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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abcic</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Imagem Cardiovasc.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">2318-8219</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Departamento de Imagem Cardiovascular da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiolodia (DIC/SBC)</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">SbccS87B5PgNtfRcGwfSGzt</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S2675-312X2026000201406</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">01406</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20260046i</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Mitral Valve Leaflet Hypoplasia in Adults: Role of Cardiovascular Imaging</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1632-212X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Soares</surname>
            <given-names>F&#225;bio Luis de Jesus</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>data acquisition</role>
          <role>analysis and interpretation of data</role>
          <role>writing of the manuscript, and critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <label>1</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Cardio Pulmonary Hospital</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Cardio Pulmonary Hospital, Salvador, BA &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff2">
          <label>2</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Santa Izabel</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Santa Izabel, Salvador, BA &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><label>Mailing Address:</label><bold>F&#225;bio Luis de Jesus Soares</bold> &#8226; Cardio Pulmonary Hospital. Av. Garibaldi, 2199. CEP: <postal-code>40170-130</postal-code>. Ondina, Salvador, BA &#8211; Brazil E-mail: <email>fljsoares@yahoo.com.br</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="coi-statement">
          <label>Potential Conflict of Interest</label>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <label>Editor responsible for the review:</label>
          <p>Marcelo Tavares</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>20</day>
        <month>07</month>
        <year>2026</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <year>2026</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>39</volume>
      <issue>2</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20260046</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>15</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2026</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>22</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2026</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>25</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2026</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <p>Mitral valve leaflet hypoplasia is a rare congenital anomaly, traditionally described in childhood but increasingly recognized in adults, often as an incidental finding or during the evaluation of mitral regurgitation. Clinical presentation is heterogeneous and depends on leaflet anatomy, the subvalvular apparatus, and the severity of regurgitation. In this narrative literature review, including case reports, case series, and review articles from nationally and internationally recognized journals, epidemiological and clinical aspects are discussed, with particular emphasis on echocardiographic findings. Posterior leaflet hypoplasia is the most common form and may be partial or complete. Three-dimensional echocardiography plays a central role in anatomical assessment, enabling direct measurements of leaflet area and length and helping differentiate true hypoplasia from mimicking entities such as mitral cleft, functional restriction, or subvalvular abnormalities. The estimated prevalence in asymptomatic adults is approximately 1:8,800. Therapeutic management is primarily determined by the severity of mitral regurgitation, with valve repair being feasible only in selected anatomical scenarios. Therefore, refined anatomical understanding, particularly through three-dimensional echocardiography, is essential for accurate diagnosis and appropriate therapeutic planning in this rare yet clinically relevant condition.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords</title>
        <kwd>Mitral Valve</kwd>
        <kwd>Congenital Abnormalities</kwd>
        <kwd>Three-Dimensional Echocardiography</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <funding-group>
        <funding-statement><bold>Sources of Funding</bold> There were no external funding sources for this study.</funding-statement>
      </funding-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="12"/>
        <table-count count="0"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="13"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <fig id="f1">
      <p>Mitral Valve Leaflet Hypoplasia in Adults</p>
      <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260046-0046i-gf01.tif"/></fig>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>Congenital abnormalities of the mitral valve (MV) form a spectrum that includes prolapse, clefts, duplications, congenital stenosis, subvalvular apparatus abnormalities, and, more rarely, hypoplasia of one or both leaflets. Among these, posterior leaflet hypoplasia is the most frequently described in the literature and often results in a functional unicuspid mitral valve phenotype.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Historically, mitral leaflet hypoplasia was considered incompatible with life and was predominantly diagnosed in childhood in the context of severe mitral regurgitation (MR). However, over the past two decades, case reports, small series, and literature reviews have described presentations in adults, often asymptomatic or with mild symptoms, identified incidentally on routine echocardiograms<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> (Central Illustration).</p>
      <p>From an imaging standpoint, this is a fascinating entity: the MV may maintain adequate coaptation through compensatory elongation of the opposite leaflet, annular remodeling, and left ventricular (LV) adaptations. When these mechanisms fail, MR of varying degrees predominates, generally without significant stenosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
      <p>This article reviews mitral valve leaflet hypoplasia in adults, with special focus on echocardiographic characterization, the role of other imaging modalities, and therapeutic implications.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Prevalence</title>
        <p>Posterior mitral leaflet hypoplasia is considered a rare congenital anomaly. In a prospective analysis of 26,484 echocardiographic examinations, Bar et al. identified three cases of asymptomatic posterior leaflet hypoplasia in young adults, estimating a prevalence of approximately 1:8,800 among asymptomatic patients undergoing echocardiography.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A recent systematic literature review that compiled case reports and case series identified approximately 60&#8211;70 cases of posterior leaflet hypoplasia/aplasia in adults, reinforcing the exceptional nature of the condition.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Hypoplasia of the anterior leaflet, the mitral annulus, or the entire MV (as in variants of Shone's complex) is even less frequent, with only isolated cases published.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The true prevalence is likely underestimated, as mild forms without significant MR may go unrecognized on routine echocardiography, particularly when attention is focused solely on regurgitation severity rather than detailed valve morphology.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Clinical Presentation</title>
          <p>The clinical spectrum in adulthood is broad. Reported cases range from incidental findings in asymptomatic patients, often evaluated for a soft systolic murmur, to presentations with severe MR, dyspnea, and significant left-sided chamber dilation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Reported clinical manifestations include:</p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Asymptomatic</bold>: mild hypoplasia with preserved coaptation due to elongated anterior leaflet, without significant MR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Mild symptoms</bold>: palpitations, fatigue, and exertional dyspnea, generally associated with moderate MR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Advanced presentations</bold>: dyspnea in higher functional classes, edema, atrial fibrillation, and dilation of the left atrium and LV in the context of severe chronic MR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>In many reports, there is an <bold>association with other congenital heart diseases</bold>, such as: bicuspid aortic valve, ostium secundum atrial septal defect, left ventricular noncompaction cardiomyopathy, and genetic syndromes (e.g., Marfan syndrome).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>Atypical ischemic symptoms, such as nonspecific chest pain, have also been described, although generally secondary to chronic volume overload or coexisting comorbidities rather than the hypoplasia itself.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Echocardiographic Findings</title>
          <p>Echocardiography is the cornerstone of the diagnosis of MV leaflet hypoplasia, allowing not only morphological identification but also hemodynamic quantification of the associated MR and evaluation of cardiac chambers.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Two-Dimensional Transthoracic Echocardiography</title>
          <p>Typical findings include (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 1</xref>):</p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Marked reduction in the length of one leaflet</bold>, most commonly the posterior leaflet, which may appear as a small rudimentary structure with limited mobility in parasternal long-axis and apical four-chamber views.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Opposite leaflet (usually anterior) elongated and sometimes thickened</bold>, projecting deeply into the ventricular cavity, often with a myxomatous appearance and occasionally associated prolapse, serving as a compensatory mechanism for coaptation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Coaptation line displaced</bold> toward the hypoplastic leaflet, resulting in an eccentric MR jet directed toward that side.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Subvalvular apparatus</bold> generally preserved, although shortening or anomalous chordal insertion into the hypoplastic leaflet may occur, contributing to restriction.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Absence of significant stenosis</bold>, with preserved valve area and low transmitral gradients in most cases; when stenosis is present, it is usually related to annular hypoplasia or more diffuse MV involvement.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <fig id="f2">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Posterior mitral leaflet hypoplasia on transthoracic echocardiography: (A) parasternal long-axis view demonstrating an anterior leaflet disproportionately elongated relative to the posterior leaflet; (B) mitral valve short-axis view demonstrating absence of stenosis; (C) apical two-chamber view demonstrating eccentric jet.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260046-0046i-gf02.tif"/></fig>
          <p>Some authors propose <bold>comparative measurements</bold>: the ratio between anterior and posterior leaflet lengths (typically &gt; 2:1 in cases of severe posterior leaflet hypoplasia) and assessment of the effective coaptation area.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Transesophageal Echocardiography (TEE) and 3D</title>
          <p>The complex mitral anatomy requires systematic analysis, and three-dimensional echocardiography (3D TEE and 3D TTE) has become the most important tool for characterizing hypoplasia.</p>
          <p>Although universal measurement standards have not yet been established, three parameters are consistently reported in series and case reports<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 2</xref>):</p>
          <list list-type="alpha-lower">
            <list-item>
              <p>
                <bold>Leaflet length</bold>
              </p>
              <p>The normal posterior leaflet (PL) measures on average <bold>10&#8211;15 mm</bold> (varying with body surface area [BSA]). Findings suggestive of hypoplasia include:</p>
              <list list-type="bullet">
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>Length &lt; 8 mm</bold> (criterion used in several case series)</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>Anterior-to-posterior leaflet ratio &gt; 2:1</bold>, with &gt; 2.3&#8211;2.5:1 frequently cited in significant hypoplasia</p>
                </list-item>
              </list>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>
                <bold>Leaflet area (3D planimetry)</bold>
              </p>
              <p>PL areas &lt; <bold>1.0&#8211;1.2 cm<sup>2</sup></bold> are reported in clinically relevant hypoplasia. The anterior leaflet (AL) area is generally preserved or compensatorily increased.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Coaptation height</p>
              <p>Coaptation is displaced toward the hypoplastic leaflet. Abnormal findings include:</p>
              <list list-type="bullet">
                <list-item>
                  <p>
                    <bold>Coaptation height &lt; 2 mm over PL</bold>
                  </p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p>
                    <bold>Elongated coaptation over the AL, with displacement &gt; 5 mm from the anatomic center</bold>
                  </p>
                </list-item>
              </list>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <fig id="f3">
            <label>Figure 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Transesophageal echocardiography demonstrating coaptation displaced toward the posterior leaflet (A), an anterior-to-posterior leaflet ratio &gt; 2:1 (B), and the eccentric jet resulting from ineffective coaptation (C).</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260046-0046i-gf03.tif"/></fig>
          <p>Based on these criteria, posterior leaflet hypoplasia may be categorized as partial or total:</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Partial hypoplasia</title>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p>PL present but <bold>shortened, restricted,</bold> or <bold>underdeveloped</bold> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 3</xref>);</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Chordae often thin or abnormally inserted;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Compensatory anterior leaflet function, maintaining some degree of coaptation.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <fig id="f4">
            <label>Figure 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Three-dimensional transesophageal echocardiography with ventricular view of the mitral valve demonstrating partial posterior leaflet hypoplasia (segments P2 and P3 &#8211; yellow arrows).</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260046-0046i-gf04.tif"/></fig>
          <p>In published cases, predominant hypoplasia includes: &#8226; <bold>P2</bold>: most common (40&#8211;60% of reported cases);</p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>P1</bold>: less frequent;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>P3</bold>: usually associated with chordal anomalies and subvalvular restriction.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Total hypoplasia (aplasia)</title>
          <p>Reported in a few adult cases and considered a "true unicuspid mitral valve."</p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p>Complete anatomic absence of the PL in the atrial "en face" view (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 4</xref>);</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Aberrant subvalvular insertions;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Coaptation sustained exclusively by the anterior leaflet, often markedly elongated;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Generally associated with severe MR, although mild MR due to anterior leaflet compensation has been described.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <fig id="f5">
            <label>Figure 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Three-dimensional transesophageal echocardiography with atrial and ventricular views of the mitral valve demonstrating complete posterior leaflet hypoplasia (segments P1, P2, and P3 &#8211; yellow arrows).</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260046-0046i-gf05.tif"/></fig>
          <p>Furthermore, 3D imaging clearly differentiates <bold>true hypoplasia</bold> from mitral cleft, segmental prolapse, functional restriction, and leaflet elongation without congenital hypoplasia.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Doppler and Regurgitation Quantification</title>
        <p>Color Doppler demonstrates an eccentric jet directed opposite the hypoplastic leaflet, frequently wall-hugging (Coanda effect), which may underestimate MR severity if assessed solely by jet area (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 5</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
        <fig id="f6">
          <label>Figure 5</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Two-dimensional transesophageal echocardiography demonstrating antegrade (A) and eccentric retrograde flows.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260046-0046i-gf06.tif"/></fig>
        <p>Therefore, the following are recommended:</p>
        <list list-type="bullet">
          <list-item>
            <p>Calculation of regurgitant volume and effective regurgitant orifice area (EROA) using the PISA method, when feasible;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Assessment of <bold>vena contracta</bold>, preferably in multiple views;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Integration with indirect parameters: left atrial size, LV diameters and volumes, and pulmonary artery systolic pressure;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>True coaptation area;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>3D regurgitant volume;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Anatomic regurgitant orifice area (3D EROA), useful in eccentric jets;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Complete mitral annular reconstruction (diameters, nonplanar angle, saddle height), frequently altered in significant hypoplasia cases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>In pure hypoplasia with adequate compensation by the opposite leaflet, MR may be absent or mild; in cases with annular dilation and associated prolapse, MR tends to be severe.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Other Imaging Modalities</title>
        <p>Although echocardiography is the first-line method, <bold>cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR)</bold> and <bold>computed tomography (CT)</bold> may complement evaluation in selected situations.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Cardiac Magnetic Resonance</title>
          <p>CMR contributes primarily in three aspects:</p>
          <list list-type="order">
            <list-item>
              <p>Precise volumetric and functional assessment of the LV and left atrium, useful for quantifying the impact of chronic MR and aiding surgical decision-making.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Regurgitation quantification by phase-contrast flow (difference between LV stroke volume and ascending aortic flow), providing a measure independent of echocardiography.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Tissue characterization of the mitral annulus and intervalvular fibrosa region in cases with suspected fibroelastosis, lipomatosis, or fibrosis associated with annular or anterior leaflet hypoplasia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>Case reports show that CMR may confirm annular restriction with limited opening even in the absence of a significant gradient and exclude additional structural heart disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Cardiac Computed Tomography</title>
          <p>Cardiac CT may be useful in:</p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p>Patients with suboptimal echocardiographic windows;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Detailed anatomic assessment of the mitral annulus and its relationships with adjacent structures, particularly in the planning of complex surgeries or concomitant procedures (e.g., aortic valve replacement in patients with bicuspid aortic valve and mitral leaflet hypoplasia).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>However, due to the low prevalence of the entity and the high sensitivity of echocardiography (particularly 3D TEE), CMR and CT remain complementary rather than routine modalities.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Treatment</title>
        <p>There are no specific guidelines for managing MV leaflet hypoplasia in adults; decisions generally follow recommendations for primary MR, adapted to the peculiar anatomic context.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Clinical and Echocardiographic Follow-up</title>
        <p>Asymptomatic patients with mild or no MR and without significant chamber dilation may be followed clinically, with serial echocardiography to monitor MR progression, ventricular remodeling, and the emergence of symptoms or arrhythmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Follow-up intervals are typically annual or biennial, depending on MR severity and remodeling degree.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Surgical Approach</title>
          <p>Most adult patients described in the literature with severe MR or limiting symptoms have undergone surgical treatment. Options include:</p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p>Mitral valve repair: technically challenging when the hypoplastic leaflet is very short with limited coaptation area. In some cases, leaflet augmentation with pericardium, annuloplasty, and correction of opposite leaflet prolapse are feasible;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Mitral valve replacement: often the most common solution in scenarios of severe hypoplasia, small annulus, or multiple associated anomalies in which durable repair is unlikely.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>Some reports question whether repair should always be attempted, particularly when challenging anatomy increases the risk of early reoperation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Percutaneous Therapy</title>
        <p>Experience with <bold>transcatheter edge-to-edge repair (MitraClip/PASCAL-type procedures)</bold> in leaflet hypoplasia is very limited. The reduced height of the hypoplastic leaflet increases the risk of incomplete leaflet grasp, residual regurgitation, and functional stenosis after clipping.</p>
        <p>In practice, these patients are rarely considered good candidates, except in highly selected cases with favorable opposite leaflet anatomy and high surgical risk. Current literature includes only indirect mentions, without robust series specific to this population.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclusion</title>
      <p>Mitral valve leaflet hypoplasia in adults, particularly of the posterior leaflet, is a rare, likely underdiagnosed entity with a wide spectrum of clinical presentation - from incidental finding to symptomatic severe MR.</p>
      <p><bold>Transthoracic and transesophageal echocardiography, particularly with three-dimensional reconstruction</bold>, constitute the diagnostic cornerstone, enabling precise characterization of valve morphology, MR quantification, and planning of surgical or percutaneous interventions. Complementary modalities such as CMR and CT add anatomic and functional information in selected situations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
      <p>From a therapeutic standpoint, management follows principles of primary MR, with clinical surveillance in mild cases and surgical indication in symptomatic patients or those with significant structural impact. Mitral repair may be feasible in favorable anatomies, but severe hypoplasia often leads to valve replacement. Evidence for percutaneous therapies remains limited and based on extrapolation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Given the still-limited number of reported cases and series, there is room for <bold>multicenter registries</bold> and <bold>standardized descriptions</bold> to better understand natural history, predictors of decompensation, and long-term outcomes of different therapeutic strategies. For the echocardiographer and cardiovascular imaging specialist, maintaining a high index of suspicion in the presence of "unusual" MV morphology is essential to avoid missing this rare - but clinically relevant - diagnosis.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1">
        <label>Sources of Funding</label>
        <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
        <label>Study Association</label>
        <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
        <label>Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate</label>
        <p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn4">
        <label>Use of Artificial Intelligence</label>
        <p>The authors did not use any artificial intelligence tools in the development of this work.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <sec sec-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-in-article">
      <title>Availability of Research Data</title>
      <p>The underlying content of the research text is contained within the manuscript.</p>
    </sec>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="S1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20260046</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Hipoplasia das C&#250;spides da Valva Mitral no Adulto: Fun&#231;&#227;o da Imagem Cardiovascular</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1632-212X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Soares</surname>
            <given-names>F&#225;bio Luis de Jesus</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>an&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff3">
          <label>1</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Cardio Pulmonary Hospital, Salvador, BA &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff4">
          <label>2</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Santa Izabel, Salvador, BA &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><label>Correspond&#234;ncia:</label><bold>F&#225;bio Luis de Jesus Soares</bold> &#8226; Cardio Pulmonary Hospital. Av. Garibaldi, 2199. CEP: <postal-code>40170-130</postal-code>. Ondina, Salvador, BA &#8211; Brasil E-mail: <email>fljsoares@yahoo.com.br</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="coi-statement">
          <label>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</label>
          <p>Os autores declaram n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses relacionado a este manuscrito.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p>A hipoplasia das c&#250;spides da valva mitral &#233; uma anomalia cong&#234;nita rara, tradicionalmente descrita na inf&#226;ncia, mas cada vez mais reconhecida em adultos, frequentemente como achado incidental ou na investiga&#231;&#227;o de insufici&#234;ncia mitral. Sua apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica &#233; heterog&#234;nea e depende da configura&#231;&#227;o anat&#244;mica das c&#250;spides, das altera&#231;&#245;es do aparato subvalvar e do grau de regurgita&#231;&#227;o valvar. Nesta revis&#227;o narrativa da literatura, incluindo relatos e s&#233;ries de casos, bem como artigos de revis&#227;o de peri&#243;dicos nacionais e internacionais, discutem-se os aspectos epidemiol&#243;gicos, cl&#237;nicos e, principalmente, os achados ecocardiogr&#225;ficos. A hipoplasia da c&#250;spide posterior representa a forma mais comum, podendo ocorrer de maneira parcial ou completa. A ecocardiografia tridimensional tem papel central na avalia&#231;&#227;o anat&#244;mica, permitindo mensura&#231;&#245;es diretas da &#225;rea e do comprimento das c&#250;spides e contribuindo para a diferencia&#231;&#227;o entre hipoplasia verdadeira e condi&#231;&#245;es mim&#233;ticas, como cleft mitral, restri&#231;&#227;o funcional ou altera&#231;&#245;es subvalvares. A preval&#234;ncia estimada em adultos assintom&#225;ticos &#233; de aproximadamente 1:8.800. O manejo terap&#234;utico est&#225; diretamente relacionado &#224; gravidade da insufici&#234;ncia mitral, sendo o reparo valvar fact&#237;vel apenas em anatomias selecionadas. Assim, uma compreens&#227;o anat&#244;mica refinada, especialmente por meio da ecocardiografia tridimensional, &#233; fundamental para o diagn&#243;stico preciso e o adequado planejamento terap&#234;utico dessa condi&#231;&#227;o rara, por&#233;m clinicamente relevante.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave</title>
        <kwd>Valva Mitral</kwd>
        <kwd>Anormalidades Cong&#234;nitas</kwd>
        <kwd>Ecocardiografia Tridimensional</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <funding-group>
        <funding-statement><bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold> O presente estudo n&#227;o recebeu financiamento espec&#237;fico de ag&#234;ncias p&#250;blicas, comerciais ou sem fins lucrativos.</funding-statement>
      </funding-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <fig id="f7">
        <p>Hipoplasia das c&#250;spides da valva mitral no adulto.</p>
        <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260046-0046i-gf01-pt.tif"/></fig>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>As anomalias cong&#234;nitas da valva mitral (VM) constituem um espectro amplo que inclui prolapsos, fendas, duplica&#231;&#245;es, estenose cong&#234;nita, altera&#231;&#245;es do aparato subvalvar e, mais raramente, hipoplasia de uma ou ambas as c&#250;spides. Dentre essas, a hipoplasia da c&#250;spide posterior (CP) &#233; a mais descrita na literatura e, em muitos casos, determina um fen&#243;tipo funcional de VM unic&#250;spide.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Historicamente, a hipoplasia das c&#250;spides mitrais foi considerada incompat&#237;vel com a vida, sendo diagnosticada predominantemente na inf&#226;ncia, em contexto de insufici&#234;ncia mitral (IM) grave. Contudo, nas &#250;ltimas duas d&#233;cadas, relatos de casos, pequenas s&#233;ries e revis&#245;es da literatura descreveram apresenta&#231;&#245;es em adultos, muitas vezes assintom&#225;ticas ou com sintomas leves, identificadas incidentalmente em ecocardiogramas de rotina<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura Central</xref>).</p>
        <p>Do ponto de vista da imagem cardiovascular, trata-se de uma entidade particularmente fascinante. A VM pode manter coapta&#231;&#227;o adequada &#224; custa de alongamento compensat&#243;rio da c&#250;spide oposta, remodelamento anular e adapta&#231;&#245;es do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (VE). Quando esses mecanismos se tornam insuficientes, desenvolve-se IM de graus vari&#225;veis, geralmente sem estenose associada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O presente artigo revisa a hipoplasia das c&#250;spides da VM no adulto, com &#234;nfase na caracteriza&#231;&#227;o ecocardiogr&#225;fica, no papel de m&#233;todos de imagem adicionais e nas implica&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Preval&#234;ncia</title>
          <p>A hipoplasia da CP da VM &#233; considerada uma anomalia cong&#234;nita rara. Em uma an&#225;lise prospectiva envolvendo 26.484 exames ecocardiogr&#225;ficos, Bar et al. identificaram tr&#234;s casos de hipoplasia assintom&#225;tica da CP em adultos jovens, estimando preval&#234;ncia aproximada de 1:8.800 em pacientes assintom&#225;ticos submetidos a ecocardiograma.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica recente, que compilou relatos e s&#233;ries de casos, identificou cerca de 60&#8211;70 casos de hipoplasia ou aplasia da CP descritos em adultos, refor&#231;ando o car&#225;ter excepcional da condi&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> A hipoplasia da c&#250;spide anterior (CA), do anel mitral ou de toda a VM (como observado em variantes do complexo de Shone) &#233; ainda mais rara, com poucos relatos isolados publicados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A verdadeira preval&#234;ncia &#233; provavelmente subestimada, uma vez que formas discretas, sem IM significativa, podem passar despercebidas no ecocardiograma de rotina, especialmente quando a avalia&#231;&#227;o se concentra predominantemente na quantifica&#231;&#227;o da regurgita&#231;&#227;o e n&#227;o na an&#225;lise morfol&#243;gica detalhada da valva.</p>
          <sec>
            <title>Quadro cl&#237;nico</title>
            <p>O espectro cl&#237;nico na idade adulta &#233; amplo. Os casos descritos variam desde achados incidentais em indiv&#237;duos assintom&#225;ticos, frequentemente avaliados por sopro sist&#243;lico discreto, at&#233; apresenta&#231;&#245;es com IM grave, dispneia e dilata&#231;&#227;o significativa das c&#226;maras esquerdas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
            <p>As manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas relatadas incluem:</p>
            <list list-type="bullet">
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>Assintom&#225;ticas:</bold> hipoplasia discreta com manuten&#231;&#227;o da coapta&#231;&#227;o por alongamento da CA, sem IM significativa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>Sintomas leves:</bold> palpita&#231;&#245;es, fadiga e dispneia aos esfor&#231;os, geralmente associadas &#224; IM moderada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>Quadros avan&#231;ados:</bold> dispneia em classes funcionais mais elevadas, edema, fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial e dilata&#231;&#227;o do &#225;trio esquerdo e do VE no contexto de IM grave e cr&#244;nica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Em diversos relatos, observa-se <bold>associa&#231;&#227;o com outras cardiopatias cong&#234;nitas</bold>, como valva a&#243;rtica bic&#250;spide, comunica&#231;&#227;o interatrial tipo ostium secundum, miocardiopatia n&#227;o compactada e s&#237;ndromes gen&#233;ticas, como a s&#237;ndrome de Marfan.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <p>Sintomas de isquemia at&#237;pica, como dor tor&#225;cica inespec&#237;fica, tamb&#233;m foram descritos, embora geralmente secund&#225;rios &#224; sobrecarga volum&#233;trica cr&#244;nica ou a comorbidades coexistentes, e n&#227;o diretamente &#224; hipoplasia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Achados Ecocardiogr&#225;ficos</title>
            <p>A ecocardiografia constitui o m&#233;todo central para o diagn&#243;stico da hipoplasia das c&#250;spides da VM, permitindo caracteriza&#231;&#227;o morfol&#243;gica detalhada, quantifica&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica da IM e avalia&#231;&#227;o das repercuss&#245;es sobre as c&#226;maras card&#237;acas.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Ecocardiograma Transtor&#225;cico Bidimensional</title>
            <p>Os achados t&#237;picos incluem (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figura 1</xref>):</p>
            <list list-type="bullet">
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>Redu&#231;&#227;o acentuada do comprimento de uma das c&#250;spides</bold>, mais frequentemente da CP, que pode ser visualizada como pequena lingueta com mobilidade limitada nas proje&#231;&#245;es paraesternal em eixo longo e apical quatro c&#226;maras.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>C&#250;spide oposta (geralmente a anterior) alongada e, por vezes, espessada</bold>, projetando-se profundamente na cavidade ventricular, frequentemente com aspecto mixomatoso e eventual prolapso associado, atuando como mecanismo compensat&#243;rio de coapta&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>Linha de coapta&#231;&#227;o deslocada</bold> em dire&#231;&#227;o &#224; c&#250;spide hipopl&#225;sica, frequentemente associada a jato de IM exc&#234;ntrico dirigido para o lado oposto.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>Aparato subvalvar</bold> geralmente preservado, embora possa ocorrer encurtamento ou inser&#231;&#227;o an&#244;mala de cordoalhas na c&#250;spide hipopl&#225;sica, contribuindo para restri&#231;&#227;o adicional.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>Aus&#234;ncia de estenose significativa</bold>, com &#225;rea valvar preservada e gradientes transmitrais baixos; quando presente, a estenose costuma estar relacionada &#224; hipoplasia do anel ou ao envolvimento mais difuso da VM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <fig id="f8">
              <label>Figura 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Hipoplasia da CP da VM no ecocardiograma transtor&#225;cico: (A) eixo longo paraesternal demonstrando CA alongada desproporcional ao tamanho da CP; (B) eixo curto da VM demonstrando aus&#234;ncia de estenose; (C) apical duas c&#226;maras evidenciando jato exc&#234;ntrico de regurgita&#231;&#227;o.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260046-0046i-gf02-pt.tif"/></fig>
            <p>Alguns autores sugerem <bold>mensura&#231;&#245;es comparativas</bold>: raz&#227;o entre os comprimentos das c&#250;spides anterior e posterior (tipicamente &gt; 2:1 nos casos de hipoplasia grave da CP) e a avalia&#231;&#227;o da &#225;rea efetiva de coapta&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Ecocardiograma Transesof&#225;gico (ETE) e 3D</title>
            <p>A complexidade da anatomia mitral exige uma an&#225;lise sistematizada, e a ecocardiografia 3D (ETE 3D e TTE 3D) tornou-se a principal ferramenta para a caracteriza&#231;&#227;o da hipoplasia.</p>
            <p>Embora n&#227;o existam crit&#233;rios universalmente padronizados, tr&#234;s par&#226;metros s&#227;o recorrentemente descritos na literatura<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">Figura 2</xref>):</p>
            <list list-type="alpha-lower">
              <list-item>
                <p>
                  <bold>Comprimento da c&#250;spide</bold>
                </p>
                <p>A CP normal apresenta comprimento m&#233;dio de <bold>10&#8211;15 mm</bold> (variando com &#225;rea de superf&#237;cie corp&#243;rea [BSA]). Consideram-se sugestivos de hipoplasia:</p>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>Comprimento &lt; 8 mm</bold> (crit&#233;rio utilizado em diversas s&#233;ries de casos);</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>Rela&#231;&#227;o CA/CP &gt; 2:1</bold>, sendo &gt; 2,3&#8211;2,5:1 frequentemente associada a hipoplasia significativa.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>
                  <bold>&#193;rea da c&#250;spide (planimetria 3D)</bold>
                </p>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>&#193;reas de CP &lt; <bold>1,0&#8211;1,2 cm<sup>2</sup></bold> t&#234;m sido relatadas em casos de hipoplasia relevante. A &#225;rea da CA geralmente encontra-se preservada ou aumentada de forma compensat&#243;ria.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>
                  <bold>Altura de coapta&#231;&#227;o</bold>
                </p>
                <p>A linha de coapta&#231;&#227;o desloca-se em dire&#231;&#227;o &#224; c&#250;spide hipopl&#225;sica. Consideram-se anormais:</p>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>Altura de coapta&#231;&#227;o &lt; 2 mm</bold> sobre a CP;</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>Coapta&#231;&#227;o alongada sobre a CA</bold>, com linha deslocada &gt; 5 mm do centro anat&#244;mico.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <fig id="f9">
              <label>Figura 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Ecocardiograma Transesof&#225;gico evidenciando coapta&#231;&#227;o deslocada em dire&#231;&#227;o &#224; CP (A), uma rela&#231;&#227;o da CA em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; CP &gt; 2:1 (B) e o jato exc&#234;ntrico decorrente da coapta&#231;&#227;o inefetiva (C).</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260046-0046i-gf03-pt.tif"/></fig>
            <p>Com base nesses crit&#233;rios, a hipoplasia da CP pode ser categorizada como parcial ou total.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Hipoplasia Parcial</title>
            <list list-type="bullet">
              <list-item>
                <p>CP presente, por&#233;m <bold>encurtada, restrita</bold> ou <bold>subdesenvolvida</bold> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figura 3</xref>);</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Cordoalhas frequentemente finas ou inseridas de forma an&#244;mala;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Fun&#231;&#227;o compensat&#243;ria da CA mantendo certa coapta&#231;&#227;o.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <fig id="f10">
              <label>Figura 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Ecocardiograma transesof&#225;gico tridimensional com vis&#227;o ventricular da VM evidenciando hipoplasia parcial da CP (segmentos P2 e P3 &#8211; setas amarelas).</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260046-0046i-gf04-pt.tif"/></fig>
            <p>Nos casos publicados, a hipoplasia predominante envolve: &#8226; <bold>P2</bold>: mais comum (40&#8211;60% dos casos relatados);</p>
            <list list-type="bullet">
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>P1</bold>: menos frequente;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>P3</bold>: geralmente associada a anomalias de cordoalhas e restri&#231;&#227;o subvalvar.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Hipoplasia Total (aplasia)</title>
            <p>Descrita em poucos casos em adultos, sendo considerada uma "VM unic&#250;spide verdadeira".</p>
            <list list-type="bullet">
              <list-item>
                <p>Aus&#234;ncia anat&#244;mica completa da CP na vis&#227;o "en face" atrial (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11">Figura 4</xref>);</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Inser&#231;&#245;es subvalvares aberrantes;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Coapta&#231;&#227;o sustentada exclusivamente pela CA, muitas vezes hiperalongada;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Geralmente associada &#224; IM grave, embora existam relatos de IM discreta decorrente da compensa&#231;&#227;o da CA.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <fig id="f11">
              <label>Figura 4</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Ecocardiograma transesof&#225;gico tridimensional com vis&#245;es atrial e ventricular da VM, evidenciando hipoplasia total da CP (segmentos P1, P2 e P3 &#8211; setas amarelas).</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260046-0046i-gf05-pt.tif"/></fig>
            <p>Al&#233;m disso, o 3D permite diferenciar claramente <bold>hipoplasia verdadeira</bold> de cleft mitral, prolapso segmentar, restri&#231;&#227;o funcional, alongamento de c&#250;spides sem hipoplasia cong&#234;nita.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Doppler e Quantifica&#231;&#227;o da Regurgita&#231;&#227;o</title>
          <p>O Doppler colorido demonstra jato exc&#234;ntrico dirigido para o lado oposto &#224; c&#250;spide hipopl&#225;sica, frequentemente aderido &#224; parede atrial (efeito Coanda), o que pode levar &#224; subestima&#231;&#227;o da gravidade da IM quando se considera apenas a &#225;rea do jato (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f12">Figura 5</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>C&#225;lculo do volume regurgitante e orif&#237;cio regurgitante efetivo (EROA)</bold> pela t&#233;cnica de PISA, quando vi&#225;vel;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Avalia&#231;&#227;o de <bold>vena contracta</bold>, preferencialmente em m&#250;ltiplas janelas;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Integra&#231;&#227;o com par&#226;metros indiretos, como dimens&#245;es do &#225;trio esquerdo, volumes do VE e press&#227;o sist&#243;lica da art&#233;ria pulmonar;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#193;rea de coapta&#231;&#227;o real;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Volume regurgitante 3D;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#193;rea do orif&#237;cio regurgitante anatomicamente (3D EROA), &#250;til em jatos exc&#234;ntricos;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Reconstru&#231;&#227;o completa do anel mitral (di&#226;metros, n&#227;o planar angle, saddle height), frequentemente alterado nos casos de hipoplasia significativa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <fig id="f12">
            <label>Figura 5</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Ecocardiograma transesof&#225;gico bidimensional evidenciando fluxos anter&#243;grado (A) e retr&#243;grado exc&#234;ntricos.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-02-e20260046-0046i-gf06-pt.tif"/></fig>
          <p>Na hipoplasia isolada com compensa&#231;&#227;o eficaz da c&#250;spide oposta, a IM pode ser ausente ou discreta; entretanto, na presen&#231;a de dilata&#231;&#227;o anular e prolapso associado, tende a assumir car&#225;ter grave.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Outros M&#233;todos de Imagem</title>
          <p>Embora a ecocardiografia seja o m&#233;todo de primeira linha, a <bold>resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca (RMC)</bold> e a <bold>tomografia computadorizada (TC)</bold> podem desempenhar papel complementar em situa&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas.</p>
          <sec>
            <title>RMC</title>
            <p>A RMC contribui principalmente em tr&#234;s aspectos:</p>
            <list list-type="order">
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>Avalia&#231;&#227;o volum&#233;trica e funcional precisa</bold> do VE e do AE, auxiliando na quantifica&#231;&#227;o do impacto da IM cr&#244;nica e na decis&#227;o cir&#250;rgica;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>Quantifica&#231;&#227;o da regurgita&#231;&#227;o por t&#233;cnica de fluxo de fase</bold> (diferen&#231;a entre d&#233;bito do VE e fluxo na aorta ascendente), fornecendo medida independente da ecocardiografia;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>Caracteriza&#231;&#227;o tecidual</bold> do anel mitral e da regi&#227;o fibrosa intervalvar em casos com suspeita de fibroelastose, lipomatose ou fibrose associadas &#224; hipoplasia anular ou da CA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <p>Relatos de caso demonstram que a RMC pode confirmar restri&#231;&#227;o do anel mitral com abertura limitada, mesmo na aus&#234;ncia de gradiente significativo, al&#233;m de excluir cardiopatias estruturais adicionais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>TC card&#237;aca</title>
            <p>A TC card&#237;aca pode ser &#250;til em:</p>
            <list list-type="bullet">
              <list-item>
                <p>Pacientes com janela ecocardiogr&#225;fica sub&#243;tima;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Avalia&#231;&#227;o anat&#244;mica detalhada do anel mitral e das rela&#231;&#245;es com estruturas adjacentes, particularmente no planejamento de cirurgias complexas ou de procedimentos concomitantes (por exemplo, troca de valva a&#243;rtica em pacientes com valva a&#243;rtica bic&#250;spide associada &#224; hipoplasia de folheto mitral).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <p>No entanto, devido &#224; baixa preval&#234;ncia da entidade e &#224; alta sensibilidade do eco (particularmente ETE 3D), RMC e TC permanecem m&#233;todos complementares e n&#227;o de rotina.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Tratamento</title>
          <p>N&#227;o existem diretrizes espec&#237;ficas para o manejo da hipoplasia das c&#250;spides da VM no adulto; as decis&#245;es terap&#234;uticas baseiam-se, em geral, nas recomenda&#231;&#245;es para IM prim&#225;ria, adaptadas ao contexto anat&#244;mico espec&#237;fico.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Acompanhamento Cl&#237;nico e Ecocardiogr&#225;fico</title>
          <p>Pacientes assintom&#225;ticos, com IM discreta ou ausente e sem dilata&#231;&#227;o significativa de c&#226;maras card&#237;acas, podem ser acompanhados clinicamente, com ecocardiogramas seriados para monitorar progress&#227;o da IM, remodelamento ventricular e surgimento de sintomas ou arritmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Os intervalos de acompanhamento s&#227;o geralmente anuais ou bianuais, conforme a gravidade da IM e o grau de remodelamento estrutural.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Abordagem Cir&#250;rgica</title>
          <p>A maior parte dos pacientes adultos descritos na literatura com IM grave ou sintomas limitantes foi submetida a tratamento cir&#250;rgico. As op&#231;&#245;es incluem:</p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Plastia mitral:</bold> tecnicamente desafiadora quando a c&#250;spide hipopl&#225;sica apresenta comprimento muito reduzido e &#225;rea de coapta&#231;&#227;o limitada. Em casos selecionados, &#233; poss&#237;vel alongar o folheto com peric&#225;rdio, associado &#224; anuloplastia e &#224; corre&#231;&#227;o de prolapsos da c&#250;spide oposta.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Troca valvar mitral:</bold> frequentemente necess&#225;ria em cen&#225;rios de hipoplasia severa, anel mitral pequeno ou presen&#231;a de m&#250;ltiplas anomalias associadas, nos quais a durabilidade do reparo seria question&#225;vel.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>Alguns autores discutem se a tentativa de reparo &#233; sempre justific&#225;vel, especialmente quando a anatomia desafiadora aumenta o risco de falha precoce e de reopera&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Terapia Percut&#226;nea</title>
          <p>A experi&#234;ncia com <bold>interven&#231;&#245;es percut&#226;neas de borda a borda (tipo MitraClip/PASCAL)</bold> na hipoplasia de c&#250;spide &#233; muito limitada. A menor altura do folheto hipopl&#225;sico pode aumentar o risco de grasp incompleto, regurgita&#231;&#227;o residual e estenose funcional ap&#243;s o implante do dispositivo.</p>
          <p>Na pr&#225;tica, esses pacientes raramente s&#227;o considerados bons candidatos, salvo em contextos muito espec&#237;ficos, com anatomia favor&#225;vel da c&#250;spide oposta e alto risco cir&#250;rgico. A literatura atual apresenta apenas men&#231;&#245;es indiretas, sem s&#233;ries robustas espec&#237;ficas para essa popula&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
        <p>A hipoplasia das c&#250;spides da VM no adulto, particularmente da CP, constitui entidade rara e provavelmente subdiagnosticada, com amplo espectro cl&#237;nico &#8211; desde achado incidental at&#233; causa de IM grave sintom&#225;tica.</p>
        <p>A <bold>ecocardiografia transtor&#225;cica e transesof&#225;gica</bold>, especialmente com reconstru&#231;&#245;es tridimensionais, representa o pilar diagn&#243;stico, permitindo caracteriza&#231;&#227;o morfol&#243;gica precisa, quantifica&#231;&#227;o da IM e planejamento de interven&#231;&#245;es cir&#250;rgicas ou percut&#226;neas. M&#233;todos complementares, como RMC e TC, agregam informa&#231;&#245;es anat&#244;micas e funcionais em situa&#231;&#245;es selecionadas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Do ponto de vista terap&#234;utico, o manejo segue os princ&#237;pios aplic&#225;veis &#224; IM prim&#225;ria, com vigil&#226;ncia cl&#237;nica em casos leves e indica&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica para pacientes sintom&#225;ticos ou com repercuss&#227;o estrutural significativa. A plastia mitral pode ser realizada em anatomias favor&#225;veis, mas hipoplasias graves frequentemente culminam na necessidade de troca valvar. A evid&#234;ncia referente a terapias percut&#226;neas permanece escassa e baseada em extrapola&#231;&#245;es.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Dado o n&#250;mero ainda limitado de casos e s&#233;ries descritos, h&#225; espa&#231;o para <bold>registros multic&#234;ntricos e descri&#231;&#245;es padronizadas</bold>, que permitam aprimorar o entendimento da hist&#243;ria natural, dos preditores de descompensa&#231;&#227;o e dos resultados a longo prazo das diferentes estrat&#233;gias terap&#234;uticas. Para o ecocardiografista e o cardiologista de imagem, manter um grau elevado de suspei&#231;&#227;o diante de morfologias at&#237;picas da VM &#233; essencial para o reconhecimento dessa condi&#231;&#227;o rara, por&#233;m clinicamente relevante.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn5">
          <label>Fontes de Financiamento</label>
          <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o recebeu financiamento espec&#237;fico de ag&#234;ncias p&#250;blicas, comerciais ou sem fins lucrativos.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
          <label>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</label>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn7">
          <label>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#201;tica e Consentimento Informado</label>
          <p>Este artigo n&#227;o cont&#233;m estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn8">
          <label>Uso de Intelig&#234;ncia Artificial</label>
          <p>Os autores n&#227;o utilizaram ferramentas de intelig&#234;ncia artificial no desenvolvimento deste trabalho.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <sec sec-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-in-article">
        <title>Disponibilidade de Dados</title>
        <p>Os conte&#250;dos subjacentes ao texto da pesquisa est&#227;o contidos no manuscrito.</p>
      </sec>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
