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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abcic</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Imagem Cardiovasc.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">2318-8219</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Departamento de Imagem Cardiovascular da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiolodia (DIC/SBC)</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">3k5gVqThDqzspFFbF7Rty8h</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S2675-312X2026000101404</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">01404</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20250038i</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Cardiac Sarcoidosis: The Role of Multimodal Imaging</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Carreira</surname>
            <given-names>Lara Cristiane Terra Ferreira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>acquisition of data</role>
          <role>analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>writing of the manuscript and critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0004-5098-6223</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Carreira</surname>
            <given-names>L&#237;via</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>acquisition of data</role>
          <role>analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>writing of the manuscript and critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9310-3580</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Brito</surname>
            <given-names>Adriana Soares Xavier de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>acquisition of data</role>
          <role>analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>writing of the manuscript and critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <label>1</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Cardiologia Nuclear de Curitiba</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Curitiba</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">PR</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Cardiologia Nuclear de Curitiba (CNC), Curitiba, PR &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff2">
          <label>2</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">PUC Paran&#225;</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Curitiba</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">PR</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">PUC Paran&#225;, Curitiba, PR &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff3">
          <label>3</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Nacional de Cardiologia</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto Nacional de Cardiologia, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff4">
          <label>4</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Rede D&#8217;Or S&#227;o Luiz</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Rede D&#8217;Or S&#227;o Luiz, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><label>Mailing Address:</label><bold>Adriana Soares Xavier de Brito</bold> &#8226; Instituto Nacional de Cardiologia. Rua das Laranjeiras, 374. Postal code: <postal-code>22240-006</postal-code>. Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil E-mail: <email>adrijsoares@hotmail.com</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="coi-statement">
          <label>Potential Conflict of Interest</label>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <label>Editor responsible for the review:</label>
          <p>Marcelo Tavares</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>20</day>
        <month>04</month>
        <year>2026</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <year>2026</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>39</volume>
      <issue>1</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20250038</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>08</day>
          <month>02</month>
          <year>2026</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>09</day>
          <month>02</month>
          <year>2026</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>09</day>
          <month>02</month>
          <year>2026</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>ABSTRACT</title>
        <p>Cardiac sarcoidosis (CS) is a potentially severe manifestation of systemic sarcoidosis, associated with advanced atrioventricular block, ventricular arrhythmias, heart failure, and sudden death. Diagnosis remains challenging due to phenotypic variability and the limitations of conventional diagnostic methods. Advances in imaging techniques, especially the combination of positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET/CT) using <sup>18</sup>F-FDG and cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMR), have revolutionized the diagnostic approach and therapeutic monitoring of CS. This article reviews current concepts of CS and its diagnosis, with a focus on the role of PET/CT, the importance of appropriate patient preparation, and integration with CMR.</p>
      </abstract>
      <abstract abstract-type="graphical">
        <p>
          <fig id="f1">
            <p>Central Illustration: Clinical manifestations of cardiac sarcoidosis. AVB: atrioventricular block.</p>
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      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords</title>
        <kwd>Sarcoidosis</kwd>
        <kwd>Positron-Emission Tomography</kwd>
        <kwd>Fluorodeoxyglucose F18</kwd>
        <kwd>Magnetic Resonance Imaging</kwd>
        <kwd>Multimodal Imaging</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <funding-group>
        <funding-statement><bold>Sources of Funding</bold> There were no external funding sources for this study.</funding-statement>
      </funding-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="16"/>
        <table-count count="0"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="19"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>Sarcoidosis is an inflammatory granulomatous disease of unknown etiology, characterized by non-caseating granulomas that can affect multiple organs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
      <p>The disease affects the lungs and thoracic lymph nodes in approximately 90% of cases, but it can also involve the heart, liver, spleen, skin, eyes, parotid glands, among other organs and tissues. It is estimated that 20% to 25% of patients with pulmonary and/or systemic sarcoidosis have asymptomatic cardiac involvement (clinically silent disease),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> whereas approximately 5% have clinically manifest cardiac involvement. This involvement is associated with increased morbidity and mortality, resulting from infiltrative heart disease with intense myocardial inflammation.</p>
      <p>Approximately half of cardiac sarcoidosis (CS) cases occur in isolation, without evidence of systemic sarcoidosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
      <p>The pathophysiology of CS involves an exaggerated immune response to environmental antigens in individuals who are genetically predisposed. This response culminates in the activation of T cells and the formation of granulomas, with subsequent progression to myocardial fibrosis. The disease most frequently affects individuals between 25 and 55 years of age, with higher prevalence among women, Black individuals, and Japanese populations. It is also responsible for a significant proportion of sudden death in young adults.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
      <p>CS can manifest as arrhythmias, atrioventricular blocks, dilated cardiomyopathy, or sudden death. Cardiac symptoms are usually dominant, as patients often present only with low-grade pulmonary involvement and no other organ involvement.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> The high morbidity and mortality make early and accurate diagnosis essential (Central Illustration).</p>
      <p>The prevalence of CS has increased during the last two decades, probably due to the use of advanced cardiac imaging. At the same time, it is remains a reversible cause of cardiomyopathy and arrhythmias that is frequently underdiagnosed.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Clinical diagnosis and current criteria</title>
        <p>Investigation for CS should be performed in individuals with known systemic sarcoidosis, especially when other organs are involved. In addition, CS should be suspected in patients under 55 years of age who present with atrioventricular block (AVB), ventricular arrhythmias, or heart failure of unclear etiology.</p>
        <p>Diagnosis of CS remains challenging due to the limited sensitivity and specificity of any single diagnostic modality, highlighting the importance of high clinical suspicion, the use of multimodal imaging to guide diagnosis and treatment, and histological findings.</p>
        <p>Endomyocardial biopsy remains the gold standard for CS diagnosis, but, due to the irregular and predominantly mesocardial pattern of involvement, it has a diagnostic yield of around 25% to 30%, with a high rate of false negatives. There is, therefore, an ongoing debate regarding the real need for histological confirmation for definitive diagnosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The main diagnostic criteria for CS have been established by the Heart Rhythm Society (HRS)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> and the Japanese Circulation Society (JCS).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> According to the HRS, definitive diagnosis requires histological confirmation of non-caseating granulomas in the myocardium, whereas probable diagnosis can be established in the presence of confirmed extracardiac sarcoidosis and typical evidence of cardiac involvement, either by imaging or characteristic clinical manifestations. On the other hand, the JCS admits the diagnosis of isolated CS even in the absence of histological confirmation, provided that there are compatible clinical and imaging findings, allowing greater sensitivity in detecting cases without apparent systemic sarcoidosis.</p>
        <p>Even though these criteria are still widely used, especially in regional contexts, no set of criteria is perfect or universally applicable.</p>
        <p>The current trend is to abandon the rigid and binary use of these criteria (positive/negative) and adopt an integrated probabilistic approach, classifying the diagnosis as:</p>
        <list list-type="bullet">
          <list-item>
            <p>Definite</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Highly probable</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Probable</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Possible/low probability</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>This approach is inspired by the World Association of Sarcoidosis and Other Granulomatous Disorders (WASOG) classification and has been adopted by multiple authors to incorporate the relative weight of clinical, laboratory, and advanced imaging findings (CMR and PET, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 1</xref>) in the final probability of CS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
        <fig id="f2">
          <label>Figure 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Diagnosis of cardiac sarcoidosis. AV: atrioventricular; CMR: cardiac magnetic resonance imaging; FDG: fluorodeoxyglucose; LV: left ventricle; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; PET/CT: positron emission tomography/computed tomography.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-01-e20250038-0038i-gf01.tif"/></fig>
        <p>Sarcoidosis is often called "the great mimicker," due to its diverse manifestations and must be differentiated from other cardiac syndromes with a similar phenotype, such as acute myocarditis, chronic inflammatory cardiomyopathies (including those related to autoimmune, hereditary and infiltrative diseases) and other granulomatous diseases. Clinical context and cardiac imaging are often insufficient to differentiate sarcoidosis from other forms of cardiac pathology that cause hereditary arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathies or myocarditis. The wide spectrum of clinical presentations and the limitations in obtaining histopathological confirmation, especially in cases of clinically isolated CS, are additional challenges in distinguishing it from alternative diagnoses. To address this complexity, a multidisciplinary team is needed, composed of specialists in systemic sarcoidosis, heart failure, electrophysiology, advanced cardiac imaging, cardiovascular genetics, and cardiac pathology.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Diagnostic modalities</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Electrocardiography</title>
          <p>Although widely available, electrocardiography (ECG) has limited sensitivity and specificity for the diagnosis of CS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Nevertheless, diagnostic guidelines have incorporated some ECG abnormalities as criteria, including conduction disturbances, AVB, frequent or multifocal ventricular extrasystoles, right or left bundle branch blocks, and abnormal Q waves.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Holter ECG can increase suspicion for CS in the presence of frequent ventricular extrasystoles, high-grade conduction abnormalities, or ventricular arrhythmias such as ventricular tachycardia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Echocardiography</title>
          <p>Transthoracic echocardiography is widely available and can be used as an initial tool to detect structural and functional abnormalities in the heart, although it does not provide detailed tissue characterization.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Although abnormal echocardiography is useful for determining cardiac involvement in patients with suspected CS (low to moderate sensitivity), a normal echocardiogram does not rule out the presence of cardiac involvement (low specificity). Abnormal findings that support diagnosis of CS include septal thinning, abnormal ventricular wall anatomy (ventricular aneurysm or regional ventricular wall thickening), unexplained left ventricular (LV) systolic dysfunction, or LV dilation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> When combined with clinical symptoms, ECG or Holter abnormalities, echocardiography increases the sensitivity for detecting CS. Furthermore, more recent echocardiographic approaches, including global longitudinal strain measurements, can assist in accurately identifying patients with CS who have preserved left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Despite its limited sensitivity and specificity, echocardiography remains useful for initial screening and serial monitoring of CS due to its wide availability and low cost.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Myocardial perfusion imaging</title>
          <p>Myocardial perfusion scintigraphy generally shows segmental areas of reduced tracer uptake in the ventricular myocardium of patients with CS, making it useful in resting assessment of scars resulting from microvascular compression and/or fibrogranulomatous replacement of myocardial tissue, which can generate perfusion defects. Generally, these defects do not follow the typical vascular distribution pattern of coronary artery disease, except in cases of very extensive involvement. Therefore, they are nonspecific findings and can be observed in ischemic dilated cardiomyopathies or cardiomyopathies of other etiologies. Thus, myocardial perfusion imaging alone is not sufficient to confidently establish the diagnosis of CS, especially in the absence of cardiac symptoms.</p>
          <p>On the other hand, positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET/CT) using <sup>18</sup>F-fluorodeoxyglucose (<sup>18</sup>F-FDG) for assessment of myocardial metabolism, associated with perfusion imaging performed with <sup>13</sup>N-ammonia, <sup>82</sup>Rb or, alternatively, single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) using <sup>99m</sup>Tc-sestamibi, has emerged as a valuable tool in the diagnosis and staging of CS. This hybrid approach allows simultaneous identification of active inflammation and areas of fibrosis, contributing to improved stratification of disease activity and chronicity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging</title>
          <p>Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMR) is a high-spatial-resolution modality that, in addition to providing detailed assessment of biventricular function, identifies and quantifies areas of myocardial injury, including edema and fibrosis, primarily through late gadolinium enhancement (LGE).</p>
          <p>Gadolinium is an extracellular contrast agent with rapid elimination from normal myocardium, but slow elimination from areas of fibrosis and inflammation, resulting in delayed enhancement in expanded extracellular space.</p>
          <p>CMR allows for precise, non-invasive evaluation of the entire heart with high accuracy in detecting focal myocardial changes typical of CS, in both the acute (edema) and chronic (fibrosis) phases. Furthermore, it provides detailed information on cardiac structure and function, also enabling the identification of mediastinal and hilar lymphadenopathy, hepatosplenic changes, and pulmonary nodules that may suggest extracardiac sarcoidosis. The technique is also capable of detecting other cardiomyopathies and ischemic disease, which reinforces its value in differential diagnosis.</p>
          <p>CMR has become a fundamental tool in the diagnostic assessment of CS, and it is routinely recommended in patients with clinical suspicion of the disease, especially given the well-recognized limited sensitivity of echocardiography.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Using clinical criteria as a reference standard and non-ischemic LGE patterns as a definition of positivity, CMR demonstrated high sensitivity (95%) and specificity (85%) for diagnosis of CS, according to a meta-analysis of 17 studies involving 1,031 individuals.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The presence of LGE is the strongest predictor of all-cause mortality and sustained ventricular arrhythmias in individuals with known or suspected CS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A systematic review and meta-analysis of macroscopic pathological images of hearts with histologically confirmed CS identified common sites of myocardial involvement. LV subepicardial, interventricular septum, LV multifocal, and right ventricular free wall involvement were observed in more than 90% of cases (frequent pathological features).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In many cases, however, the LGE pattern may be nonspecific, making it difficult to differentiate between CS, myocarditis, and other cardiomyopathies. Therefore, no single LGE pattern is sufficient to establish the diagnosis of CS. It is thus recommended that CMR findings be analyzed by a multidisciplinary team within a multimodal framework.</p>
          <p>CMR also provides a high negative predictive value, both to rule out the disease and to identify patients with a low event rate, and it may be useful in assessing other differential diagnoses (e.g., arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy, myocarditis, prior myocardial infarction).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Positron emission tomography/computed tomography using <sup>18</sup>F-fluorodeoxyglucose</title>
          <p>FDG, a glucose analogue, is sequestered in activated inflammatory cells, such as macrophages and lymphocytes, via insulin-independent glucose transporter proteins (GLUT1 and GLUT3) and, therefore, accumulates in areas of regulated glucose metabolism, including hypermetabolic sites of myocardial sarcoid infiltration. Thus, it detects metabolically active inflammatory lesions.</p>
          <p>Reviews have reported a diagnostic sensitivity of 91% and specificity of 75.5% for <sup>18</sup>F-FDG-PET/CT in the diagnosis of CS. The main cause of the limited specificity and high variability seems to be associated with physiological FDG uptake in normal myocardium. Therefore, adequate preparation for the study is essential to accurately diagnose CS using <sup>18</sup>F-FDG-PET/CT.</p>
          <p>Cardiac <sup>18</sup>F-FDG-PET/CT provides useful anatomical and morphological information to assess the location, extent, activity, and stage of the disease. As a complementary modality to CMR, it enables non-invasive image-guided diagnosis and identifies extracardiac sites suitable for biopsy, contributing to histological confirmation of systemic sarcoidosis.</p>
          <p>Furthermore, it is applied for monitoring therapeutic response, longitudinal follow-up, risk stratification, and prognosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The most characteristic pattern of CS on <sup>18</sup>F-FDG-PET/CT is multifocal radiopharmaceutical uptake, particularly when associated with resting perfusion defects (metabolic-perfusion mismatch pattern), reflecting disruption between perfusion and metabolism (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 2B</xref>). In some cases, focal FDG uptake restricted to the interventricular septum (even in the absence of late enhancement on CMR) may be the only imaging sign of sarcoid involvement, especially in patients with heart block (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 2A</xref>). When active inflammatory tissue is replaced by fibrosis, FDG uptake is not observed at the LGE sites (match pattern), i.e., metabolically inactive disease (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 2C</xref>). Findings of FDG uptake that can lead to false positives result from inadequate physiological suppression or increased glucose uptake in conditions such as hibernating myocardium, inflammatory or genetic dilated cardiomyopathies, recent infarction, and inflammatory responses following recent cardiac procedures such as ventricular ablation (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 2D</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
          <fig id="f3">
            <label>Figure 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Findings on cardiac magnetic resonance and <sup>18</sup>F-FDG-PET according to disease phenotype (adapted from Cheng et al.3). CMR: cardiac magnetic resonance imaging; CS: cardiac sarcoidosis; FDG: fluorodeoxyglucose; LGE: late gadolinium enhancement; PET: positron emission tomography.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-01-e20250038-0038i-gf02.tif"/></fig>
          <p>The extent of FDG uptake has been correlated with the risk of adverse events such as death, ventricular arrhythmias, and hospitalizations for heart failure, although CMR with LGE has shown superior prognostic capacity in some studies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Although there is still not enough data to justify the exclusive use of FDG-PET for risk stratification of sudden cardiac death, its association with CMR and clinical data may be valuable for prognostic assessment.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Patient preparation for <sup>18</sup>F-FDG-PET with: suppression of physiological FDG uptake in normal myocardium</title>
        <p>It is important to emphasize that glucose is a common energy source in healthy myocardial cells; however, unlike inflammatory cells, cardiomyocytes absorb glucose via an insulin-dependent mechanism (GLUT4) regulated by fasting and dietary composition. During fasting, more than 90% of myocardial energy metabolism is derived from fatty acid metabolism. Most of the remaining 10% involves other substances, including glucose. However, myocardial glucose metabolism during fasting varies among individuals, and in some cases, FDG uptake is observed in the myocardium even under fasting conditions. This variability can compromise <sup>18</sup>F-FDG-PET images of myocardial inflammation and affect diagnostic accuracy. Consequently, inducing a metabolic shift in the heart, defined as the transition from glucose utilization to fatty acids and fatty acid-derived ketones, can lead to the suppression of normal FDG uptake in the heart (through inhibition of GLUT4 translocation) and the identification of FDG-avid inflammatory cells.</p>
        <p>The goal is to suppress physiological uptake of glucose by the myocardium. To this end, a high-fat, low-carbohydrate diet is recommended for 12 to 24 hours, followed by prolonged fasting for 12 to 18 hours before the examination. Intravenous administration of unfractionated heparin (50 IU/kg), 15 minutes before FDG injection, has also been considered and performed by some centers. Physical activity should be avoided for 24 hours before the examination (at least 12 hours), as it increases myocardial FDG uptake. Adequate sleep the night before the examination is also recommended (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 3</xref>).</p>
        <fig id="f4">
          <label>Figure 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Patient preparation for 18F-FDG-PET/CT. FDG: fluorodeoxyglucose; PET/CT: positron emission tomography/computed tomography.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-01-e20250038-0038i-gf03.tif"/></fig>
        <p>In the case of insulin-dependent patients with diabetes, insulin use is not permitted on the day of the examination. Serum glucose level must be below 180 mg/dL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Images are acquired approximately 60 to 90 minutes after FDG injection.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Interpretation of cardiac <sup>18</sup>F-FDG-PET/CT</title>
      <p>Interpretation of <sup>18</sup>F-FDG-PET/CT images in CS is based on the identification of FDG uptake patterns, such as focal or focal-over-diffuse uptake, which are indicative of active inflammation.</p>
      <p>Semiquantitative analysis, using the standardized uptake value (SUV), can help quantify inflammatory activity and assess treatment response,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> although there is no evidence relating specific SUV values to clinical outcomes, nor is there a validated SUV threshold that differentiates CS from normal myocardium.</p>
      <p>In the context of monitoring treatment response, FDG-PET is used to assess changes in inflammatory activity after the introduction of immunosuppressive therapies, such as corticosteroids. A reduction in FDG uptake after treatment is associated with a favorable response.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Combined analysis of CMR and FDG-PET</title>
      <p>Studies have demonstrated that the hybrid CMR/FDG-PET approach improves diagnostic and prognostic accuracy in patients with CS. The simultaneous presence of LGE and FDG uptake is a strong indicator of active CS, associated with an increased risk of adverse cardiac events, such as cardiac arrest and ventricular tachycardia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Furthermore, the combination of these modalities enhances risk stratification and monitoring of treatment response, especially in patients with suspected or confirmed cardiac involvement.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
      <p>The hybrid approach is also useful in complex cases, for example, patients with prior myocardial infarction, where differentiating between post-infarction fibrosis and sarcoid inflammation may be challenging.</p>
      <p>Therefore, the combination of FDG-PET and CMR provides a more comprehensive view of cardiac pathology, supporting clinical decision-making and therapeutic management of CS.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Final considerations</title>
      <p>In patients with clinical suspicion of sarcoidosis with cardiac involvement, CMR represents an excellent screening modality, as the absence of LGE is associated with a high negative predictive value, as well as excellent prognosis. In patients with contraindications to CMR and symptoms suggestive of active disease, FDG-PET combined with resting myocardial perfusion scintigraphy can also be used for the diagnosis of cardiac and extracardiac disease. In addition, serial assessment of inflammation using FDG-PET has been recommended to monitor response to therapy, thus guiding the duration and choice of medications. Despite growing recognition that CMR and FDG-PET imaging can identify patients at higher risk of adverse events, randomized multicenter trials are lacking to guide and standardize follow-up. Future studies are needed to determine the benefits of image-guided therapies, with the aim of improving these patients&#8217; prognosis.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Illustrative clinical cases</title>
      <p><bold>Case 1</bold> &#8211; A 68-year-old female patient with hypertension presented to the emergency department due to tachycardia and dyspnea at rest. ECG revealed sustained ventricular tachyarrhythmia and clinical signs of decompensated heart failure. Immediate electrical cardioversion was performed, and intravenous amiodarone was administered. Invasive coronary angiography revealed nonobstructive coronary arteries, severe LV systolic dysfunction, and diffuse hypokinesia. CMR revealed moderate left atrial enlargement, LV with global systolic dysfunction (LVEF = 40%). A moderate amount of multifocal LGE was present, unrelated to coronary topography. Enhancement was transmural in the anterior segments (apical and basal); heterogeneous and mid-myocardial to subepicardial in the inferior and anterolateral (medial and basal) segments, with endocardial sparing; and heterogeneous along the right ventricular side of the interventricular septum. The pattern was thus compatible with CS (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 4A</xref>). Pulse therapy with intravenous corticosteroids was indicated, followed by implantation of a cardioverter-defibrillator.</p>
      <fig id="f5">
        <label>Figure 4</label>
        <caption>
          <title>(A) Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging with gadolinium demonstrating late enhancement in the septo-apical and lateral regions. (B) Myocardial perfusion scintigraphy with 99mTc-sestamibi &#8211; horizontal long axis demonstrating hypoperfusion in the apical segments. (C) 18F-FDG PET/CT with abnormal radiotracer uptake in the left ventricle, sparing the inferolateral wall, representing a focal-on-diffuse pattern. FDG: fluorodeoxyglucose; PET/CT: positron emission tomography/computed tomography.</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-01-e20250038-0038i-gf04.tif"/></fig>
      <p>Two months after hospital discharge, with reduced dose of corticosteroids, the patient presented with fatigue on exertion, palpitations, and afternoon fever. There were no other symptoms of infection, and leukogram revealed mild leukocytosis. Recurrence of myocardial inflammation due to active disease was suspected. PET/CT with <sup>18</sup>F-FDG associated with resting myocardial perfusion scintigraphy with <sup>99m</sup>Tc-sestamibi was requested to assess inflammation and perfusion. Scintigraphy demonstrated anteroseptal, septoapical, and apical hypoperfusion, LVEF of 29%, diffuse hypokinesia, and akinesia of the apical segments (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 4B</xref>). <sup>18</sup>F-FDG-PET/CT revealed abnormal radiopharmaceutical uptake throughout the anterior and septal walls of the LV, sparing the inferolateral wall, corresponding to an active inflammatory process, with a pattern described as "focal-on-diffuse" (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 4C</xref>).</p>
      <p>Prednisone was resumed at a dose of 1 mg/kg/day, and methotrexate was added to the treatment. She showed a good response and significant clinical improvement</p>
      <p><bold>Case 2</bold> &#8211; A 56-year-old male patient without comorbidities received a diagnosis of myocardial infarction with non-obstructive coronary arteries (MINOCA) after hospital admission for chest pain and dyspnea, with coronary computed tomography angiography and invasive coronary angiography showing no obstructive lesions. CMR demonstrated increased LV volumes, reduced wall thickness, and akinesia of the inferior, inferoseptal, and basal inferolateral segments. The myocardial mass with LGE was estimated at 27% of the LV. Echocardiography confirmed these findings, with akinesia and thinning of the basal segment of the inferior wall, hypokinesia of the remaining walls, more pronounced in the inferior and inferolateral septum, and global LV dysfunction (LVEF = 35%). ECG showed sinus rhythm, first degree AVB, and complete left bundle branch block. He remained on clinical treatment for heart failure and MINOCA.</p>
      <p>Two years later, the patient's functional class worsened, with progressive fatigue during even moderate exertion. A 24-hour Holter ECG demonstrated periods of complete AVB, and the patient was referred for pacemaker implantation, with suspected inflammatory/infiltrative disease. He was also referred for PET/CT with <sup>18</sup>F-FDG and resting myocardial perfusion scintigraphy with <sup>99m</sup>Tc-sestamibi to assess inflammation and perfusion.</p>
      <p>SPECT/CT scintigraphy demonstrated pronounced hypoperfusion throughout the inferior, inferolateral, and basal inferoseptal walls, LVEF of 31%, diffuse hypokinesia and akinesia of the inferior wall, and inferoseptal dyskinesia (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figures 5</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">6</xref>, respectively). An <sup>18</sup>F-FDG-PET/CT scan revealed abnormal uptake of the radiopharmaceutical in the septal region, inferior region, and throughout the lateral wall, corresponding to an active inflammatory process (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figure 7</xref>), demonstrating a metabolic-perfusion mismatch, a pattern described as focal-on-diffuse. In addition, there was increased uptake in subcarinal lymph nodes and pulmonary hila. Lymph node biopsy confirmed the diagnosis of sarcoidosis, and the patient underwent corticosteroid therapy, with a favorable response in terms of functional class and improved LV function.</p>
      <fig id="f6">
        <label>Figure 5</label>
        <caption>
          <title>SPECT/CT with <sup>99</sup>mTc-sestamibi showing fusion images in the axial, sagittal, and coronal axes demonstrating pronounced hypoperfusion of the radiotracer in the inferior, inferoseptal, and inferolateral walls of the left ventricle. SPECT/CT: single-photon emission computed tomography/computed tomography.</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-01-e20250038-0038i-gf05.tif"/></fig>
      <fig id="f7">
        <label>Figure 6</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Gated-SPECT em repouso com uma reconstru&#231;&#227;o tridimensional do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo demonstrando fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o de 31%, aumento dos volumes ventriculares, acinesia inferior e discinesia inferosseptal. SPECT: tomografia computadorizada de emiss&#227;o de f&#243;ton &#250;nico.</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-01-e20250038-0038i-gf06.tif"/></fig>
      <fig id="f8">
        <label>Figura 7</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Resting gated-SPECT with three-dimensional reconstruction of the left ventricle demonstrating ejection fraction of 31%, increased ventricular volumes, inferior akinesia, and inferoseptal dyskinesia. SPECT: single-photon emission computed tomography.</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-01-e20250038-0038i-gf07.tif"/></fig>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1">
        <label>Sources of Funding</label>
        <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
        <label>Study Association</label>
        <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
        <label>Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate</label>
        <p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn4">
        <label>Use of Artificial Intelligence</label>
        <p>The authors did not use any artificial intelligence tools in the development of this work.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <sec sec-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-in-article">
      <title>Availability of Research Data</title>
      <p>The underlying content of the research text is contained within the manuscript.</p>
    </sec>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="S1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20250038</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Sarcoidose Card&#237;aca: Papel da Multimodalidade de Imagens</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Carreira</surname>
            <given-names>Lara Cristiane Terra Ferreira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>an&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0004-5098-6223</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Carreira</surname>
            <given-names>L&#237;via</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>an&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9310-3580</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Brito</surname>
            <given-names>Adriana Soares Xavier de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>an&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff5">
          <label>1</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Curitiba</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">PR</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Cardiologia Nuclear de Curitiba (CNC), Curitiba, PR &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff6">
          <label>2</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Curitiba</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">PR</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">PUC Paran&#225;, Curitiba, PR &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff7">
          <label>3</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto Nacional de Cardiologia, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff8">
          <label>4</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Rede D&#8217;Or S&#227;o Luiz, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><label>Correspond&#234;ncia:</label><bold>Adriana Soares Xavier de Brito</bold> &#8226; Instituto Nacional de Cardiologia. Rua das Laranjeiras, 374. CEP: <postal-code>22240-006</postal-code>. Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil E-mail: <email>adrijsoares@hotmail.com</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="coi-statement">
          <label>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</label>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <label>Editor respons&#225;vel pela revis&#227;o:</label>
          <p>Marcelo Tavares</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p>A sarcoidose card&#237;aca (SC) &#233; uma manifesta&#231;&#227;o potencialmente grave da sarcoidose sist&#234;mica, associada a bloqueios card&#237;acos avan&#231;ados, arritmias ventriculares, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e morte s&#250;bita. O diagn&#243;stico permanece desafiador devido &#224; variabilidade fenot&#237;pica e &#224;s limita&#231;&#245;es dos m&#233;todos diagn&#243;sticos convencionais. Avan&#231;os nas t&#233;cnicas de imagem, especialmente a combina&#231;&#227;o de tomografia por emiss&#227;o de p&#243;sitrons/tomografia computadorizada (PET/CT) com <sup>18</sup>F-FDG e resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca (RMC), revolucionaram a abordagem diagn&#243;stica e o acompanhamento terap&#234;utico da SC. Este artigo revisa os conceitos atuais da SC, seu diagn&#243;stico com foco no papel do PET/CT, a import&#226;ncia do preparo adequado do paciente e a integra&#231;&#227;o com a RMC.</p>
      </abstract>
      <abstract abstract-type="graphical">
        <p>
          <fig id="f9">
            <p>Manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas da sarcoidose card&#237;aca. BAV: bloqueio atrioventricular.</p>
            <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-01-e20250038-0038i-gf01-pt.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave</title>
        <kwd>Sarcoidose</kwd>
        <kwd>Tomografia por Emiss&#227;o de P&#243;sitrons</kwd>
        <kwd>Fluordesoxiglucose F18</kwd>
        <kwd>Imageamento por Resson&#226;ncia Magn&#233;tica</kwd>
        <kwd>Imageamento Multimodal</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <funding-group>
        <funding-statement><bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold> O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</funding-statement>
      </funding-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>A sarcoidose &#233; uma doen&#231;a granulomatosa inflamat&#243;ria de etiologia desconhecida, caracterizada por granulomas n&#227;o caseosos que podem afetar m&#250;ltiplos &#243;rg&#227;os.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A doen&#231;a acomete os pulm&#245;es e os linfonodos tor&#225;cicos em aproximadamente 90% dos casos, mas tamb&#233;m pode envolver o cora&#231;&#227;o, f&#237;gado, ba&#231;o, pele, olhos, gl&#226;ndulas par&#243;tidas, entre outros &#243;rg&#227;os e tecidos. Estima-se que 20% a 25% dos pacientes com sarcoidose pulmonar e/ou sist&#234;mica apresentem envolvimento card&#237;aco assintom&#225;tico (doen&#231;a clinicamente silenciosa),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> enquanto cerca de 5% apresentam envolvimento card&#237;aco clinicamente manifesto. Esse acometimento implica maior morbimortalidade, decorrente de uma cardiopatia infiltrativa com intensa inflama&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica.</p>
        <p>Aproximadamente metade dos casos de sarcoidose card&#237;aca (SC) ocorre na forma isolada, sem evid&#234;ncia de sarcoidose sist&#234;mica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A fisiopatologia da SC envolve uma resposta imunol&#243;gica exagerada a ant&#237;genos ambientais em indiv&#237;duos geneticamente predispostos. Essa resposta culmina na ativa&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas T e forma&#231;&#227;o de granulomas, com posterior evolu&#231;&#227;o para fibrose mioc&#225;rdica. A doen&#231;a afeta mais frequentemente indiv&#237;duos entre 25 e 55 anos, com predom&#237;nio em mulheres, pessoas negras e japonesas, sendo respons&#225;vel por uma propor&#231;&#227;o significativa de morte s&#250;bita em adultos jovens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A SC pode se manifestar como arritmias, bloqueios atrioventriculares, cardiomiopatia dilatada ou morte s&#250;bita. Os sintomas card&#237;acos geralmente s&#227;o dominantes, j&#225; que os pacientes costumam apresentar apenas comprometimento pulmonar de baixo grau e nenhum outro &#243;rg&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> A alta morbimortalidade torna essencial um diagn&#243;stico precoce e preciso (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">Figura Central</xref>).</p>
        <p>A preval&#234;ncia da SC tem aumentado nas &#250;ltimas duas d&#233;cadas, provavelmente devido &#224; utiliza&#231;&#227;o de imagens card&#237;acas avan&#231;adas. No entanto, continua sendo uma causa revers&#237;vel de cardiomiopatia e arritmias ainda subdiagnosticada.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Diagn&#243;stico cl&#237;nico e crit&#233;rios atuais</title>
          <p>A investiga&#231;&#227;o de SC deve ser realizada em indiv&#237;duos com sarcoidose sist&#234;mica conhecida, especialmente na presen&#231;a de acometimento de outros &#243;rg&#227;os. Al&#233;m disso, a hip&#243;tese diagn&#243;stica deve ser considerada em pacientes com menos de 55 anos que apresentem bloqueio atrioventricular (BAV), arritmias ventriculares ou insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca de etiologia n&#227;o esclarecida.</p>
          <p>O diagn&#243;stico da SC permanece desafiador devido &#224; falta de sensibilidade e especificidade de um &#250;nico m&#233;todo diagn&#243;stico, ressaltando a import&#226;ncia da suspeita cl&#237;nica elevada, do uso de imagens multimodais para orientar o diagn&#243;stico e o tratamento e dos achados histol&#243;gicos.</p>
          <p>A bi&#243;psia endomioc&#225;rdica permanece como o padr&#227;o ouro para o diagn&#243;stico de SC, mas, devido ao padr&#227;o de envolvimento irregular e predominantemente mesoc&#225;rdico, apresenta um rendimento diagn&#243;stico em torno de 25% a 30%, com elevada taxa de falsos negativos. Por isso, h&#225; um cont&#237;nuo debate sobre a real necessidade de confirma&#231;&#227;o histol&#243;gica para o diagn&#243;stico definitivo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Os principais crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos para SC s&#227;o os estabelecidos pela Heart Rhythm Society (HRS)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> e pela Japanese Circulation Society (JCS).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Segundo a HRS, o diagn&#243;stico definitivo requer comprova&#231;&#227;o histol&#243;gica de granulomas n&#227;o caseosos no mioc&#225;rdio, enquanto o diagn&#243;stico prov&#225;vel pode ser estabelecido na presen&#231;a de sarcoidose extracard&#237;aca confirmada e evid&#234;ncias t&#237;picas de envolvimento card&#237;aco, seja por imagem ou manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas caracter&#237;sticas. Por outro lado, a JCS admite o diagn&#243;stico de SC isolada mesmo na aus&#234;ncia de confirma&#231;&#227;o histol&#243;gica, desde que haja achados cl&#237;nicos e de imagem compat&#237;veis, permitindo maior sensibilidade na detec&#231;&#227;o de casos sem sarcoidose sist&#234;mica aparente.</p>
          <p>Embora esses crit&#233;rios ainda sejam amplamente utilizados, especialmente em contextos regionais, nenhum conjunto de crit&#233;rios &#233; perfeito ou universalmente aplic&#225;vel.</p>
          <p>A tend&#234;ncia atual &#233; abandonar o uso r&#237;gido e bin&#225;rio desses crit&#233;rios (positivo/negativo) e adotar uma abordagem probabil&#237;stica integrada, classificando o diagn&#243;stico como:</p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p>Definido</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Altamente prov&#225;vel</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Prov&#225;vel</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Poss&#237;vel/baixa probabilidade</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>Essa abordagem &#233; inspirada na classifica&#231;&#227;o da World Association of Sarcoidosis and Other Granulomatous Disorders (WASOG) e tem sido adotada por diversos autores para incorporar o peso relativo dos achados cl&#237;nicos, laboratoriais e de imagem avan&#231;ada (RMC e PET, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figura 1</xref>) na probabilidade final de SC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
          <fig id="f10">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Diagn&#243;stico da sarcoidose card&#237;aca. AV: atrioventricular; Eco: ecocardiografia; FDG: fluordesoxiglicose; FEVE: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda; PET/CT: tomografia por emiss&#227;o de p&#243;sitrons/tomografia computadorizada; RMC: resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca; VE: ventr&#237;culo esquerdo.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-01-e20250038-0038i-gf02-pt.tif"/></fig>
          <p>A sarcoidose &#233; frequentemente chamada de "a grande simuladora", devido &#224;s suas manifesta&#231;&#245;es diversas, e deve ser diferenciada de outras s&#237;ndromes card&#237;acas com fen&#243;tipo semelhante, como miocardite aguda, cardiomiopatias inflamat&#243;rias cr&#244;nicas (incluindo aquelas relacionadas a doen&#231;as autoimunes, heredit&#225;rias e infiltrativas) e outras doen&#231;as granulomatosas. O contexto cl&#237;nico e a imagem card&#237;aca muitas vezes s&#227;o insuficientes para diferenciar a sarcoidose de outras formas de patologia card&#237;aca que causam cardiomiopatias arritmog&#234;nicas heredit&#225;rias ou miocardite. O amplo espectro de apresenta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas e as limita&#231;&#245;es para se obter confirma&#231;&#227;o histopatol&#243;gica, especialmente nos casos de SC clinicamente isolada, s&#227;o desafios adicionais para distingui-la de diagn&#243;sticos alternativos. Para lidar com essa complexidade, &#233; necess&#225;ria uma equipe multidisciplinar, composta por especialistas em sarcoidose sist&#234;mica, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, eletrofisiologia, imagem card&#237;aca avan&#231;ada, gen&#233;tica cardiovascular e patologia card&#237;aca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Modalidades diagn&#243;sticas</title>
          <sec>
            <title>Eletrocardiografia</title>
            <p>Embora amplamente dispon&#237;vel, o eletrocardiograma (ECG) tem baixa sensibilidade e especificidade para o diagn&#243;stico de SC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Entretanto, algumas anormalidades eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas, como retardo na condu&#231;&#227;o, BAV, extrass&#237;stoles ventriculares multifocais ou frequentes, bloqueios de ramo direito ou esquerdo e ondas Q anormais, s&#227;o incorporadas como crit&#233;rios por diretrizes diagn&#243;sticas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
            <p>O Holter ECG pode aumentar a suspeita de SC na presen&#231;a de extrass&#237;stoles ventriculares frequentes, altera&#231;&#245;es de condu&#231;&#227;o de alto grau ou arritmias ventriculares como taquicardia ventricular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Ecocardiografia</title>
            <p>A ecocardiografia transtor&#225;cica &#233; amplamente dispon&#237;vel e pode ser utilizada como uma ferramenta inicial para detectar anormalidades estruturais e funcionais no cora&#231;&#227;o, embora n&#227;o forne&#231;a caracteriza&#231;&#227;o tecidual detalhada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Apesar do ecocardiograma anormal ser &#250;til para determinar o envolvimento card&#237;aco em um paciente com suspeita de SC (sensibilidade baixa a moderada), o ecocardiograma normal n&#227;o exclui a presen&#231;a de envolvimento card&#237;aco (baixa especificidade). Achados anormais que apoiam o diagn&#243;stico de SC podem incluir crit&#233;rios como adelga&#231;amento septal, anatomia anormal da parede ventricular (aneurisma ventricular, espessamento regional da parede ventricular), disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica inexplic&#225;vel do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (VE) ou dilata&#231;&#227;o do VE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Quando combinada com sintomas cl&#237;nicos, altera&#231;&#245;es no ECG ou Holter, o ecocardiograma aumenta a sensibilidade para a detec&#231;&#227;o de SC. Al&#233;m disso, abordagens ecocardiogr&#225;ficas mais recentes, incluindo medidas da deforma&#231;&#227;o (<italic>strain</italic>) longitudinal global, podem ajudar na identifica&#231;&#227;o precisa de pacientes com SC com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda (FEVE) preservada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Apesar da baixa sensibilidade e especificidade, o ecocardiograma pode ser &#250;til para a triagem inicial da SC e para o monitoramento seriado, devido &#224; sua ampla disponibilidade e baixo custo.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Imagem de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica</title>
            <p>A cintilografia de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica geralmente evidencia &#225;reas segmentares de hipocapta&#231;&#227;o do tra&#231;ador no mioc&#225;rdio ventricular dos pacientes com SC, sendo &#250;til na avalia&#231;&#227;o da presen&#231;a de cicatrizes em repouso, resultantes de compress&#227;o microvascular e/ou de substitui&#231;&#227;o fibrogranulomatosa do tecido mioc&#225;rdico, o que pode gerar defeitos de perfus&#227;o. Geralmente, esses defeitos n&#227;o seguem o padr&#227;o t&#237;pico de distribui&#231;&#227;o vascular da doen&#231;a arterial coronariana, exceto em casos de acometimento muito extenso. Logo, s&#227;o achados inespec&#237;ficos, podendo ser observados em cardiomiopatias dilatadas isqu&#234;micas ou de outras etiologias. Assim, a imagem de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica isolada n&#227;o &#233; suficiente para estabelecer com confian&#231;a o diagn&#243;stico de SC, especialmente na aus&#234;ncia de sintomas card&#237;acos.</p>
            <p>Por outro lado, a tomografia por emiss&#227;o de p&#243;sitrons/tomografia computadorizada (PET/CT) com <sup>18</sup>F-fluordesoxiglicose (<sup>18</sup>F-FDG) para avalia&#231;&#227;o do metabolismo mioc&#225;rdico, associada &#224;s imagens de perfus&#227;o obtidas por <sup>13</sup>N-am&#244;nia, 8<sup>2</sup>Rb ou, alternativamente, por tomografia computadorizada de emiss&#227;o de f&#243;ton &#250;nico (SPECT) com <sup>99m</sup>Tc-sestamibi, consolidou-se como uma ferramenta valiosa no diagn&#243;stico e estadiamento da SC. Essa abordagem h&#237;brida permite a identifica&#231;&#227;o simult&#226;nea de inflama&#231;&#227;o ativa e &#225;reas de fibrose, contribuindo para uma melhor estratifica&#231;&#227;o da atividade e da cronicidade da doen&#231;a.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca</title>
            <p>A resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca (RMC) &#233; uma t&#233;cnica de alta resolu&#231;&#227;o espacial que, al&#233;m da avalia&#231;&#227;o detalhada da fun&#231;&#227;o biventricular, identifica e quantifica &#225;reas de dano mioc&#225;rdico, incluindo edema e cicatriz, principalmente por meio da t&#233;cnica de realce tardio com gadol&#237;nio (RTG).</p>
            <p>O gadol&#237;nio &#233; um agente de contraste extracelular com elimina&#231;&#227;o r&#225;pida do mioc&#225;rdio normal, mas elimina&#231;&#227;o lenta de &#225;reas de fibrose e inflama&#231;&#227;o, resultando em realce tardio no espa&#231;o extracelular expandido.</p>
            <p>Permite a avalia&#231;&#227;o precisa e n&#227;o invasiva de todo o cora&#231;&#227;o, com alta acur&#225;cia para detectar altera&#231;&#245;es focais do mioc&#225;rdio t&#237;picas da SC, tanto na fase aguda (edema) quanto cr&#244;nica (fibrose). Al&#233;m disso, fornece informa&#231;&#245;es detalhadas sobre a estrutura e fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, possibilitando tamb&#233;m a identifica&#231;&#227;o de linfadenopatias mediastinais e hilares, altera&#231;&#245;es hepatoespl&#234;nicas e n&#243;dulos pulmonares que podem sugerir sarcoidose extracard&#237;aca. A t&#233;cnica ainda &#233; capaz de detectar outras cardiomiopatias e doen&#231;a isqu&#234;mica, o que refor&#231;a seu valor no diagn&#243;stico diferencial.</p>
            <p>A RMC tornou-se uma ferramenta fundamental na avalia&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica da SC, sendo recomendada de forma rotineira nos pacientes com suspeita cl&#237;nica da doen&#231;a, sobretudo diante da reconhecida baixa sensibilidade do ecocardiograma.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Usando crit&#233;rios cl&#237;nicos como refer&#234;ncia e padr&#245;es de RTG n&#227;o isqu&#234;micos como defini&#231;&#227;o de positividade, a RMC demonstrou alta sensibilidade (95%) e especificidade (85%) para o diagn&#243;stico de SC, segundo uma metan&#225;lise de 17 estudos envolvendo 1.031 indiv&#237;duos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
            <p>A presen&#231;a de RTG &#233; o fator preditor mais forte de mortalidade por todas as causas e de arritmias ventriculares sustentadas em indiv&#237;duos com SC conhecida ou suspeita.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Em uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica e metan&#225;lise de imagens patol&#243;gicas macrosc&#243;picas de cora&#231;&#245;es com SC confirmada histologicamente, foram identificados locais comuns de acometimento card&#237;aco pela sarcoidose: envolvimento subepic&#225;rdico do VE, septo interventricular, envolvimento multifocal do VE e parede livre do ventr&#237;culo direito (VD) foram observados em mais de 90% dos casos (caracter&#237;sticas frequentes na patologia).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Contudo, em muitos casos, o padr&#227;o de RTG pode ser inespec&#237;fico, dificultando a diferencia&#231;&#227;o entre SC, miocardite e outras cardiomiopatias. Logo, nenhum padr&#227;o de RTG &#233; suficiente, por si s&#243;, para estabelecer o diagn&#243;stico de SC. Sendo assim, recomenda-se que os achados de RMC sejam analisados por equipe multidisciplinar em ambiente de correla&#231;&#227;o multimodal.</p>
            <p>A RMC tamb&#233;m oferece um alto valor preditivo negativo, tanto para descartar a doen&#231;a quanto para identificar pacientes com baixa taxa de eventos, e pode ser &#250;til na avalia&#231;&#227;o de outros diagn&#243;sticos diferenciais (por exemplo: cardiomiopatia arritmog&#234;nica do VD, miocardite, infarto do mioc&#225;rdio pr&#233;vio).</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Tomografia por emiss&#227;o de p&#243;sitrons/tomografia computadorizada com <sup>18</sup>F-fluordesoxiglicose</title>
            <p>O FDG, um an&#225;logo da glicose, &#233; sequestrado em c&#233;lulas inflamat&#243;rias ativadas, como macr&#243;fagos e linf&#243;citos, atrav&#233;s de prote&#237;nas de transporte de glicose independentes de insulina (GLUT1 e GLUT3) e, portanto, acumula-se em &#225;reas de metabolismo regulado da glicose, como locais hipermetab&#243;licos de infiltra&#231;&#227;o de sarcoidose mioc&#225;rdica. Logo, detecta les&#245;es inflamat&#243;rias metabolicamente ativas.</p>
            <p>Revis&#245;es mostram uma sensibilidade diagn&#243;stica de 91% e especificidade de 75,5% no diagn&#243;stico de SC com <sup>18</sup>F-FDG-PET/CT. A principal causa da baixa especificidade e alta variabilidade parece estar associada &#224; capta&#231;&#227;o fisiol&#243;gica do FDG no mioc&#225;rdio normal. Logo, uma prepara&#231;&#227;o adequada para o estudo &#233; essencial para diagnosticar com precis&#227;o a SC usando <sup>18</sup>F-FDG-PET/CT.</p>
            <p>A <sup>18</sup>F-FDG-PET/CT fornece informa&#231;&#245;es anat&#244;micas e morfol&#243;gicas &#250;teis para avaliar localiza&#231;&#227;o, extens&#227;o, atividade e est&#225;gio da doen&#231;a. Complementar &#224; RMC, permite um diagn&#243;stico n&#227;o invasivo guiado por imagem, al&#233;m de identificar locais extracard&#237;acos acess&#237;veis para bi&#243;psia, contribuindo para a confirma&#231;&#227;o histol&#243;gica da sarcoidose sist&#234;mica.</p>
            <p>Al&#233;m disso, &#233; aplicada para monitoramento da resposta terap&#234;utica, acompanhamento longitudinal, estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco e progn&#243;stico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
            <p>O padr&#227;o mais caracter&#237;stico da SC pela <sup>18</sup>F-FDG-PET/CT &#233; a capta&#231;&#227;o multifocal do radiof&#225;rmaco, sobretudo quando coincide com defeitos de perfus&#227;o em repouso (<italic>padr&#227;o mismatch</italic> metab&#243;lico-perfusional), situa&#231;&#227;o que caracteriza o desarranjo entre perfus&#227;o e metabolismo (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11">Figura 2B</xref>). Em alguns casos, a capta&#231;&#227;o focal de FDG restrita ao septo interventricular &#8212; mesmo na aus&#234;ncia de realce tardio na RMC &#8212; pode representar o &#250;nico sinal por imagem de acometimento sarco&#237;dico, especialmente em pacientes com bloqueio card&#237;aco (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11">Figura 2A</xref>). Quando o tecido inflamat&#243;rio ativo &#233; substitu&#237;do por fibrose, n&#227;o se observa a capta&#231;&#227;o de FDG nos locais de RTG (<italic>padr&#227;o match</italic>), ou seja, doen&#231;a metabolicamente inativa (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11">Figura 2C</xref>). Achados de capta&#231;&#227;o de FDG que podem levar a falsos positivos decorrem de supress&#227;o fisiol&#243;gica inadequada ou de aumento da capta&#231;&#227;o glic&#234;mica em condi&#231;&#245;es como mioc&#225;rdio hibernante, cardiomiopatias dilatadas inflamat&#243;rias ou gen&#233;ticas, infarto recente e, tamb&#233;m, em resposta inflamat&#243;ria a procedimentos card&#237;acos recentes, como abla&#231;&#227;o ventricular (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11">Figura 2D</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
            <fig id="f11">
              <label>Figura 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Achados na resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca e 18F-FDG-PET de acordo com o fen&#243;tipo da doen&#231;a (adaptado de Cheng e cols.3). FDG: fluordesoxiglicose; PET: tomografia por emiss&#227;o de p&#243;sitrons; RMC: resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca; RTG: realce tardio com gadol&#237;nio; SC: sarcoidose card&#237;aca.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-01-e20250038-0038i-gf03-pt.tif"/></fig>
            <p>A extens&#227;o da capta&#231;&#227;o de FDG tem sido correlacionada com o risco de eventos adversos como morte, arritmias ventriculares e hospitaliza&#231;&#245;es por insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, embora a RMC com RTG tenha mostrado uma capacidade progn&#243;stica superior em alguns estudos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Apesar de ainda n&#227;o existirem dados suficientes que justifiquem o uso exclusivo da FDG-PET para estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco de morte s&#250;bita card&#237;aca, sua associa&#231;&#227;o com a RMC e com dados cl&#237;nicos pode ser valiosa para avalia&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Prepara&#231;&#227;o do paciente para o PET com <sup>18</sup>F-FDG: m&#233;todo para suprimir a capta&#231;&#227;o fisiol&#243;gica de FDG no mioc&#225;rdio normal</title>
          <p>&#201; importante ressaltar que a glicose &#233; uma fonte de energia comum nas c&#233;lulas saud&#225;veis do mioc&#225;rdio, entretanto, diferentemente das c&#233;lulas inflamat&#243;rias, os mi&#243;citos absorvem a glicose atrav&#233;s de um mecanismo dependente de insulina (GLUT4) regulado pelo jejum e pela composi&#231;&#227;o da dieta. Mais de 90% do metabolismo energ&#233;tico do mioc&#225;rdio em jejum &#233; baseado no metabolismo de &#225;cidos graxos. A maior parte dos 10% restantes envolve outras subst&#226;ncias, incluindo glicose. No entanto, o metabolismo de glicose do mioc&#225;rdio em jejum varia entre os indiv&#237;duos, e, em alguns casos, observa-se a capta&#231;&#227;o de FDG no mioc&#225;rdio, mesmo sob condi&#231;&#245;es de jejum. Essa varia&#231;&#227;o dificulta o uso do PET com <sup>18</sup>F-FDG para imagem de inflama&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica, o que pode afetar a precis&#227;o diagn&#243;stica. Consequentemente, induzir uma "mudan&#231;a metab&#243;lica" no cora&#231;&#227;o, definida como a transi&#231;&#227;o da utiliza&#231;&#227;o de glicose para &#225;cidos graxos e cetonas derivadas de &#225;cidos graxos, pode levar &#224; supress&#227;o da capta&#231;&#227;o normal de FDG no cora&#231;&#227;o (atrav&#233;s da inibi&#231;&#227;o da transloca&#231;&#227;o do GLUT4) e &#224; identifica&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas inflamat&#243;rias &#225;vidas por FDG.</p>
          <p>O objetivo &#233; suprimir a capta&#231;&#227;o fisiol&#243;gica de glicose pelo mioc&#225;rdio. Para isso, orienta-se dieta rica em gordura e isenta de carboidratos por 12 a 24 horas, seguida por jejum prolongado de 12 a 18 horas antes do exame.</p>
          <p>A administra&#231;&#227;o intravenosa de heparina n&#227;o fracionada (50UI/kg), 15 minutos antes da inje&#231;&#227;o do FDG, tamb&#233;m tem sido considerada e realizada por alguns centros. A atividade f&#237;sica deve ser evitada por 24 horas antes do exame (12 horas, no m&#237;nimo), pois aumenta a capta&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica de FDG. Recomenda-se tamb&#233;m uma boa noite de sono. (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f12">Figura 3</xref>).</p>
          <fig id="f12">
            <label>Figura 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Preparo do paciente para a 18F-FDG-PET/CT. FDG: fluordesoxiglicose; PET/CT: tomografia por emiss&#227;o de p&#243;sitrons/tomografia computadorizada.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-01-e20250038-0038i-gf04-pt.tif"/></fig>
          <p>Em caso de pacientes diab&#233;ticos insulino-dependentes, n&#227;o &#233; permitido o uso de insulina no dia do exame. O n&#237;vel de glicose s&#233;rica deve estar abaixo de 180 mg/dL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
          <p>As imagens s&#227;o adquiridas em torno de 60 a 90 minutos ap&#243;s a inje&#231;&#227;o do FDG.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Interpreta&#231;&#227;o da <sup>18</sup>F-FDG-PET/CT card&#237;aca</title>
        <p>A interpreta&#231;&#227;o das imagens <sup>18</sup>F-FDG-PET/CT na SC baseia-se na identifica&#231;&#227;o de padr&#245;es de capta&#231;&#227;o de FDG, como capta&#231;&#227;o focal ou focal sobre difusa, que s&#227;o indicativos de inflama&#231;&#227;o ativa.</p>
        <p>A an&#225;lise semiquantitativa, utilizando o valor m&#225;ximo de capta&#231;&#227;o padronizado (SUV, do ingl&#234;s <italic>standard uptake value</italic>), pode ajudar a quantificar a atividade inflamat&#243;ria e avaliar a resposta ao tratamento,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> embora n&#227;o haja evid&#234;ncia que relacione valores espec&#237;ficos de SUV com desfechos cl&#237;nicos, nem exista um limite validado de SUV que diferencie SC de mioc&#225;rdio normal.</p>
        <p>No contexto do monitoramento da resposta ao tratamento, a FDG-PET &#233; utilizada para avaliar mudan&#231;as na atividade inflamat&#243;ria ap&#243;s a introdu&#231;&#227;o de terapias imunossupressoras, como por exemplo corticosteroide. A redu&#231;&#227;o na capta&#231;&#227;o de FDG ap&#243;s o tratamento &#233; associada a uma resposta favor&#225;vel.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>An&#225;lise conjunta da RMC com FDG-PET</title>
        <p>Estudos demonstram que a abordagem h&#237;brida RMC/FDG-PET melhora a precis&#227;o diagn&#243;stica e progn&#243;stica em pacientes com SC. A presen&#231;a simult&#226;nea de RTG e capta&#231;&#227;o de FDG &#233; um forte indicador de SC ativa, associada a um risco aumentado de eventos card&#237;acos adversos, como parada card&#237;aca e taquicardia ventricular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Al&#233;m disso, a combina&#231;&#227;o dessas modalidades permite uma melhor estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco e monitoramento da resposta ao tratamento, especialmente em pacientes com envolvimento card&#237;aco suspeito ou confirmado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A abordagem h&#237;brida tamb&#233;m &#233; &#250;til em casos complexos, como pacientes com infarto do mioc&#225;rdio pr&#233;vio, onde a diferencia&#231;&#227;o entre fibrose p&#243;s-infarto e inflama&#231;&#227;o sarcoid&#243;tica pode ser desafiadora.</p>
        <p>Portanto, a combina&#231;&#227;o de FDG-PET e RMC oferece uma vis&#227;o mais completa da patologia card&#237;aca, auxiliando na tomada de decis&#245;es cl&#237;nicas e no manejo terap&#234;utico da SC.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Considera&#231;&#245;es finais</title>
        <p>Em pacientes com suspeita cl&#237;nica de sarcoidose com envolvimento card&#237;aco, a RMC oferece um excelente teste de triagem, pois a aus&#234;ncia de RTG est&#225; associada a um alto valor preditivo negativo para a exclus&#227;o de doen&#231;a, bem como a um excelente progn&#243;stico. Em pacientes com contraindica&#231;&#245;es &#224; RMC e naqueles com sintomas sugestivos de doen&#231;a em atividade, a FDG-PET em conjunto com a cintilografia de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica em repouso tamb&#233;m pode ser utilizada para o diagn&#243;stico de doen&#231;a card&#237;aca e extracard&#237;aca. Al&#233;m disso, a avalia&#231;&#227;o seriada da inflama&#231;&#227;o por FDG-PET tem sido preconizada para acompanhar a resposta &#224; terapia, orientando assim a dura&#231;&#227;o e escolha dos medicamentos. No entanto, embora haja um reconhecimento crescente de que as imagens com RMC e FDG-PET possam identificar pacientes com maior risco de eventos adversos, n&#227;o existem ensaios cl&#237;nicos multic&#234;ntricos randomizados orientando e padronizando o seguimento. Estudos futuros s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para determinar o benef&#237;cio das terapias guiadas por imagem, visando melhorar o progn&#243;stico desses pacientes.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Casos cl&#237;nicos ilustrativos</title>
        <p><bold>Caso 1</bold> &#8211; Paciente do sexo feminino, 68 anos, portadora de hipertens&#227;o arterial. Procurou a emerg&#234;ncia hospitalar devido &#224; taquicardia e dispneia em repouso. O ECG revelou taquiarritmia ventricular sustentada e quadro cl&#237;nico de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca descompensada. Foi realizada cardiovers&#227;o el&#233;trica imediata e administrada amiodarona venosa. A coronariografia invasiva revelou art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias sem les&#245;es obstrutivas, disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica grave do VE e hipocinesia difusa. A RMC revelou aumento moderado do &#225;trio esquerdo, VE com disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica global (FEVE = 40%). Presen&#231;a de quantidade moderada de realce tardio multifocal, sem rela&#231;&#227;o com a topografia coronariana; de padr&#227;o transmural nos segmentos anterior (apical e basal); de padr&#227;o heterog&#234;neo, mesoepic&#225;rdico, poupando o endoc&#225;rdio acometendo os segmentos inferiores, anterolateral (medial e basal) e de padr&#227;o heterog&#234;neo no lado ventricular direito do septo interventricular, com padr&#227;o compat&#237;vel com SC (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f13">Figura 4A</xref>). Foi indicada a pulsoterapia com corticosteroide venoso, seguida por implante de cardiodesfibrilador.</p>
        <p>Dois meses ap&#243;s a alta hospitalar e com redu&#231;&#227;o da dose do corticosteroide, a paciente apresentou cansa&#231;o aos esfor&#231;os, palpita&#231;&#245;es e febre vespertina. N&#227;o havia outros sintomas de infec&#231;&#227;o e o leucograma revelou leucocitose discreta. Houve suspeita de recidiva da inflama&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica por doen&#231;a em atividade. Foi solicitada PET/CT com <sup>18</sup>F-FDG associada a cintilografia mioc&#225;rdica de perfus&#227;o em repouso com <sup>99m</sup>Tc-sestamibi para avalia&#231;&#227;o de inflama&#231;&#227;o e perfus&#227;o. A cintilografia demonstrou hipoperfus&#227;o anterosseptal, septo-apical e apical, FEVE de 29%, hipocinesia difusa e acinesia dos segmentos apicais (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f13">Figura 4B</xref>). O <sup>18</sup>F-FDG-PET/CT revelou capta&#231;&#227;o an&#244;mala do radiof&#225;rmaco em toda a parede anterior e septal do VE, poupando a parede inferolateral, correspondendo a processo inflamat&#243;rio em atividade, com padr&#227;o descrito como "focal em difuso" (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f13">Figura 4C</xref>).</p>
        <fig id="f13">
          <label>Figura 4</label>
          <caption>
            <title>(A) Resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca com gadol&#237;nio demonstrando realce tardio na regi&#227;o septo-apical e lateral. (B) Cintilografia mioc&#225;rdica de perfus&#227;o com 99mTc-sestamibi &#8211; eixo longo horizontal demonstrando hipoperfus&#227;o nos segmentos apicais. (C) 18F-FDG-PET/CT com capta&#231;&#227;o an&#244;mala do radiotra&#231;ador no ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, poupando a parede inferolateral, configurando o padr&#227;o focal em difuso. FDG: fluordesoxiglicose; PET/CT: tomografia por emiss&#227;o de p&#243;sitrons/tomografia computadorizada.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-01-e20250038-0038i-gf05-pt.tif"/></fig>
        <p>A paciente foi orientada a retornar &#224; prednisona, para dose de 1 mg/kg/dia, e metotrexato foi associado ao tratamento. Apresentou boa resposta e melhora cl&#237;nica significativa.</p>
        <p><bold>Caso 2</bold> &#8211; Paciente do sexo masculino, 56 anos, sem comorbidades. Recebeu o diagn&#243;stico de infarto do mioc&#225;rdio com coron&#225;rias n&#227;o obstrutivas (MINOCA) ap&#243;s interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar por dor tor&#225;cica e dispneia, com angiotomografia de coron&#225;rias e coronariografia invasiva sem les&#245;es obstrutivas. Realizou RMC que demonstrou VE com volumes aumentados, espessura de parede reduzida e acinesia dos segmentos inferiores, inferosseptal e inferolateral basal. A massa mioc&#225;rdica com RTG foi estimada em 27% do VE. O ecocardiograma confirmou esses achados, com acinesia e afilamento do segmento basal da parede inferior, hipocinesia das demais paredes, mais acentuada no septo inferior e inferolateral e disfun&#231;&#227;o global do VE (FEVE = 35%). O ECG demonstrou ritmo sinusal, BAV de 1&#186; grau e bloqueio de ramo esquerdo completo. Permaneceu em tratamento cl&#237;nico para insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e MINOCA.</p>
        <p>Ap&#243;s dois anos evoluiu com piora da classe funcional, com cansa&#231;o progressivo at&#233; os moderados esfor&#231;os. Realizou Holter de 24 horas que demonstrou per&#237;odos de BAV total e foi encaminhado para implante de marcapasso, com suspeita de doen&#231;a inflamat&#243;ria/infiltrativa. O paciente foi encaminhado para o exame de PET/CT com <sup>18</sup>F-FDG e cintilografia mioc&#225;rdica de perfus&#227;o em repouso com <sup>99m</sup>Tc-sestamibi para avalia&#231;&#227;o de inflama&#231;&#227;o e perfus&#227;o.</p>
        <p>A cintilografia SPECT/CT demonstrou hipoperfus&#227;o acentuada em toda parede inferior, inferolateral e inferosseptal basal, FEVE de 31%, hipocinesia difusa e acinesia da parede inferior e discinesia inferosseptal (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f14">Figuras 5</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f15">6</xref>, respectivamente). A <sup>18</sup>F-FDG-PET/CT revelou capta&#231;&#227;o an&#244;mala do radiof&#225;rmaco na regi&#227;o septal, inferior e toda a extens&#227;o da parede lateral, correspondendo a processo inflamat&#243;rio em atividade (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f16">Figura 7</xref>), demonstrando o <italic>"mismatch</italic> metab&#243;lico-perfusional", padr&#227;o descrito como "focal em difuso". Al&#233;m disso, houve hipercapta&#231;&#227;o em linfonodos da cadeia subcarinal e nos hilos pulmonares. A bi&#243;psia de linfonodo confirmou o diagn&#243;stico de sarcoidose e o paciente foi submetido a terapia com corticosteroide, com boa resposta evolutiva da classe funcional, e incremento na fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda.</p>
        <fig id="f14">
          <label>Figura 5</label>
          <caption>
            <title>SPECT/CT com <sup>99</sup>mTc-sestamibi com imagens de fus&#227;o nos eixos axial, sagital e coronal demonstrando hipoperfus&#227;o acentuada do radiotra&#231;ador nas paredes inferior, inferosseptal e inferolateral do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo. SPECT/CT: tomografia computadorizada de emiss&#227;o de f&#243;ton &#250;nico/tomografia computadorizada.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-01-e20250038-0038i-gf06-pt.tif"/></fig>
        <fig id="f15">
          <label>Figura 6</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Gated-SPECT em repouso com uma reconstru&#231;&#227;o tridimensional do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo demonstrando fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o de 31%, aumento dos volumes ventriculares, acinesia inferior e discinesia inferosseptal. SPECT: tomografia computadorizada de emiss&#227;o de f&#243;ton &#250;nico.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-01-e20250038-0038i-gf07-pt.tif"/></fig>
        <fig id="f16">
          <label>Figura 7</label>
          <caption>
            <title><sup>18</sup>F-FDG-PET/CT demonstrando aumento heterog&#234;neo da capta&#231;&#227;o do radiotra&#231;ador nas paredes do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, envolvendo a regi&#227;o do septo interventricular e com destaque na parede lateral. FDG: fluordesoxiglicose; PET/CT: tomografia por emiss&#227;o de p&#243;sitrons/tomografia computadorizada.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-39-01-e20250038-0038i-gf08-pt.tif"/></fig>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn5">
          <label>Fontes de Financiamento</label>
          <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
          <p>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn7">
          <p>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#201;tica e Consentimento Informado</p>
          <p>Este artigo n&#227;o cont&#233;m estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn8">
          <label>Uso de Intelig&#234;ncia Artificial</label>
          <p>Os autores n&#227;o utilizaram ferramentas de intelig&#234;ncia artificial no desenvolvimento deste trabalho.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <sec sec-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-in-article">
        <title>Disponibilidade de Dados</title>
        <p>Os conte&#250;dos subjacentes ao texto da pesquisa est&#227;o contidos no manuscrito.</p>
      </sec>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
