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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abcic</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Imagem Cardiovasc.</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
<issn pub-type="ppub">2318-8219</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Departamento de Imagem Cardiovascular da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiolodia (DIC/SBC)</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20250078i</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="other">abcimg.20250078i</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Review Article</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>How I Assess Left Ventricular Systolic Function</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4500-5270</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Rodrigues</surname><given-names>Ana Clara Tude</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">INRAD</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Instituto de Radiologia do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">INRAD – Instituto de Radiologia do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo (HCFMUSP), São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><label>Mailing Address:</label> <bold>Ana Clara Tude Rodrigues</bold> • Instituto de Radiologia (INRAD) do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo (HCFMUSP), Setor de Ecocardiografia. Rua particular, SN. Postal Code: <postal-code>05403-010</postal-code>, São Paulo, SP – Brazil E-mail: <email>anaclaratuderodrigues3@gmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="coi-statement"><label>Potential Conflict of Interest</label>
<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><label>Editor responsible for the review:</label> <p>Marcelo Tavares</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>30</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2025</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2025</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>38</volume>
<issue>4</issue>
<elocation-id>e20250078</elocation-id>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>12</day>
<month>11</month>
<year>2025</year>
</date>
<date date-type="rev-recd">
<day>12</day>
<month>11</month>
<year>2025</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>12</day>
<month>11</month>
<year>2025</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>Assessment of left ventricular systolic function is central to transthoracic echocardiography and remains essential in clinical practice and research. Although left ventricular ejection fraction is still the most widely used parameter, advances in echocardiographic techniques have broadened diagnostic assessment. This review summarizes key methods for evaluating systolic function, from traditional linear measurements to modern two- and three-dimensional volumetric approaches. The roles and limitations of the Simpson method, contrast echocardiography, three-dimensional imaging, myocardial deformation analysis, and artificial intelligence are discussed, emphasizing the importance of an integrated and individualized approach.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords</title>
<kwd>Echocardiography</kwd>
<kwd>Left Ventricular Function</kwd>
<kwd>Heart Rate</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<funding-group>
<funding-statement><bold>Sources of Funding</bold> There were no external funding sources for this study.</funding-statement>
</funding-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="10"/>
<table-count count="0"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="15"/>
</counts>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<sec>
<title>My Approach to the Echocardiographic Assessment of Left Ventricular Systolic Function</title>
<p>Assessment of Left Ventricular (LV) systolic function is a cornerstone of transthoracic echocardiography and is essential in both clinical practice and cardiovascular research. Left Ventricular Ejection Fraction (LVEF) is widely used for risk stratification, diagnosis, and follow-up of conditions such as heart failure, valvular heart disease, cardiomyopathies, and chemotherapy-related cardiotoxicity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Although cardiac magnetic resonance imaging is the gold standard for volumetric quantification, echocardiography is more accessible, noninvasive, low-cost, and applicable in multiple clinical settings. Technological advances and artificial intelligence algorithms have increased accuracy, reproducibility, and the early detection of functional abnormalities,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> strengthening echocardiography as a first-line imaging modality. Here, we review the main echocardiographic methods used to analyze LV systolic function, with emphasis on practical applications and limitations. Historically, the Teichholz formula, described in the 1970s, estimated ventricular volumes using M-mode or two-dimensional (2D) diameter measurements. Although groundbreaking at the time, it relied heavily on rigid geometric assumptions and is valid only for normal hearts and situations in which high precision is not required. Diameters are measured in the parasternal long-axis view at the level of the chordae tendineae, at end-diastole (LVEDD) and end-systole (LVESD), following guideline recommendations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Small deviations in the ultrasound beam can lead to errors, making standardization essential. This method is no longer routinely used in the United States and Europe, but it still appears in some practices in Brazil, especially in high-volume settings and in patients without structural heart disease. Beginning in the 1990s, the biplane Simpson&apos;s method, also known as the modified biplane method of disks, became the reference technique for quantifying ventricular volumes and LVEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> This method reconstructs the LV geometry using images from apical four- and two-chamber views, with adequate endocardial definition. At end-diastole (the largest cavity, identified at the onset of the QRS complex) and end-systole (the smallest cavity), the endocardial border is manually or semi-automatically traced, excluding papillary muscles and trabeculations, which are considered part of the cavity. The software divides the ventricle into multiple thin cylindrical disks to calculate end-diastolic and end-systolic volumes, from which LVEF is automatically derived (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>). The primary technical requirement is to avoid LV foreshortening by ensuring truly orthogonal apical views, preventing volume underestimation. We use this method routinely in patients with regional wall-motion abnormalities, LV dysfunction, and in cases in which clinical decisions depend on precise LVEF quantification, such as in heart failure, cardiomyopathies, valvular heart disease, and selection for cardiac resynchronization therapy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> For patients requiring greater accuracy, even when the heart appears structurally normal, such as those receiving or about to receive cardiotoxic chemotherapy, the Simpson method remains the technique of choice. In this context, when available, Three-dimensional (3D) echocardiography is preferred because it reduces variability in volume and EF measurements, which is essential when rigorous monitoring is needed.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Some limitations of the biplane method, however, must be acknowledged: its accuracy depends strongly on acoustic window quality; therefore, in cases with suboptimal images, we use Ultrasound Contrast Agents (UCA), microbubbles of gas encapsulated by lipid, protein, or polymer shells and administered intravenously.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> These microbubbles act as strong acoustic scatterers, increasing signal intensity and improving endocardial border delineation, which allows for more accurate volume and LVEF measurements (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>). It is important to emphasize that UCAs should be reserved for situations with a clear clinical need for enhanced endocardial definition or volumetric quantification, considering their additional costs and potential adverse effects. When the Simpson method cannot be applied due to a limited acoustic window, and UCAs are not available, LVEF may be estimated visually, integrating apical and parasternal views. Visual estimation is widely used in clinical practice and even in major clinical trials in which volumetric quantification was not feasible.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Another limitation of the Simpson method is the presence of localized contraction abnormalities in the anteroseptal or inferolateral walls. In these cases, when feasible, 3D echocardiography should be prioritized. This technique allows full-volume LV acquisition from multiple planes, eliminating geometric assumptions and providing precise cavity reconstructions (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>). Image quality may still limit adequate volume acquisition, particularly in patients with poor acoustic windows, although recent advances in software and image acquisition have improved processing speed and reliability. Additionally, 3D echocardiography reduces interobserver variability and improves accuracy in volume and EF assessment, making it particularly useful in patients with significant ventricular remodeling.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Although inter- and intraobserver variability is lower with the biplane method than with linear measurements, it may still occur, especially in studies with limited technical quality. Finally, compared with cardiac MRI, the Simpson method tends to underestimate absolute volumes, although it maintains good correlation for LVEF. For this reason, 3D echocardiography is generally preferred for more precise volume estimation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Regarding myocardial deformation imaging with two-dimensional speckle tracking, in my practice, I incorporate this analysis whenever LV impairment is suspected but not fully characterized by conventional 2D echocardiography (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 4</xref>). This includes cases such as unexplained increases in myocardial thickness, use of potentially cardiotoxic drugs,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> or subtle signs of ventricular dysfunction. For such, we use apical two-, three-, and four-chamber images with adequate endocardial definition, manually or semi-automatically tracing endocardial borders at end-diastole and end-systole to calculate Global Longitudinal Strain (GLS), aiming to acquire at least two consecutive cardiac cycles to reduce variability. Despite being dependent on image quality, GLS is highly sensitive and reproducible, especially with new automated software, and provides a reliable complementary assessment of LV systolic function [1,2]. The need for extensive technical training has become less relevant due to recent technological advances. More recently, artificial intelligence (AI) tools have been incorporated into echocardiographic practice, with algorithms capable of automating 2D, 3D, and strain analyses. These systems enhance standardization, reduce analysis time, and allow the detection of subtle patterns imperceptible to conventional techniques, increasing efficiency and reproducibility. I have used these software tools for cardiac diameter measurement, 2D and 3D volume calculation, and strain assessment;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> however, manual adjustments are still necessary to ensure measurement accuracy. As these technologies continue to evolve, a substantial portion of repetitive echocardiographic tasks will become automated, reducing manual workload.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Thus, my current approach to evaluating LV systolic function combines traditional methods with advanced technologies, applied critically and individualized to each patient&apos;s clinical context.</p>
<fig id="f1">
<label>Figure 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Apical 2- and 4-chamber images used to obtain LV volumes and ejection fraction using the biplane Simpson method. EDV: End Diastolic Volume; ESV: End Systolic Volume.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-38-04-e20250078-gf01.tif"/>
</fig>
<fig id="f2">
<label>Figure 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Apical 4- and 2-chamber images with limited quality. After administration of the ultrasound contrast agent, there is improved endocardial visualization, enabling accurate delineation and reliable biplane measurements. A mural apical thrombus is also visible. EDV: End Diastolic Volume; ESV: End Systolic Volume.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-38-04-e20250078-gf02.tif"/>
</fig>
<fig id="f3">
<label>Figure 3</label>
<caption>
<title>Two- and three-dimensional images with LVEF measurements in a patient with peripartum cardiomyopathy and significant systolic dysfunction. Measurements were obtained semi-automatically.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-38-04-e20250078-gf03.tif"/>
</fig>
<fig id="f4">
<label>Figure 4</label>
<caption>
<title>Two-dimensional speckle-tracking strain analysis in a patient with suspected hemochromatosis. LVEF was preserved, but GLS was reduced, especially in basal LV segments.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-38-04-e20250078-gf04.tif"/>
</fig>
<fig id="f5">
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-38-04-e20250078-gf05.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1">
<label>Sources of Funding</label>
<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
<label>Study Association</label>
<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
<label>Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate</label>
<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn4">
<label>Use of Artificial Intelligence</label>
<p>The authors did not use any artificial intelligence tools in the development of this work.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
<sec sec-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-in-article">
<title>Availability of Research Data</title>
<p>The underlying content of the research text is contained within the manuscript.</p>
</sec>
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<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S1" xml:lang="pt">
<front-stub>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20250078</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Como Avalio a Função Sistólica do Ventrículo Esquerdo</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4500-5270</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Rodrigues</surname><given-names>Ana Clara Tude</given-names></name>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
<role>Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">INRAD – Instituto de Radiologia do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo (HCFMUSP), São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff4">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c2"><label>Correspondência:</label> <bold>Ana Clara Tude Rodrigues</bold> • Instituto de Radiologia (INRAD) do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo (HCFMUSP), Setor de Ecocardiografia. Rua particular, SN. CEP: <postal-code>05403-010</postal-code>, São Paulo, SP – Brasil E-mail: <email>anaclaratuderodrigues3@gmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="coi-statement"><label>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</label>
<p>Declaro não haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><label>Editor responsável pela revisão:</label> <p>Marcelo Tavares</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<abstract>
<title>Resumo</title>
<p>A avaliação da função sistólica do ventrículo esquerdo pelo ecocardiograma é essencial na prática clínica e na pesquisa cardiovascular. Embora a fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo continue sendo o parâmetro mais utilizado, os avanços nas técnicas ecocardiográficas ampliaram a avaliação diagnóstica. Esta revisão resume os principais métodos para a avaliação da função sistólica, desde medidas lineares tradicionais até abordagens volumétricas bidimensionais e tridimensionais mais modernas. São discutidos os papéis e as limitações do método de Simpson, da ecocardiografia com contraste, imagem tridimensional, análise da deformação miocárdica e das ferramentas de inteligência artificial, enfatizando a importância de uma abordagem integrada e individualizada.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
<title>Palavras-chave</title>
<kwd>Ecocardiografia</kwd>
<kwd>Função Ventricular Esquerda</kwd>
<kwd>Frequência Cardíaca</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<funding-group>
<funding-statement><bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold> O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</funding-statement>
</funding-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<sec>
<title>Avaliação Ecocardiográfica da Função Sistólica do Ventrículo Esquerdo: Uma Abordagem Prática</title>
<p>A avaliação da função sistólica do Ventrículo Esquerdo (VE) é um dos pilares do ecocardiograma transtorácico, essencial na prática clínica e na pesquisa em cardiologia. A Fração de Ejeção do Ventrículo Esquerdo (FEVE) é amplamente utilizada na estratificação de risco, no diagnóstico e no acompanhamento de condições como insuficiência cardíaca, cardiopatias valvares, miocardiopatias e cardiotoxicidade por quimioterápicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Embora a ressonância magnética cardíaca seja padrão-ouro para quantificação volumétrica, a ecocardiografia é mais disponível, não invasiva, de baixo custo e aplicável em diversos cenários. Avanços tecnológicos e algoritmos de IA aumentaram a acurácia, a reprodutibilidade e a detecção precoce de alterações funcionais,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> consolidando a ecocardiografia como exame de primeira linha. Revisaremos aqui os principais métodos ecocardiográficos para análise da função sistólica do VE, com foco em aplicações práticas e limitações. Historicamente, a fórmula de Teichholz, descrita nos anos 70, estima volumes ventriculares a partir de diâmetros obtidos no modo-M ou bidimensional (2D). Apesar de ter sido um marco, baseia-se em pressupostos geométricos rígidos, sendo válida apenas para corações normais e quando não é necessário grande precisão. Os diâmetros são medidos na janela paraesternal longitudinal, ao nível das cordoalhas tendíneas, no final da diástole (DDVE) e no final da sístole (DSVE), seguindo recomendações.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Pequenas inclinações do feixe de ultrassom podem gerar erros, o que torna a sua padronização fundamental. Hoje não é mais usada rotineiramente nos Estados Unidos e Europa, mas ainda é usada em serviços no Brasil, especialmente em locais com grande volume e para pacientes sem cardiopatia. A partir da década de 1990, o método de Simpson biplanar, conhecido como método de discos modificado, tornou-se a técnica de referência para a quantificação dos volumes ventriculares e FEVE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Este método baseia-se na reconstrução geométrica da cavidade ventricular com imagens obtidas a partir dos planos apicais de quatro e duas câmaras, com adequada definição endocárdica. No final da diástole (maior cavidade, identificada no início do complexo QRS) e no final da sístole (menor cavidade), realizamos o traçado manual ou semiautomático do contorno endocárdico, excluindo músculos papilares e trabeculações, considerados parte da cavidade. O software divide o ventrículo em múltiplos discos cilíndricos de pequena espessura, calculando os volumes diastólico final e sistólico final, a partir dos quais a FEVE é automaticamente derivada (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 1</xref>). A principal exigência técnica é evitar o encurtamento do VE, garantindo cortes apicais verdadeiramente ortogonais, para que os volumes não sejam subestimados. Usamos esse método rotineiramente para pacientes com comprometimento segmentar, disfunção ventricular esquerda e aqueles cujas decisões clínicas dependam da quantificação precisa da FEVE, como na insuficiência cardíaca, miocardiopatias, valvopatias e estratificação para terapia de ressincronização cardíaca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Para pacientes que necessitem maior acurácia na quantificação da função sistólica, mesmo na presença de corações aparentemente normais, como aqueles pré ou em uso de quimioterapia, este também é o método de escolha. Nesta situação, inclusive, quando disponível, a Ecocardiografia Tridimensional (3D) é preferida, pois reduz a variabilidade na estimativa dos volumes e da FE, fundamental em situações que exigem monitorização rigorosa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Algumas limitações, entretanto, devem ser reconhecidas para o método biplanar: primeiramente, a sua acurácia é dependente da qualidade da janela acústica; desta forma, em casos com janela limitada, utilizamos os Agentes de Realce Ultrassonográfico (ARU), constituídos por microbolhas de gás estabilizadas por uma cápsula lipídica, proteica ou polimérica, injetadas por via endovenosa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Essas microbolhas funcionam como potentes dispersores do feixe ultrassônico, aumentando a intensidade do sinal e proporcionando melhor delineamento das bordas endocárdicas, o que possibilita mensurações mais acuradas de volumes e da FEVE (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura 2</xref>). É importante ressaltar que os ARUs devem ser reservados para casos em que haja necessidade inequívoca de melhor definição endocárdica ou quantificação volumétrica, considerando-se seus custos adicionais e potenciais efeitos adversos. Nas situações nas quais o método de Simpson não pode ser aplicado em função da janela limitada e o ARU não está disponível, a FEVE pode ser estimada visualmente, combinando janelas apicais e paraesternais. A estimativa visual é amplamente utilizada na prática clínica e, inclusive, em grandes ensaios clínicos nos quais não foi possível realizar a quantificação volumétrica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Outra limitação do método de Simpson são as alterações de contratilidade localizadas nas paredes anteroseptal ou inferolateral. Nesses casos, o ecocardiograma 3D, quando viável, deve ser priorizado. Essa técnica permite a aquisição volumétrica completa do VE a partir de múltiplos planos, eliminando pressupostos geométricos e oferecendo reconstruções precisas da cavidade (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figura 3</xref>). A qualidade da imagem ainda pode limitar a obtenção de volumes adequados, especialmente em pacientes com janela acústica subótima, embora os avanços recentes em software e aquisição de imagens tenham tornado o processamento mais rápido e confiável. Além disso, a técnica reduz a variabilidade interobservador e melhora a acurácia na avaliação de volumes e FE, sendo particularmente útil em pacientes com remodelamento ventricular acentuado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Embora a variabilidade inter e intraobservador do método biplanar seja menor do que nas medidas lineares, ela ainda pode ocorrer, especialmente em exames de qualidade técnica restrita. Finalmente, comparado à ressonância magnética cardíaca o método de Simpson tende a subestimar valores absolutos de volumes, embora mantenha boa correlação para a FEVE, sendo desta forma também mais adequada a utilização do eco 3D para esta estimativa mais precisa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Em relação ao estudo da deformação miocárdica por <italic>speckle-tracking</italic> bidimensional, em minha prática, incorporo esta análise sempre que há suspeita de comprometimento do VE que não esteja inteiramente caracterizado pela ecocardiografia 2D convencional (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">Figura 4</xref>). Isso inclui situações como aumento inexplicado da espessura miocárdica, uso de fármacos cardiotóxicos<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> ou sinais duvidosos de disfunção ventricular. Para isso, usamos as imagens apicais de duas, três e quatro câmaras desde que apresentem adequada definição endocárdica, traçando manual ou semiautomaticamente o contorno endocárdico ao final da diástole e da sístole, para o cálculo do <italic>Strain</italic> Global Longitudinal (GLS) pelo software, procurando adquirir pelo menos dois ciclos consecutivos para reduzir a variabilidade. Apesar das limitações relacionadas principalmente à qualidade da imagem, o GLS se mostra altamente sensível e reprodutível, principalmente com a utilização de novos softwares automatizados, complementando de forma confiável a avaliação da função sistólica do VE [1,2]; a necessidade de treinamento técnico tem sido de menor importância em função do avanço tecnológico. Finalmente, mais recentemente, recursos de inteligência artificial (IA) têm sido incorporados à prática ecocardiográfica, com algoritmos capazes de automatizar análises 2D, 3D e de deformação miocárdica. Esses sistemas promovem maior padronização, reduzem o tempo de análise e permitem a detecção de padrões sutis não identificáveis pelas técnicas convencionais, aumentando a eficiência e a reprodutibilidade dos exames. Tenho utilizado esses softwares para a mensuração de diâmetros cardíacos e para obtenção de volumes pelo 2D e 3D e avaliação de <italic>strain;</italic><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> contudo, ainda é necessário realizar edições para garantir a acurácia das medidas. Com o contínuo aprimoramento das técnicas, grande parte das tarefas repetitivas do ecocardiograma poderá ser automatizada, reduzindo o esforço manual.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Dessa forma, a avaliação da função sistólica do VE como eu faço atualmente, combina métodos tradicionais e tecnologias avançadas, aplicadas de maneira crítica e individualizada conforme o contexto clínico de cada paciente.</p>
<fig id="f6">
<label>Figura 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Imagens apicais de duas e quatrto câmaras utilizadas para obtenção dos volumes e da fração de ejeção pelo método de Simpson biplanar.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-38-04-e20250078-gf01-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<fig id="f7">
<label>Figura 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Imagens bidimensionais apicais de quatro e duas câmaras com qualidade limitada. Após o uso de agente de realce ultrassonográfico, observa-se melhor definição das bordas endocárdicas, permitindo delineamento adequado e medidas confiáveis pelo método biplanar. Nota-se ainda trombo mural em ápice.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-38-04-e20250078-gf02-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<fig id="f8">
<label>Figura 3</label>
<caption>
<title>Imagens bidimensionais e tridimensionais com medidas da fração de ejeção em paciente com cardiomiopatia periparto e disfunção sistólica importante. As medidas foram obtidas de forma semiautomática.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-38-04-e20250078-gf03-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<fig id="f9">
<label>Figura 4</label>
<caption>
<title>Análise de <italic>strain</italic> bidimensional por <italic>speckle-tracking</italic> em paciente com suspeita de hemocromatose. A fração de ejeção estava preservada, mas observa-se redução do strain global longitudinal (GLS), principalmente em segmentos basais do ventrículo esquerdo.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-38-04-e20250078-gf04-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<fig id="f10">
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-38-04-e20250078-gf05-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn5">
<label>Fontes de Financiamento</label>
<p>O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
<label>Vinculação Acadêmica</label>
<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn7">
<label>Aprovação Ética e Consentimento Informado</label>
<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn8">
<label>Uso de Inteligência Artificial</label>
<p>Os autores não utilizaram ferramentas de inteligência artificial no desenvolvimento deste trabalho.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
<sec sec-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-in-article">
<title>Disponibilidade de Dados</title>
<p>Os conteúdos subjacentes ao texto da pesquisa estão contidos no manuscrito.</p>
</sec>
</back>
</sub-article>
</article>
