da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiolodia (DIC/SBC)</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">Fvq3tHbHdX8zXQZWHhrjCpF</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S2675-312X2026000201408</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">01408</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20260054i</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Recognition of Clinical Stages and Myocardial Damage in Aortic Stenosis: Beyond Diagnosis &#8211; To Op or Not To Op</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0000-6530-1400</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Vasconcelos</surname>
            <given-names>Daniel Franca</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>acquisition of data</role>
          <role>analwysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <label>1</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de Bras&#237;lia</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital Universit&#225;rio de Bras&#237;lia</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Bras&#237;lia</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">DF</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade de Bras&#237;lia, Faculdade de Medicina, Hospital Universit&#225;rio de Bras&#237;lia, Bras&#237;lia, DF &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><label>Mailing Address:</label><bold>Daniel Franca Vasconcelos</bold> &#8226; Universidade de Bras&#237;lia. Hospital Universit&#225;rio de Bras&#237;lia. Postal code: <postal-code>70910-900</postal-code>. Bras&#237;lia, DF &#8211; Brazil E-mail: <email>dfrancav@uol.com.br</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="coi-statement">
          <label>Potential Conflict of Interest</label>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <label>Editor responsible for the review:</label>
          <p>Marcelo Tavares</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>31</day>
        <month>07</month>
        <year>2026</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <year>2026</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>39</volume>
      <issue>2</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20260054</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>07</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2026</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>22</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2026</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>22</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2026</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <p>Severe aortic stenosis is a progressive clinical entity that has historically developed alongside descriptions of pathological anatomy, cardiovascular semiology, heart surgery, and percutaneous cardiovascular interventions. Indication for valve replacement in patients with severe aortic stenosis is still based on symptom onset. With advances in surgical techniques, especially transcatheter implantation, the focus has shifted to identifying early markers of myocardial damage that may indicate irreversible myocardial injury. This review article seeks to provide a comprehensive analysis of methods for identifying myocardial damage in patients with severe aortic stenosis, including clinical evaluation, electrocardiography (ECG), echocardiography, cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMR), and plasma biomarkers. It also discusses the staging of myocardial damage and the optimal timing for therapeutic intervention based on clinical, functional, and structural findings. Recent studies designed to address how to manage asymptomatic patients with aortic stenosis have yielded divergent results. Accordingly, the aim is to assist clinicians in deciding the optimal timing for valve replacement, taking individual patient characteristics into account.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords</title>
        <kwd>Aortic Valve Stenosis</kwd>
        <kwd>Echocardiography</kwd>
        <kwd>Magnetic Resonance Imaging</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <funding-group>
        <funding-statement><bold>Sources of Funding</bold> There were no external funding sources for this study.</funding-statement>
      </funding-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="6"/>
        <table-count count="0"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="43"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <fig id="f1">
      <p>Proposed flowchart for guiding the management of patients with severe aortic stenosis, differentiating between healthy and frail patients. AoS: aortic stenosis; TAVI: transcatheter aortic valve implantation.</p>
      <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260054-0054i-gf01.tif"/></fig>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>Aortic stenosis is the most frequently surgically treated valvular heart disease in the current population.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> The clinical entity has evolved concomitantly with descriptions of pathological anatomy, cardiovascular semiology, cardiac surgery, and, recently, percutaneous cardiovascular interventions.</p>
      <p>In 1663, the French physician Lazare Rivi&#232;re described the first anatomopathological finding of a stenotic aortic valve.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Subsequently, Giovanni Battista Morgagni and Jean-Nicolas Corvisar described an "ossified aortic valve" that did not allow the passage of relevant-sized structures. In 1819, La&#235;nnec described ossified aortic stenosis as a valvular clinical entity with the currently recognized semiological characteristics.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
      <p>The twentieth century was characterized by detailed anatomopathological description, knowledge of the pathophysiology of the disease, and the development of surgical techniques with increasingly sophisticated prostheses, followed by the development of percutaneous interventions in the twenty-first century. It is currently possible to estimate the degree of progression of aortic stenosis based on echocardiographic epidemiological studies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Notwithstanding advances in knowledge of pathophysiology, the only current therapeutic option for calcified aortic valve stenosis remains valve replacement.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Current guidelines, including the Brazilian guideline, recommend that valve replacement be indicated in patients with severe aortic valve stenosis (peak Doppler velocity &gt; 4.0 m/s, mean gradient &gt; 40 mmHg, valve area &lt; 1.0 cm<sup>2</sup>, or indexed valve area &lt; 0.6 cm<sup>2</sup>/m<sup>2</sup>) who present with symptoms, or in patients with severe stenosis and reduced ejection fraction (&lt; 50%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
      <p>With the advent of transcatheter aortic valve implantation (TAVI), it has become possible to perform valve replacement in frail patients with high surgical risk, for whom surgical intervention would be prohibitive.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> The enthusiasm stemming from the favorable results of percutaneous intervention and the development of new techniques for assessing myocardial damage has led to greater interest in identifying early markers of myocardial damage to indicate valve replacement.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
      <p>The central question that therefore follows is: Since percutaneous intervention has proven to be safe, why not indicate valve replacement in patients with severe calcified stenosis before symptoms appear? Although the procedure is considered safe, it is not without risks. In some situations, it can worsen the clinical condition and quality of life, in addition to the fact that prosthesis durability has not been fully defined from an epidemiological point of view.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> The mortality of asymptomatic patients under expectant management is less than 1% per year, much lower than that expected after surgical valve replacement. On the other hand, the durability of the new prostheses (valve prostheses) has not been tested.</p>
      <p>Regarding expectant management, several studies have attempted to identify myocardial damage through electrocardiography (ECG), exercise stress testing, reduction in ejection fraction and myocardial strain by echocardiography, transvalvular gradient response to physical stress echocardiography, myocardial fibrosis and edema by cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMR), and plasma biomarkers such as B&#8208;type natriuretic peptide (BNP) and N-terminal pro&#8208;B&#8208;type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
      <p>In spite of all these advances, studies comparing expectant management with early intervention have not demonstrated benefits, and there are still challenges in defining the optimal timing for intervention.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> The purpose of this article is to review the methods for identifying myocardial damage and suggest the most appropriate timing for valve replacement intervention, before irreversible myocardial damage occurs, as well as to propose designs for future studies.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Epidemiological implications</title>
        <p>Calcified aortic valve stenosis has a prevalence of 0.4% in the general population, increasing to 1.7% at age 65 and 3.4% at age 75; in other words, it increases significantly after 65 years of age.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Bicuspid aortic valve has a prevalence of 0.5% to 1.0% in the population and is responsible for approximately 50% of valve interventions, especially in younger patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Surgery for calcified aortic valve stenosis represents 47% of all valve surgeries performed.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In spite of recent knowledge about the pathophysiology of calcified valve disease, to date there is no specific clinical treatment for this condition.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Symptom onset represents the defined threshold for the indication of valve replacement. From symptom onset, expectant management (without intervention) is associated with a 50% mortality rate within 2 years.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Pathophysiology</title>
        <p>Calcified aortic valve disease shares the same pathophysiological mechanisms and risk factors as atherosclerotic disease. In the initial phase, the inflammatory process predominates, followed by the calcification phase.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> More recently, the deposition of lipoproteins, such as apoA1, apoB, apoE and lipoprotein(a), has been highlighted, followed by inflammation, oxidative stress, osteogenic differentiation of interstitial cells, and subsequent calcification.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Risk factors for the development of calcified valvular disease include bicuspid aortic valve, age, male sex, smoking, systemic arterial hypertension, dyslipidemia, obesity, metabolic syndrome, diabetes mellitus, elevated lipoprotein(a), mediastinal radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and rheumatological diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Regarding the risk of more rapid progression to severe aortic stenosis, the following stand out: advanced age, female sex, hemodynamic severity of the initial stenosis, degree of valve calcification, active smoking, uncontrolled systemic arterial hypertension, metabolic syndrome, hyperparathyroidism, chronic renal failure, and elevated lipoprotein(a).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The advent of percutaneous intervention in patients with prohibitive surgical risk has opened a window of therapeutic opportunity for these patients. On the other hand, a trend has emerged to perform this type of procedure in situations where the cost-benefit should be carefully discussed in the context of a multidisciplinary Heart Team. The concept of an extended Heart Team includes the participation of nephrologists, geriatricians, neurologists, nutritionists, patients, and family members, especially for the population of frail patients with multiple morbidities.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Despite the lower risk compared to conventional surgery, studies in patients with high frailty have shown results that question the indiscriminate indication of early intervention.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Adaptation to pressure overload and myocardial damage</title>
        <p>Following sustained pressure overload, an increase in myofibrillar content is observed, with a consequent increase in left ventricular mass. This increase in mass leads to a reduction in coronary microcirculation density and an increase in coronary vascular resistance. Coronary reserve is progressively reduced, initially only during exertion, and subsequently at rest as well.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Consequently, the myocardium is subjected to repeated ischemia, initially manifesting as diastolic dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> With recurrent ischemia, fibrosis subsequently develops. Initially, this fibrosis is interstitial, diffuse, and reversible after valve replacement. In later stages, the fibrosis is substitutive, focal, and irreversible. Subsequently, changes in the functional geometry of the left ventricle occur, resulting in increased end-diastolic pressure. This increase is transmitted to pulmonary venous pressure, and symptoms of pulmonary congestion appear (dyspnea on exertion).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Ischemia may manifest with symptoms of angina. Impaired ejection flow, especially during exertion, is responsible for symptoms of pre-syncope and syncope, particularly during exertion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Once the mechanism of myocardial damage has been understood, it is imperative to use the available diagnostic tools in a rational and individualized manner. As previously mentioned, there is still no drug treatment for calcified aortic stenosis. Despite knowledge about the mechanisms of myocardial damage, we still do not fully understand the implications of early intervention before the onset of symptoms.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Identifying myocardial damage</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Clinical evaluation</title>
          <p>According to current guidelines, intervention in patients with severe aortic stenosis should be indicated when symptoms appear.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Although the classic symptoms (dyspnea, angina, and syncope) have been well defined, their identification can be challenging in certain populations.</p>
          <p>Patients with aortic stenosis secondary to bicuspid aortic valve are typically younger (approximately 20 years younger than those with degenerative aortic stenosis), physically active, and without significant comorbidities.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> In these cases, in addition to clinical history and physical examination with the goal of identifying symptoms, an exercise stress test is recommended in order to identify functional limitations and reproducible symptoms.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In contrast, patients with degenerative calcified aortic stenosis present a completely different clinical profile. They are elderly, often with orthopedic problems, chronic lung diseases, and cognitive impairment. In this scenario, it is very difficult to adequately identify symptoms of ischemia or congestion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Regardless of profile, asymptomatic patients with severe aortic stenosis should be monitored periodically every 3 to 6 months, with the expectation of identifying emerging symptoms or changes on ECG and echocardiography.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Electrocardiogram</title>
          <p>ECG can provide important information related to left ventricular overload in the assessment of myocardial damage. An ECG with findings suggestive of left ventricular overload (left ventricular hypertrophy) in asymptomatic patients with severe aortic stenosis, estimated by the transvalvular gradient on echocardiography, represents a warning sign (yellow flag) that justifies intensified monitoring.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Studies of prognostic markers suggest that ventricular hypertrophy, identified by ECG, echocardiogram, or CMR, represents a worse outcome compared to patients without ventricular hypertrophy. The presence of arrhythmia, especially atrial fibrillation, can result from increased ventricular filling pressure secondary to diastolic dysfunction, followed by left atrial overload, and may indicate myocardial damage.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Exercise stress test</title>
          <p>Exercise stress tests play an important role in the evaluation of asymptomatic patients with severe aortic stenosis. This test can reveal typical symptoms (dyspnea disproportionate to exertion, precordial angina, or syncope) that were not detected at rest, in up to 30% of individuals considered asymptomatic, thus guiding the decision to intervene. In addition to symptoms, a hypotensive response to exertion, ischemia on ECG, or the appearance of malignant arrhythmias are also indicators of greater severity, with a relative risk more than 7 times higher compared to patients with normal results.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Echocardiography</title>
          <p>Transthoracic echocardiography is the method of choice for evaluating aortic valve anatomy, quantifying stenosis severity, identifying associated valvular and diastolic dysfunction, estimating left ventricular filling pressures (E/e&#8242; ratio), estimating left ventricular ejection fraction, assessing right ventricular function, and estimating pulmonary arterial pressure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Although the traditional cutoff point for systolic dysfunction is an ejection fraction of 50%, values above this threshold, but with significant progressive decline (&gt; 10%), may represent relevant myocardial damage and justify valve replacement, in a manner similar to patients with cancer undergoing chemotherapy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Very severe aortic stenosis (Vmax &gt; 5 m/s) or progression of stenosis severity (&gt; 0.3 m/s/year) is associated with onset of symptoms and worsening mortality in the first year.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> The European guideline considers this condition a class IIa indication for intervention.</p>
          <p>Serial evaluation with progressive reduction of ventricular function is particularly informative. For example, a patient with an initial ejection fraction of 68% who shows a progressive reduction to 60% demonstrates a decline greater than 10%, which may signify significant myocardial damage in progression.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Valvulo-arterial impedance (Zva) represents a marker of myocardial damage, calculated as systolic blood pressure (SBP) plus mean transvalvular gradient (MG) divided by the stroke volume indexed by body surface area (SVI), as follows: Zva = (SBP + MG) / SVI. Values greater than 4.5 have prognostic importance for indicating valve replacement.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The left atrium undergoes enlargement proportionally to diastolic dysfunction, representing the chronic progression of atrial overload. Left atrial enlargement and elevated pulmonary artery systolic pressure represent signs of myocardial damage, as do right ventricular dysfunction and tricuspid regurgitation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Genereux et al. analyzed patients from the PARTNER 2 study, who were grouped and classified according to the presence or absence of cardiac damage detected by echocardiography before aortic valve replacement in the following manner: no extravalvular cardiac damage (stage 0), left ventricular damage (stage 1), left atrial or mitral valve damage (stage 2), pulmonary vasculature or tricuspid valve damage (stage 3), or right ventricular damage (stage 4). Among the 1,661 patients with echocardiographic data, 1-year mortality was 4.4% in stage 0, 9.2% in stage 1, 14.4% in stage 2, 21.3% in stage 3, and 24.5% in stage 4 (p for trend &lt; 0.0001). The extent of cardiac damage was independently associated with higher mortality after aortic valve replacement (hazard ratio 1.46 for each stage increment, 95% confidence interval 1.27&#8211;1.67, p &lt; 0.0001). These results suggest that stages other than 0 and 1 demonstrate structural and functional changes in which symptoms were likely already present and which had prognostic importance. In this case as well, the sum of myocardial damage markers suggests that valve replacement before the onset of symptoms may be an acceptable approach, even though the results have been controversial to date.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Global longitudinal strain</title>
          <p>Echocardiographic assessment may also include global longitudinal myocardial strain, which has been shown to be a more sensitive tool for identifying early systolic dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Although the traditional cutoff points for strain in patients with ventricular dysfunction and patients with aortic stenosis are &#8722;17% and &#8722;14%, respectively, progressive strain reduction can also be interpreted as evidence of progressive myocardial damage.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> Studies have correlated reduced myocardial strain with the onset of symptoms. Reduced strain also has prognostic value after valve replacement.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Atrial strain is an additional tool that can be used when equipment with this feature is available. Although the data are controversial, atrial strain can identify atrial dysfunction before remodeling and predict the onset of atrial fibrillation during the course of the disease and post-operatively<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
          <fig id="f2">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Two-dimensional transthoracic echocardiography with color Doppler demonstrating severe aortic stenosis. Top right: Parasternal longitudinal view showing left ventricular hypertrophy and calcified aortic valve. Bottom right: Transvalvular velocity &gt; 4.5 m/s and mean gradient = 50 mmHg. Left: Bull's eye map showing normal global longitudinal strain = 21.1%.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260054-0054i-gf02.tif"/></fig>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Stress echocardiography</title>
          <p>Although current guidelines do not recommend stress echocardiography as a tool for stratifying asymptomatic patients with severe aortic stenosis,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> its use during physical or pharmacological stress (dobutamine) to assess the transvalvular gradient, electrocardiographic tracing, and ventricular functional response continues to be investigated.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Studies comparing patients with positive versus negative stress tests, subsequently undergoing valve intervention, show variability in results, without significant and consistent differences in long-term prognosis between groups.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Further studies are needed to define the role of stress echocardiography in the management of asymptomatic patients with severe aortic stenosis.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging</title>
        <p>CMR has emerged as an important non-invasive marker of myocardial damage in severe aortic stenosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> In addition to assessing the severity of stenosis with results comparable to echocardiography, it is now possible, by means of native T1 mapping, to identify and quantify diffuse interstitial myocardial fibrosis lesions that may be partially reversible after valve replacement. Late gadolinium enhancement allows identification of focal fibrosis, which is usually irreversible, and it is an important indicator for early valve replacement.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Some initial studies have suggested that anticipating valve replacement in patients with fibrotic changes detected by CMR could favorably modify the clinical and functional outcomes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> However, the recently published randomized EVOLVED study with 224 patients did not demonstrate benefits in anticipating valve replacement before the onset of symptoms, even in the presence of myocardial fibrosis detected by CMR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Likewise, Myhr et al., comparing 42 symptomatic patients with 80 asymptomatic patients, showed that the presence of myocardial fibrosis identified by CMR with late enhancement did not demonstrate significant differences in relation to progression after valve replacement<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 2</xref>; <xref ref-type="other" rid="f4">Video 1</xref>).</p>
        <fig id="f3">
          <label>Figure 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging in a patient with severe aortic stenosis. Late gadolinium enhancement demonstrates a pattern of focal subendocardial fibrosis. These changes represent evidence of irreversible structural myocardial damage (image kindly provided by Dr. Luiz Augusto Quaglia).</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260054-0054i-gf03.tif"/></fig>
        <media id="f4" mime-subtype="mp4" mimetype="video" xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/2675-312X/Fvq3tHbHdX8zXQZWHhrjCpF/de3c4635cddf944f1f6eea0766f130dd51dddf1b.mp4">
          <label>Video 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging demonstrating severe aortic stenosis with myocardial structural remodeling and focal fibrosis. Courtesy of Dr. Luiz Augusto Quaglia. In: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3902/ABCImag-2026-0054_AR_Video_1.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3902/ABCImag-2026-0054_AR_Video_1.mp4</ext-link> </title>
          </caption>
        </media>
        <p>On the other hand, another recently published randomized study by G&#233;n&#233;reux et al. (EARLY TAVR), albeit with some methodological limitations, evaluated a significantly larger sample (901 patients), suggesting favorable results for early percutaneous intervention in asymptomatic patients with severe aortic stenosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> Although their conclusions were favorable, mortality and prognosis were similar. The intervention reduced the outcome of hospitalization. A large part of these hospitalizations resulted from decompensation in the clinical follow-up group, in patients who underwent intervention in the subsequent 90 days. Similar results were found in the AVATAR study (Aortic Valve Replacement Versus Conservative Treatment in Asymptomatic Severe Aortic Stenosis).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Plasma biomarkers</title>
        <p>Elevated BNP and NT-proBNP levels are correlated with increased ventricular filling pressure and predict worse prognosis in severe aortic stenosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> Elevated values may reflect myocardial damage with consequent diastolic dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> Similarly to other markers of myocardial damage, perhaps progressive worsening in serial evaluations, when associated with other markers, may indicate the need for early valve replacement.</p>
        <p>Other biochemical markers have also shown prognostic value in surgical outcome during preoperative evaluation. High-sensitivity troponin T has important prognostic value. Elevations in troponin T, even slight ones, in patients with severe aortic stenosis correlate with worse clinical progression and a higher risk of adverse events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> This marker can identify structural cellular damage that is already present in the myocardium.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> Osteopontin, a glycoprotein secreted by cells linked to inflammatory and remodeling processes, has been shown to be a marker of irreversible myocardial damage. Studies have shown that osteopontin predicts adverse clinical outcomes in patients after treatment of severe aortic stenosis with TAVI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> Annexin A1, studied in pericardial fluid of patients with severe aortic stenosis, has been shown to be a marker of atrial fibrillation associated with aortic stenosis, representing a marker of atrial remodeling.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> Plasma ACE2 activity has also been shown to be associated with severe myocardial fibrosis and to predict mortality in patients with aortic stenosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> Elevated levels indicate pathological myocardial remodeling processes with the development of fibrosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Although biomarkers can identify patients with worse prognosis, current guidelines still do not mention their role in decision-making.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discussion: When to intervene?</title>
      <p>In spite of the multiple diagnostic tools available and the numerous published studies, the optimal timing to perform aortic valve replacement (to op) remains controversial and without absolute consensus (not to op).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> In the real world, we have observed increasingly frequent indications for TAVI placement in patients under 65 years of age. Despite the safety of the procedure, long-term results have shown that mortality is higher in the percutaneous intervention group. The <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Central Illustration</xref> presents a proposed flowchart to guide the follow-up of asymptomatic patients with severe aortic stenosis.</p>
      <p>Clinical experience suggests prudence and common sense in decision-making. In young, healthy, and asymptomatic patients with severe calcified aortic valve stenosis, close follow-up is recommended with consultations every 3 to 6 months, including:</p>
      <list list-type="bullet">
        <list-item>
          <p>Serial ECG</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Echocardiogram with evaluation of ejection fraction and myocardial strain</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Exercise stress test (if appropriate for the patient's clinical profile)</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Plasma biomarkers (BNP/NT-proBNP, high-sensitivity troponin T)</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>CMR with T1 and T2 maps and late gadolinium enhancement (less frequently, in selected situations)</p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
      <p>Progressive changes with worsening ventricular function, whether due to ejection fraction or myocardial strain, left atrial enlargement, stenosis progression, and signs of elevated pulmonary arterial pressure, coupled with an abnormal exercise stress test (whether due to ischemia, decreased pressure, or malignant arrhythmias), may represent grounds for recommending valve replacement.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
      <p>In elderly patients with frailty that poses difficulties in adequately assessing symptoms, in addition to the parameters listed above (with the exception of exercise stress test, which may be contraindicated), assessment should integrate the multidimensional concept of frailty (extended Heart Team) to assist in the decision between performing elective valve intervention or clinical management with rigorous follow-up.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
      <p>For all patients, the classification of myocardial damage proposed by Genereux et al., after evaluating the population of the PARTNER study, can assist in identifying the initial stages of myocardial damage and justify the surgical indication described above. When applying the classification, it is important to bear in mind that all stages, except stage 0, are associated with a worse prognosis, justifying further monitoring and anticipation of intervention when appropriate.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclusion</title>
      <p>Severe aortic stenosis poses a challenge in current clinical management, characterized by the technical possibility of safe percutaneous intervention, but without absolute clarity regarding the optimal timing. Advances in the pathophysiological understanding of the disease and the development of sophisticated diagnostic tools (strain echocardiography, CMR with tissue mapping, and specific biomarkers) allow for the identification of myocardial damage in progressive stages before the onset of symptoms. Although the pathophysiological rationale points to intervention based on the identification of myocardial damage markers, studies conducted to date have yielded controversial results. Characteristics of the disease's phenotypic expression, which influence ventricular remodeling, worsening diastolic and systolic function, atrial remodeling, and the reaction of the pulmonary microcirculation, can affect the timing of symptom onset. Well-designed studies with consistent results are needed to incorporate the intervention approach into the guidelines.</p>
      <p>An individualized and risk-stratified approach is recommended, considering the patient's clinical profile (young versus elderly, frail versus healthy), the presence and progression of markers of structural and functional myocardial damage, associated comorbidities, and the patient's informed preferences. The decision regarding closer follow-up intervals versus elective intervention should be based on multidisciplinary discussion within the context of an extended Heart Team. In the elderly population, whether asymptomatic or symptomatic, in the presence of a phenotype of left ventricular hypertrophy, the possibility of amyloid disease should always be considered.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1">
        <label>Sources of Funding</label>
        <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
        <label>Study Association</label>
        <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
        <label>Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate</label>
        <p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn4">
        <label>Use of Artificial Intelligence</label>
        <p>The authors did not use any artificial intelligence tools in the development of this work.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <sec sec-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-in-article">
      <title>Availability of Research Data</title>
      <p>The underlying content of the research text is contained within the manuscript.</p>
    </sec>
    <ack>
      <title>Acknowledgements</title>
      <p>The author would like to thank the echocardiography and CMR teams who contributed to compilation of the clinical images presented in this manuscript.</p>
    </ack>
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      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Reconhecimento dos Est&#225;gios Cl&#237;nicos e do Dano Mioc&#225;rdico na Estenose A&#243;rtica: Muito Al&#233;m do Diagn&#243;stico &#8211; <italic>To Op or Not To Op</italic></article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0000-6530-1400</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Vasconcelos</surname>
            <given-names>Daniel Franca</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>an&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff2">
          <label>1</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Bras&#237;lia</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">DF</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade de Bras&#237;lia, Faculdade de Medicina, Hospital Universit&#225;rio de Bras&#237;lia, Bras&#237;lia, DF &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><label>Correspond&#234;ncia:</label><bold>Daniel Franca Vasconcelos</bold> &#8226; Universidade de Bras&#237;lia. Hospital Universit&#225;rio de Bras&#237;lia. CEP: <postal-code>70910-900</postal-code>. Bras&#237;lia, DF &#8211; Brasil E-mail: <email>dfrancav@uol.com.br</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="coi-statement">
          <label>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</label>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <label>Editor respons&#225;vel pela revis&#227;o:</label>
          <p>Marcelo Tavares</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p>A estenose a&#243;rtica severa &#233; uma entidade cl&#237;nica progressiva que acompanha historicamente as descri&#231;&#245;es da anatomia patol&#243;gica, da semiologia cardiovascular, da cirurgia card&#237;aca e das interven&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares percut&#226;neas. A indica&#231;&#227;o, ainda hoje, para interven&#231;&#227;o de troca da valva de pacientes portadores de estenose valvar a&#243;rtica severa, baseia-se no surgimento de sintomas. Com o avan&#231;o da t&#233;cnica cir&#250;rgica, sobretudo o implante percut&#226;neo, busca-se identificar marcadores precoces de dano mioc&#225;rdico que possam indicar les&#245;es irrevers&#237;veis do mioc&#225;rdio. Este artigo de revis&#227;o apresenta uma an&#225;lise abrangente dos m&#233;todos de identifica&#231;&#227;o do dano mioc&#225;rdico em pacientes com estenose a&#243;rtica severa, incluindo avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica, eletrocardiografia, ecocardiografia, resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca (RMC) e biomarcadores plasm&#225;ticos. Discute-se a classifica&#231;&#227;o dos est&#225;gios de dano mioc&#225;rdico e o momento ideal para interven&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica, com base em achados cl&#237;nicos, funcionais e estruturais. Estudos recentes que foram desenhados para responder como abordar os pacientes portadores de estenose a&#243;rtica assintom&#225;ticos apresentam resultados divergentes. Desta forma, pretende-se auxiliar o cl&#237;nico na decis&#227;o sobre o melhor momento para realizar a interven&#231;&#227;o da troca valvar, considerando as particularidades de cada paciente.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave</title>
        <kwd>Estenose da Valva A&#243;rtica</kwd>
        <kwd>Ecocardiografia</kwd>
        <kwd>Imageamento por Resson&#226;ncia Magn&#233;tica</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <funding-group>
        <funding-statement><bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold> O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</funding-statement>
      </funding-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <fig id="f5">
        <p>Fluxograma proposto para orienta&#231;&#227;o do manejo de pacientes portadores de estenose a&#243;rtica severa, diferenciando entre pacientes h&#237;gidos e fr&#225;geis. EAo: estenose a&#243;rtica; TAVI: interven&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica valvar transcateter.</p>
        <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260054-0054i-gf01-pt.tif"/></fig>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>A estenose a&#243;rtica &#233; a valvulopatia mais frequentemente tratada cirurgicamente na popula&#231;&#227;o atual.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> A entidade cl&#237;nica evolui concomitantemente &#224;s descri&#231;&#245;es da anatomia patol&#243;gica, da semiologia cardiovascular, da cirurgia card&#237;aca e, no per&#237;odo atual, das interven&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares percut&#226;neas.</p>
        <p>Em 1663, o m&#233;dico franc&#234;s Lazare Rivi&#232;re descreveu o primeiro achado anatomopatol&#243;gico da valva a&#243;rtica esten&#243;tica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Posteriormente, Giovanni Battista Morgagni e Jean-Nicolas Corvisar descreveram a "valva a&#243;rtica ossificada" que n&#227;o permitia o tr&#226;nsito de estruturas de tamanho relevante. No s&#233;culo XIX (1819), La&#235;nnec descreveu a estenose a&#243;rtica ossificada como uma entidade cl&#237;nica valvar com as caracter&#237;sticas semiol&#243;gicas atualmente reconhecidas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O s&#233;culo XX foi marcado pela descri&#231;&#227;o anatomopatol&#243;gica detalhada, pelo conhecimento da fisiopatologia da doen&#231;a e pelo desenvolvimento de t&#233;cnicas cir&#250;rgicas com pr&#243;teses cada vez mais sofisticadas, seguido pelo desenvolvimento de interven&#231;&#245;es percut&#226;neas no s&#233;culo XXI. Atualmente, &#233; poss&#237;vel estimar com base em estudos epidemiol&#243;gicos ecocardiogr&#225;ficos o grau de progress&#227;o da estenose a&#243;rtica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Apesar da evolu&#231;&#227;o no conhecimento da fisiopatologia, a &#250;nica op&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica atual para a estenose valvar a&#243;rtica calcificada permanece a troca valvar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> As diretrizes atuais, incluindo a diretriz brasileira, recomendam que a troca valvar seja indicada em pacientes com estenose valvar a&#243;rtica severa (velocidade de pico ao Doppler &gt; 4,0 m/s, gradiente m&#233;dio &gt; 40 mmHg, &#225;rea valvar &lt; 1,0 cm<sup>2</sup> ou &#225;rea valvar indexada &lt; 0,6 cm<sup>2</sup>/m<sup>2</sup>) que apresentem sintomas, ou em pacientes com estenose severa e fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o reduzida (&lt; 50%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Com o surgimento das interven&#231;&#245;es a&#243;rticas valvares transcateter (TAVI), tornou-se poss&#237;vel realizar a troca valvar em pacientes fr&#225;geis com risco cir&#250;rgico elevado, para os quais a interven&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica seria proibitiva.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Com o entusiasmo advindo dos resultados favor&#225;veis da interven&#231;&#227;o percut&#226;nea e o desenvolvimento de novas t&#233;cnicas de avalia&#231;&#227;o do dano mioc&#225;rdico, evidenciou-se grande interesse em identificar marcadores precoces de dano mioc&#225;rdico para indicar a troca valvar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Surge, portanto, a quest&#227;o central: j&#225; que a interven&#231;&#227;o percut&#226;nea tem se mostrado segura, por que n&#227;o indicar a troca valvar em pacientes com estenose severa calcificada antes que os sintomas surjam? Embora o procedimento seja considerado seguro, n&#227;o &#233; isento de riscos. Em algumas situa&#231;&#245;es, pode piorar a condi&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e a qualidade de vida, al&#233;m do fato de que a durabilidade das pr&#243;teses ainda n&#227;o est&#225; completamente definida do ponto de vista epidemiol&#243;gico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> A mortalidade dos pacientes assintom&#225;ticos em conduta expectante &#233; menor que 1% ao ano, bem menor do que a esperada para a troca valvar cir&#250;rgica. Por outro lado, a durabilidade das novas pr&#243;teses (endopr&#243;teses) n&#227;o foi testada.</p>
        <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; conduta expectante, v&#225;rios estudos tentam identificar o dano mioc&#225;rdico por meio do eletrocardiograma (ECG), do teste ergom&#233;trico, redu&#231;&#227;o da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o e do strain mioc&#225;rdico pela ecocardiografia, resposta do gradiente transvalvar ao ecocardiograma de estresse f&#237;sico, fibrose e edema mioc&#225;rdico pela resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca (RMC), e biomarcadores plasm&#225;ticos como o pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico tipo B (BNP) e o N-terminal pro-BNP (NT-proBNP).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Apesar de todo esse processo evolutivo, estudos realizados comparando a conduta expectante com a interven&#231;&#227;o precoce n&#227;o demonstram benef&#237;cios, e permanece ainda a dificuldade em se indicar o momento ideal para a interven&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> A proposta deste artigo &#233; revisar os m&#233;todos de identifica&#231;&#227;o do dano mioc&#225;rdico e sugerir o momento mais apropriado para a interven&#231;&#227;o da troca valvar, antes que o dano irrevers&#237;vel ao mioc&#225;rdio ocorra, al&#233;m de propor desenhos para futuros estudos.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Import&#226;ncia epidemiol&#243;gica</title>
          <p>A estenose a&#243;rtica valvar calcificada apresenta preval&#234;ncia de 0,4% na popula&#231;&#227;o geral, aumentando para 1,7% aos 65 anos e 3,4% aos 75 anos, ou seja, aumenta significativamente com a idade acima de 65 anos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> A valva a&#243;rtica bic&#250;spide apresenta preval&#234;ncia de 0,5% a 1,0% da popula&#231;&#227;o e &#233; respons&#225;vel por aproximadamente 50% das interven&#231;&#245;es valvares, especialmente em pacientes mais jovens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> A cirurgia de estenose valvar a&#243;rtica calcificada representa 47% de todas as cirurgias valvares realizadas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Apesar dos novos conhecimentos sobre a fisiopatologia da doen&#231;a valvar calcificada, at&#233; o momento n&#227;o existe tratamento cl&#237;nico espec&#237;fico para essa condi&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> O surgimento de sintomas constitui o marco temporal definido para a indica&#231;&#227;o de troca valvar. A partir do surgimento dos sintomas, a conduta expectante (sem interven&#231;&#227;o) est&#225; associada a uma mortalidade de 50% em 2 anos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Fisiopatologia</title>
          <p>A doen&#231;a valvar a&#243;rtica calcificada compartilha em sua fisiopatologia os mesmos mecanismos e fatores de risco da doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica. Na fase inicial, predomina o processo inflamat&#243;rio, seguido pela fase de calcifica&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Mais recentemente, tem sido destacado o dep&#243;sito de lipoprote&#237;nas, como apoA1, apoB, apoE e lipoprote&#237;na(a), seguido de inflama&#231;&#227;o, estresse oxidativo, transi&#231;&#227;o osteobl&#225;stica das c&#233;lulas intersticiais da v&#225;lvula e posteriormente calcifica&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Os fatores de risco para o desenvolvimento da doen&#231;a valvar calcificada incluem: valva a&#243;rtica bic&#250;spide, idade, sexo masculino, tabagismo, hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica, dislipidemia, obesidade, s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica, diabetes mellitus, lipoprote&#237;na(a) elevada, radioterapia mediastinal, quimioterapia e doen&#231;as reumatol&#243;gicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Quanto ao risco de evolu&#231;&#227;o mais r&#225;pida para estenose a&#243;rtica severa, destacam-se: idade avan&#231;ada, sexo feminino, severidade hemodin&#226;mica da estenose inicial, grau de calcifica&#231;&#227;o da valva, tabagismo ativo, hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica n&#227;o controlada, s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica, hiperparatireoidismo, insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica e lipoprote&#237;na(a) elevada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Com o surgimento da interven&#231;&#227;o percut&#226;nea em pacientes com risco cir&#250;rgico proibitivo, abriu-se uma janela de oportunidade terap&#234;utica para esses pacientes. Por outro lado, emergiu a tend&#234;ncia de realizar esse tipo de procedimento em situa&#231;&#245;es nas quais o custo-benef&#237;cio deve ser cuidadosamente discutido em equipe multiprofissional (Heart Team). O conceito de Heart Team ampliado inclui a participa&#231;&#227;o de nefrologistas, geriatras, neurologistas, nutricionistas, pacientes e familiares, sobretudo para a popula&#231;&#227;o de pacientes fr&#225;geis com m&#250;ltiplas morbidades.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Apesar do risco inferior ao da cirurgia convencional, estudos em pacientes com fragilidade elevada t&#234;m mostrado resultados que questionam a indica&#231;&#227;o indiscriminada da interven&#231;&#227;o precoce.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Adapta&#231;&#227;o &#224; sobrecarga de press&#227;o e dano mioc&#225;rdico</title>
          <p>A partir da sobrecarga de press&#227;o mantida, observa-se aumento das miofibrilas com consequente aumento da massa muscular ventricular esquerda. Esse aumento da massa leva &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o da densidade da microcircula&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria e ao aumento da resist&#234;ncia vascular coron&#225;ria. A reserva coronariana fica progressivamente reduzida, inicialmente apenas durante o esfor&#231;o, posteriormente tamb&#233;m em repouso.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Com isso, o mioc&#225;rdio sofre isquemias repetidas, cujo efeito inicial &#233; a manifesta&#231;&#227;o de disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Com as isquemias recorrentes, posteriormente surgem fibroses. Inicialmente essa fibrose &#233; intersticial, difusa e revers&#237;vel ap&#243;s a troca valvar. Posteriormente a fibrose &#233; substitutiva, focal e irrevers&#237;vel. Na sequ&#234;ncia, ocorrem altera&#231;&#245;es da geometria funcional do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo e consequente eleva&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o diast&#243;lica final (press&#227;o telediast&#243;lica). Essa eleva&#231;&#227;o se transmite para a press&#227;o venosa pulmonar, com o surgimento de sintomas de congest&#227;o pulmonar (dispneia aos esfor&#231;os).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> A isquemia pode manifestar-se com sintomas de angina. A restri&#231;&#227;o ao fluxo de eje&#231;&#227;o, principalmente durante o esfor&#231;o, &#233; respons&#225;vel pelos sintomas de pr&#233;-s&#237;ncope e s&#237;ncope, sobretudo durante o esfor&#231;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Uma vez compreendido o mecanismo do dano mioc&#225;rdico, &#233; imperativo utilizar as ferramentas de diagn&#243;stico dispon&#237;veis de forma racional e individualizada. Como anteriormente mencionado, ainda n&#227;o existe tratamento medicamentoso para a estenose a&#243;rtica calcificada. Apesar do conhecimento sobre os mecanismos do dano mioc&#225;rdico, ainda desconhecemos completamente as implica&#231;&#245;es de interven&#231;&#227;o precoce antes do surgimento de sintomas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Identifica&#231;&#227;o do dano mioc&#225;rdico</title>
          <sec>
            <title>Avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica</title>
            <p>Conforme as diretrizes atuais, a indica&#231;&#227;o da interven&#231;&#227;o em pacientes com estenose a&#243;rtica grave deve ser realizada quando os sintomas surgirem.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Embora os sintomas cl&#225;ssicos (dispneia, angina e s&#237;ncope) estejam bem definidos, sua identifica&#231;&#227;o pode ser desafiadora em determinadas popula&#231;&#245;es.</p>
            <p>Pacientes com estenose a&#243;rtica secund&#225;ria &#224; valva a&#243;rtica bic&#250;spide s&#227;o tipicamente mais jovens (duas d&#233;cadas menos que aqueles com estenose a&#243;rtica degenerativa), fisicamente ativos e sem comorbidades significativas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Nesses casos, al&#233;m da hist&#243;ria cl&#237;nica e exame f&#237;sico dirigido &#224; busca de sintomas, &#233; recomend&#225;vel submeter o paciente a teste ergom&#233;trico para identificar limita&#231;&#245;es funcionais e sintomas reproduz&#237;veis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
            <p>J&#225; os pacientes com estenose a&#243;rtica calcificada degenerativa apresentam um perfil cl&#237;nico completamente diferente. S&#227;o idosos, frequentemente com problemas ortop&#233;dicos, doen&#231;as pulmonares cr&#244;nicas e quadros de comprometimento cognitivo. Nesse cen&#225;rio, fica muito dif&#237;cil identificar adequadamente os sintomas de isquemia ou congest&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Independentemente do perfil, os pacientes assintom&#225;ticos com estenose a&#243;rtica severa devem ser acompanhados periodicamente a cada 3 a 6 meses, na expectativa de identificar sintomas emergentes ou altera&#231;&#245;es no ECG e no ecocardiograma.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Eletrocardiograma</title>
            <p>Na avalia&#231;&#227;o do dano mioc&#225;rdico, o ECG pode fornecer informa&#231;&#245;es importantes relacionadas &#224; sobrecarga do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo. O ECG com achados sugestivos de sobrecarga ventricular esquerda (hipertrofia ventricular esquerda) em pacientes assintom&#225;ticos com estenose a&#243;rtica severa estimada pelo gradiente transvalvar ao ecocardiograma representa um sinal de alerta (luz amarela) que justifica acompanhamento intensificado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Estudos de marcadores de progn&#243;stico sugerem que a hipertrofia ventricular, identificada pelo ECG, pelo ecocardiograma ou pela RMC, representa uma evolu&#231;&#227;o pior em compara&#231;&#227;o aos pacientes que n&#227;o a apresentam. A presen&#231;a de arritmia, particularmente a fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial, pode resultar do aumento da press&#227;o de enchimento ventricular secund&#225;ria &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica e &#224; consequente sobrecarga atrial esquerda, podendo indicar dano mioc&#225;rdico.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Teste ergom&#233;trico</title>
            <p>O teste ergom&#233;trico possui papel importante na avalia&#231;&#227;o de pacientes assintom&#225;ticos com estenose a&#243;rtica severa. Esse teste pode evidenciar sintomas t&#237;picos (dispneia desproporcional ao esfor&#231;o, angina precordial ou s&#237;ncope) que n&#227;o eram detectados no repouso, em at&#233; 30% dos indiv&#237;duos ditos assintom&#225;ticos, orientando assim a decis&#227;o por interven&#231;&#227;o. Al&#233;m dos sintomas, a resposta hipotensiva ao esfor&#231;o, a isquemia no ECG ou o surgimento de arritmias malignas tamb&#233;m s&#227;o indicadores de maior gravidade, com risco relativo mais de 7 vezes maior em rela&#231;&#227;o aos pacientes com resultados normais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Ecocardiografia</title>
            <p>O ecocardiograma transtor&#225;cico &#233; o m&#233;todo de escolha para avalia&#231;&#227;o da anatomia da valva a&#243;rtica, quantifica&#231;&#227;o da severidade da estenose, identifica&#231;&#227;o de disfun&#231;&#245;es valvares associadas, disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica, press&#227;o de enchimento ventricular (E/e&#8242;), estimativa da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo direito e estimativa da press&#227;o arterial pulmonar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> &#201; importante notar que, embora o ponto de corte tradicional para disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica seja uma fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o de 50%, valores acima desse limiar, mas com decl&#237;nio progressivo significativo (&gt; 10%), podem, &#224; semelhan&#231;a dos pacientes oncol&#243;gicos em quimioterapia, representar dano mioc&#225;rdico relevante e justificar a troca valvar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
            <p>A estenose a&#243;rtica muito severa (Vmax &gt; 5 m/s) ou a progress&#227;o da gravidade da estenose (&gt; 0,3 m/s/ano) est&#227;o associadas ao surgimento de sintomas e &#224; piora da mortalidade no primeiro ano.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> A diretriz europeia considera indica&#231;&#227;o de interven&#231;&#227;o classe IIa para essa condi&#231;&#227;o.</p>
            <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o seriada com redu&#231;&#227;o progressiva da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular &#233; particularmente informativa. Por exemplo, um paciente com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o inicial de 68% que apresenta redu&#231;&#227;o evolutiva para 60% demonstra uma queda de mais de 10%, podendo significar dano mioc&#225;rdico relevante em progress&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
            <p>A imped&#226;ncia ventr&#237;culo-arterial (VZA) representa um marcador de dano mioc&#225;rdico que utiliza a press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica (PAS) somad&#224; ao gradiente m&#233;dio transvalvar (Gm&#233;dio) dividido pelo volume sist&#243;lico indexado pela superf&#237;cie corp&#243;rea (VSi): VZA = (PAS + Gm&#233;dio) / VSi. Valores maiores do que 4,5 apresentam import&#226;ncia progn&#243;stica para indica&#231;&#227;o de troca valvar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
            <p>O &#225;trio esquerdo aumenta de forma proporcional &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica, representando a evolu&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica de sobrecarga atrial. O aumento do &#225;trio esquerdo e a eleva&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o sist&#243;lica da art&#233;ria pulmonar representam sinais de dano mioc&#225;rdico, assim como a disfun&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo direito e a insufici&#234;ncia tric&#250;spide.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Genereux e colaboradores analisaram os pacientes do estudo PARTNER 2, que foram agrupados e classificados de acordo com a presen&#231;a ou aus&#234;ncia de dano card&#237;aco detectado por ecocardiografia antes da troca valvar a&#243;rtica: sem dano card&#237;aco extravalvar (est&#225;gio 0), dano no ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (est&#225;gio 1), dano no &#225;trio esquerdo ou v&#225;lvula mitral (est&#225;gio 2), dano na vasculatura pulmonar ou v&#225;lvula tric&#250;spide (est&#225;gio 3) ou dano no ventr&#237;culo direito (est&#225;gio 4). Entre os 1.661 pacientes com dados ecocardiogr&#225;ficos, a mortalidade em 1 ano foi de 4,4% no est&#225;gio 0, 9,2% no est&#225;gio 1, 14,4% no est&#225;gio 2, 21,3% no est&#225;gio 3 e 24,5% no est&#225;gio 4 (p para tend&#234;ncia &lt; 0,0001). A extens&#227;o do dano card&#237;aco foi independentemente associada a maior mortalidade ap&#243;s a troca valvar a&#243;rtica (<italic>hazard ratio</italic> 1,46 para cada incremento no est&#225;gio, intervalo de confian&#231;a de 95% 1,27&#8211;1,67, p &lt; 0,0001). Esses resultados sugerem que, afora os est&#225;gios 0 e 1, os demais demonstram altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais e funcionais cujos sintomas provavelmente estavam presentes e que tiveram import&#226;ncia progn&#243;stica. Mais uma vez, a soma de marcadores de dano mioc&#225;rdico sugere que a troca valvar antes do surgimento dos sintomas possa ser uma conduta aceit&#225;vel, embora os resultados at&#233; agora sejam controversos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Strain longitudinal global</title>
            <p>Ainda na avalia&#231;&#227;o ecocardiogr&#225;fica, pode-se inserir a avalia&#231;&#227;o do strain longitudinal global do mioc&#225;rdio, que se mostra uma ferramenta mais sens&#237;vel para identificar disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica precoce.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Embora o ponto de corte tradicional para disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular pelo strain seja &#8722;17% e para pacientes com estenose a&#243;rtica seja &#8722;14%, a redu&#231;&#227;o progressiva do strain tamb&#233;m pode ser interpretada como evid&#234;ncia de dano mioc&#225;rdico progressivo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> Estudos correlacionam a redu&#231;&#227;o do strain mioc&#225;rdico com o surgimento de sintomas. O strain reduzido tamb&#233;m tem valor progn&#243;stico ap&#243;s a troca valvar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
            <p>O strain atrial &#233; uma ferramenta adicional que pode ser utilizada por aqueles que possuem equipamentos com esse recurso. Embora os dados sejam controversos, de fato o strain atrial identifica a disfun&#231;&#227;o atrial antes do remodelamento e pode prever o surgimento de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial durante a evolu&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a e no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 1</xref>).</p>
            <fig id="f6">
              <label>Figura 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Ecocardiograma transtor&#225;cico bidimensional com Doppler em cores demonstrando estenose a&#243;rtica severa. No alto &#224; direita: corte paraesternal longitudinal mostrando ventr&#237;culo esquerdo hipertrofiado e valva a&#243;rtica bem calcificada; &#224; direita abaixo: velocidade transvalvar &gt; 4,5 m/s e gradiente m&#233;dio = 50 mmHg; &#224; esquerda: mapa do strain longitudinal global normal = 21,1%.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260054-0054i-gf02-pt.tif"/></fig>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Ecocardiograma de estresse</title>
            <p>Apesar das diretrizes atuais n&#227;o recomendarem a ecocardiografia de estresse como ferramenta de estratifica&#231;&#227;o em pacientes assintom&#225;ticos com estenose a&#243;rtica severa,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> a sua utiliza&#231;&#227;o durante o estresse f&#237;sico ou farmacol&#243;gico (dobutamina) para avalia&#231;&#227;o do gradiente transvalvar, do tra&#231;ado eletrocardiogr&#225;fico e da resposta da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular continua sendo investigada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Estudos comparando pacientes com teste de estresse positivo versus negativo, posteriormente submetidos &#224; interven&#231;&#227;o valvar, mostram variabilidade nos resultados, sem diferen&#231;as significativas e consistentes no progn&#243;stico a longo prazo entre os grupos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> O ecocardiograma de estresse no manejo dos pacientes assintom&#225;ticos com estenose a&#243;rtica severa ainda necessita de estudos futuros para ser definido.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca</title>
          <p>A RMC emergiu como um importante marcador n&#227;o invasivo de dano mioc&#225;rdico em estenose a&#243;rtica severa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Al&#233;m de avaliar a gravidade da estenose com resultados compar&#225;veis ao ecocardiograma, atualmente &#233; poss&#237;vel, por meio dos mapas T1 nativo, identificar e quantificar les&#245;es de fibrose intersticial difusa mioc&#225;rdica que podem ser parcialmente revers&#237;veis ap&#243;s a troca valvar. O realce tardio com gadol&#237;nio permite a identifica&#231;&#227;o de pontos de fibrose focal, habitualmente irrevers&#237;vel, e um importante indicador para a troca precoce da valva.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Alguns estudos iniciais sugeriram que antecipar a troca valvar em pacientes com altera&#231;&#245;es fibr&#243;ticas detectadas &#224; RMC pudesse modificar favoravelmente o desfecho cl&#237;nico e funcional.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> Por&#233;m, o estudo randomizado EVOLVED, publicado recentemente com 224 pacientes, n&#227;o demonstrou benef&#237;cios em antecipar a troca valvar antes do surgimento de sintomas, mesmo na presen&#231;a de fibrose mioc&#225;rdica detectada &#224; RMC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> De forma semelhante, Myhr e colaboradores, comparando 42 pacientes sintom&#225;ticos com 80 pacientes assintom&#225;ticos, mostraram que a presen&#231;a de fibrose mioc&#225;rdica identificada com RMC com realce tardio n&#227;o mostrou diferen&#231;as significativas em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; evolu&#231;&#227;o ap&#243;s a troca valvar<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura 2</xref>; <xref ref-type="other" rid="f8">V&#237;deo 1</xref>).</p>
          <fig id="f7">
            <label>Figura 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca em paciente com estenose a&#243;rtica severa. O realce tardio com gadol&#237;nio mostra padr&#227;o de fibrose subendoc&#225;rdica focal. Essas altera&#231;&#245;es representam evid&#234;ncia de dano mioc&#225;rdico estrutural irrevers&#237;vel (imagem gentilmente cedida pelo Dr. Luiz Augusto Quaglia).</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260054-0054i-gf03-pt.tif"/></fig>
          <media id="f8" mime-subtype="mp4" mimetype="video" xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/2675-312X/Fvq3tHbHdX8zXQZWHhrjCpF/de3c4635cddf944f1f6eea0766f130dd51dddf1b.mp4">
            <label>V&#237;deo 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca demonstrando estenose a&#243;rtica grave com remodelamento estrutural mioc&#225;rdico e fibrose focal. Cortesia do Dr. Luiz Augusto Quaglia. Dispon&#237;vel em: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3902/ABCImag-2026-0054_AR_Video_1.mp4">http://abcimaging.org/supplementary-material/2026/3902/ABCImag-2026-0054_AR_Video_1.mp4</ext-link> </title>
            </caption>
          </media>
          <p>Por outro lado, tamb&#233;m publicado recentemente, o estudo randomizado por G&#233;n&#233;reux e colaboradores (EARLY TAVR), embora com algumas limita&#231;&#245;es metodol&#243;gicas, avaliou um n&#250;mero significativamente maior de pacientes (901 pacientes), sugerindo resultado favor&#225;vel &#224; interven&#231;&#227;o precoce percut&#226;nea em pacientes assintom&#225;ticos com estenose a&#243;rtica severa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> Embora a conclus&#227;o tenha sido favor&#225;vel, a mortalidade e o progn&#243;stico foram semelhantes. A interven&#231;&#227;o reduziu o desfecho de interna&#231;&#227;o. Boa parte dessas interna&#231;&#245;es foi decorrente de descompensa&#231;&#227;o no grupo de acompanhamento cl&#237;nico, em pacientes que foram submetidos &#224; interven&#231;&#227;o nos 90 dias subsequentes. Resultados semelhantes foram encontrados no estudo AVATAR (Aortic Valve Replacement Versus Conservative Treatment in Asymptomatic Severe Aortic Stenosis).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Biomarcadores plasm&#225;ticos</title>
          <p>N&#237;veis elevados de BNP e NT-proBNP correlacionam-se com aumento da press&#227;o de enchimento ventricular e predizem pior progn&#243;stico em estenose a&#243;rtica severa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> Valores elevados podem traduzir dano mioc&#225;rdico com consequente insufici&#234;ncia diast&#243;lica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> Da mesma forma que outros marcadores de dano mioc&#225;rdico, talvez a piora evolutiva nas avalia&#231;&#245;es seriadas, associada a outros marcadores, possa indicar a antecipa&#231;&#227;o da troca valvar.</p>
          <p>Outros marcadores bioqu&#237;micos tamb&#233;m mostraram valor progn&#243;stico no resultado cir&#250;rgico na avalia&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;-operat&#243;ria. A troponina T de alta sensibilidade possui valor progn&#243;stico importante. Eleva&#231;&#245;es de troponina T, mesmo que discretas, em pacientes com estenose a&#243;rtica severa correlacionam-se com pior evolu&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e maior risco de eventos adversos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> Esse marcador pode identificar mioc&#225;rdio com dano celular estrutural j&#225; presente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> A osteopontina, uma glicoprote&#237;na secretada por c&#233;lulas ligadas a processos inflamat&#243;rios e de remodelamento, mostrou-se marcador de dano mioc&#225;rdico irrevers&#237;vel. Estudos demonstram que osteopontina prediz resultado cl&#237;nico adverso em pacientes ap&#243;s tratamento de estenose a&#243;rtica severa com TAVI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> A anexina A1, estudada em fluido peric&#225;rdico de pacientes com estenose a&#243;rtica severa, mostrou-se marcador de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial associada a estenose a&#243;rtica, representando um marcador de remodelamento atrial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> A atividade plasm&#225;tica de ACE2 mostrou-se associada &#224; fibrose mioc&#225;rdica severa e prediz mortalidade em pacientes com estenose a&#243;rtica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> Sua eleva&#231;&#227;o marca processos de remodelamento mioc&#225;rdico patol&#243;gico com desenvolvimento de fibrose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Embora os biomarcadores identifiquem pacientes com progn&#243;stico pior, as diretrizes atuais ainda n&#227;o mencionam o papel desses biomarcadores na tomada de decis&#227;o.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discuss&#227;o: Quando intervir?</title>
        <p>Apesar das m&#250;ltiplas ferramentas diagn&#243;sticas dispon&#237;veis e dos in&#250;meros estudos publicados, o momento ideal para realizar a troca valvar a&#243;rtica (<italic>to op</italic>) permanece controverso e sem consenso absoluto (<italic>not to op</italic>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> No mundo real, temos observado indica&#231;&#245;es cada vez mais frequentes de coloca&#231;&#227;o de TAVI em pacientes com menos de 65 anos. Apesar da seguran&#231;a do procedimento, os resultados a longo prazo mostram que a mortalidade &#233; maior no grupo da interven&#231;&#227;o percut&#226;nea. A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figura Central</xref> apresenta uma proposta de fluxograma para orienta&#231;&#227;o do acompanhamento dos pacientes assintom&#225;ticos com estenose a&#243;rtica severa.</p>
        <p>A experi&#234;ncia cl&#237;nica sugere prud&#234;ncia e bom senso na tomada de decis&#227;o. Em pacientes jovens, h&#237;gidos e assintom&#225;ticos, portadores de estenose valvar a&#243;rtica calcificada severa, recomenda-se acompanhamento pr&#243;ximo com consultas a cada 3 a 6 meses, incluindo:</p>
        <list list-type="bullet">
          <list-item>
            <p>ECG seriado</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Ecocardiograma com avalia&#231;&#227;o de fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o e strain mioc&#225;rdico</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Teste ergom&#233;trico (se adequado para o perfil cl&#237;nico do paciente)</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Biomarcadores plasm&#225;ticos (BNP/NT-proBNP; troponina T ultrassens&#237;vel)</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>RMC com mapas T1 e T2 e realce tardio com gadol&#237;nio (menos frequentemente, em situa&#231;&#245;es selecionadas)</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>Mudan&#231;as evolutivas com piora da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular, seja pela fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o ou pelo strain mioc&#225;rdico, aumento do &#225;trio esquerdo, progress&#227;o da estenose e sinais de eleva&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial pulmonar, aliados ao teste ergom&#233;trico alterado (seja por isquemia, queda da press&#227;o ou arritmias malignas), talvez representem elementos para recomenda&#231;&#227;o de troca valvar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Em pacientes idosos com fragilidade que dificulte a adequada avalia&#231;&#227;o dos sintomas, al&#233;m dos par&#226;metros listados acima (com exce&#231;&#227;o do teste ergom&#233;trico, que pode ser contraindicado), sugere-se incorporar &#224; avalia&#231;&#227;o o conceito multidimensional de fragilidade (Heart Team ampliado) para auxiliar na decis&#227;o entre realizar interven&#231;&#227;o valvar eletiva ou condu&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica com acompanhamento rigoroso.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Para todos os pacientes, a classifica&#231;&#227;o de dano mioc&#225;rdico proposta por Genereux e colaboradores, ap&#243;s avalia&#231;&#227;o da popula&#231;&#227;o do estudo PARTNER, pode ajudar na identifica&#231;&#227;o dos est&#225;gios iniciais do dano mioc&#225;rdico e justificar a indica&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica anteriormente descrita. A classifica&#231;&#227;o deve ser aplicada lembrando que, com exce&#231;&#227;o do est&#225;gio 0, todos os demais est&#225;gios associam-se a pior progn&#243;stico, justificando maior vigil&#226;ncia e antecipa&#231;&#227;o da interven&#231;&#227;o quando apropriado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
        <p>A estenose a&#243;rtica severa representa um desafio na condu&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica atual, caracterizado pela possibilidade t&#233;cnica de interven&#231;&#227;o percut&#226;nea segura, por&#233;m sem clareza absoluta sobre o momento ideal para sua realiza&#231;&#227;o. O avan&#231;o no conhecimento fisiopatol&#243;gico da doen&#231;a e o desenvolvimento de ferramentas diagn&#243;sticas sofisticadas (ecocardiografia com strain, RMC com mapeamento tecidual e biomarcadores espec&#237;ficos) permitem identificar dano mioc&#225;rdico em seus est&#225;gios progressivos antes do surgimento dos sintomas. Embora o racional fisiopatol&#243;gico aponte para a interven&#231;&#227;o baseada na identifica&#231;&#227;o de marcadores de dano mioc&#225;rdico, os estudos realizados at&#233; o momento apresentam resultados controversos. As caracter&#237;sticas da express&#227;o fenot&#237;pica da doen&#231;a, que definem o remodelamento ventricular, a piora da fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica e sist&#243;lica, o remodelamento atrial e a rea&#231;&#227;o da microcircula&#231;&#227;o pulmonar, podem diferenciar o momento do surgimento dos sintomas. S&#227;o necess&#225;rios estudos bem desenhados com resultados consistentes para incorporar a conduta de interven&#231;&#227;o nas diretrizes.</p>
        <p>Recomenda-se abordagem individualizada e estratificada pelo risco, considerando: perfil cl&#237;nico do paciente (jovem versus idoso, fr&#225;gil versus h&#237;gido), presen&#231;a e progress&#227;o de marcadores de dano mioc&#225;rdico estrutural e funcional, comorbidades associadas e prefer&#234;ncias informadas do paciente. A decis&#227;o por intervalo de seguimento mais pr&#243;ximo versus interven&#231;&#227;o eletiva deve ser baseada em discuss&#227;o multidisciplinar no contexto do Heart Team ampliado. Na popula&#231;&#227;o idosa, assintom&#225;tica ou sintom&#225;tica, com fen&#243;tipo de hipertrofia do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, cabe sempre considerar a possibilidade de doen&#231;a amiloide.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn5">
          <label>Fontes de Financiamento</label>
          <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
          <label>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</label>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn7">
          <label>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#201;tica e Consentimento Informado</label>
          <p>Este artigo n&#227;o cont&#233;m estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn8">
          <label>Uso de Intelig&#234;ncia Artificial</label>
          <p>Os autores n&#227;o utilizaram ferramentas de intelig&#234;ncia artificial no desenvolvimento deste trabalho.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <sec sec-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-in-article">
        <title>Disponibilidade de Dados</title>
        <p>Os conte&#250;dos subjacentes ao texto da pesquisa est&#227;o contidos no manuscrito.</p>
      </sec>
      <ack>
        <title>Agradecimentos</title>
        <p>O autor agradece &#224;s equipes de ecocardiografia e RMC que contribu&#237;ram para a compila&#231;&#227;o das imagens cl&#237;nicas apresentadas neste manuscrito.</p>
      </ack>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
