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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abcic</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Imagem Cardiovasc.</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
<issn pub-type="ppub">2318-8219</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Departamento de Imagem Cardiovascular da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiolodia (DIC/SBC)</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20250059i</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abcimg.20250059i</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Editorial</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Between the Physiological and the Pathological Spectra: When the Athlete&apos;s Heart Demands More Than Admiration</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6569-0776</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Calvilho</surname><given-names>Antonio Amador</given-names><suffix>Júnior</suffix></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0003-0058-4413</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Nisgoski</surname><given-names>Julia Galetto</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0005-8699-4812</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Pires</surname><given-names>Maria Eduarda da Silva</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0008-2779-963X</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Nunes</surname><given-names>Joao Nádson Granja</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0002-5988-7622</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Branco</surname><given-names>Beatriz Moraes dos Santos</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia, São Paulo SP – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Paulista</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade Paulista – Medicina, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><label>Mailing Address:</label> <bold>Antonio Amador Calvilho Júnior</bold> • Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia – Ecocardiografia. Av. Dante Pazzanese, 500, Postal Code: <postal-code>04012-909</postal-code>. São Paulo, SP – Brazil E-mail: <email>dr.calvilho@gmail.com</email></corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>14</day>
<month>11</month>
<year>2025</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2025</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>38</volume>
<issue>3</issue>
<elocation-id>e20250059</elocation-id>
<permissions>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords</title>
<kwd>Echocardiography</kwd>
<kwd>Exercise-Induced Cardiomegaly</kwd>
<kwd>Cardiomyopathies</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="0"/>
<table-count count="4"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="10"/>
</counts>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<sec>
<title/>
<p>The increasing participation in high-intensity sports has expanded the role of cardiology in athlete screening and monitoring. Although Sudden Cardiac Death (SCD) is rare, it has a deep impact on society as a whole. Echocardiography is central in this setting, serving as the primary imaging modality to distinguish physiological remodeling in the athlete&apos;s heart from structural cardiomyopathies.</p>
<p>Prolonged and intense exercise induces adaptive phenotypic and physiological changes that enhance myocardial performance. These adaptations, known as &quot;athlete&apos;s heart,&quot; are extensively studied because they need to be differentiated from potentially fatal cardiovascular diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> The Athlete&apos;s Heart shares phenotypic characteristics with several pathological conditions, such as Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy (HCM), Dilated Cardiomyopathy (DCM), and Arrhythmogenic Right Ventricular Cardiomyopathy (ARVC).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Cardiologists need to be aware of these overlaps to correctly diagnose and prevent serious outcomes, especially in young, apparently healthy individuals, who may not experience symptoms until they engage in intense exercise. Equally important is the ability to identify normal adaptive cardiac remodeling, thereby enabling precise screening and appropriate guidance for elite athletes.</p>
<p>Pre-participation sports evaluation is recommended as a preventive measure for athletes’ SCD and begins with clinical evaluation and electrocardiography. However, up to 16% of SCD cases are linked to structural heart disease without electrocardiographic abnormalities.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Many of these conditions could be detected earlier through cardiovascular imaging. For this reason, some professional sports organizations have incorporated echocardiography, a low-cost and widely accessible tool, into initial screening protocols, and in some cases, as the only test performed at baseline evaluation. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<p>This editorial underscores the importance of identifying echocardiographic &quot;red flags&quot; in athletes, findings that may warrant further investigation or temporary restriction from competition. These borderline features, situated between physiological adaptation and early disease, demand both high-quality image acquisition and expert interpretation. Therefore, defining the scope of relevant echocardiographic parameters in this population, as well as clarifying when adaptations should raise suspicion of pathology, remains a key priority.</p>
<sec>
<title>Comprehensive Echocardiographic Evaluation in Athletes</title>
<p>A well-conducted echocardiogram should follow minimum quality protocols and be tailored to the athlete&apos;s clinical context.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> To increase sensitivity in detecting structural heart disease, it is recommended that athletes’ echocardiograms include:</p>
<list list-type="order">
<list-item><p>Multiple short-axis views to assess ventricular wall thickness in all segments.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Detailed assessment of the presence of myocardial trabeculations.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Visualization of the origin of the left and right coronary arteries.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Measurement of Left ventricular Global Longitudinal Strain (GLS) and Left Atrial Strain (LAS) whenever possible.</p></list-item>
</list>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Echocardiography in Athletes: What is Expected?</title>
<p>Evaluating an athlete&apos;s heart requires not only technical expertise from the echocardiographer but also clinical sensitivity to recognize the complexities and nuances of physiological remodeling. Recognizing that there will often be uncertainties in the interpretation of the findings is important, which may require more specific and targeted additional investigations. To achieve this, the health professional must fully understand the expected cardiac adaptations, the variability of findings according to the type and volume of exercise, and the impact of factors such as the athlete&apos;s ethnicity, sex, age, and body composition.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<p>Structural and functional changes in the athlete&apos;s heart vary widely according to the predominant type of effort involved in the sport. Endurance sports, for example, tend to cause greater dilation of the cardiac chambers, while strength sports can lead to a more pronounced increase in ventricular wall thickness. <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref> summarizes the main echocardiographic characteristics expected in the normally adapted athlete&apos;s heart.</p>
<table-wrap id="t1">
<label>Table 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Normal echocardiographic findings in the athlete&apos;s heart<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="50%">
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Echocardiographic finding</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Description in athletes</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Cardiac chamber dilation</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Symmetrical dilatation of LV and RV; common in several modalities.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Left ventricular thickening</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Slight increase in wall thickness, especially in endurance athletes.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Eccentric LV remodeling</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Increased LV volume without disproportionate thickness.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">LV systolic function</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Preserved or increased when assessed by specific methods, such as longitudinal strain by speckle tracking, this is evident even when the ejection fraction is slightly reduced.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Diastolic function</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">LV diastolic function is usually preserved or even optimized in adaptive states, as is the case with the &quot;supernormal&quot; pattern with a mitral inflow E/A ratio &gt;2.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Atrial dilation</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Frequent biatrial dilation, especially in men.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Aortic root</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Slight dilation of the aortic root may occur within physiological limits.</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN1">
<p>AE: Átrio esquerdo; VD: Ventrículo direito; VE: ventrículo esquerdo.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Echocardiographic Red Flags: How to Recognize Suspicious Alterations in an Athlete&apos;s Heart</title>
<p>Certain echocardiographic findings should raise suspicion of pathology in athletes because they deviate from typical physiological adaptations. A septal wall thickness &gt; 15 mm or significant asymmetry points to possible HCM. Left Atrial dilation disproportionate to ventricular dilation indicates chronic overload or diastolic dysfunction. E/e’ values greater than 14 suggest elevated ventricular filling pressure, which is unusual in normal adaptations. A reduction in GLS (&lt; −16%) may reveal subclinical dysfunction even with preserved ejection fraction, while a LA reservoir strain measurement below 38% is an early sign of impaired atrial compliance. Furthermore, the presence of excessive trabeculations, apical aneurysms, or segmental dysfunction deviates from the physiological pattern. These criteria justify the need for further investigation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
<p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref> summarizes the main echocardiographic red flags, their related entities, and the rationale for each to be considered a warning sign.</p>
<table-wrap id="t2">
<label>Table 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Echocardiographic Red flags<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="33%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Red Flag Ecocardiográfica</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Possível Entidade Associada</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Justificativa Clínica</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Septal thickness ≥ 15 mm<break/>or<break/>Septal thickness between 13–15 mm and associated with LVDD ≤ 53 mm, LA anteroposterior diameter ≤ 39 mm, diastolic dysfunction, concentric geometry, or hypertrophy asymmetry (IVS: PP ratio ≤ 1.3).</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Values above physiological limits suggest structural pathology. Values that fall in the gray zone (13–15 mm) when associated with small chambers and/or asymmetry and/or diastolic dysfunction also suggest hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Isolated Left Ventricular Dilation</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Dilated cardiomyopathy</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Isolated left ventricular dilation should not be considered physiological and should raise immediate suspicion of dilated cardiomyopathy.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Disproportionate left atrial dilation or pronounced increase in LA anteroposterior diameter (men &gt; 50 mm, women &gt; 45 mm)</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy or Early Diastolic Dysfunction</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Although it can occur in isolation, in physiological adaptive situations, it tends to coexist with ventricular enlargement, therefore, isolated or disproportionate LA enlargement should raise suspicion of a pathological cause.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">E/e&apos; &gt; 14</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Increased Ventricular Filling Pressure</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Indicator of elevated filling pressure, an unusual condition in healthy athletes, and indicative of the presence of myocardial disease.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">LVEF ≤ 47%</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Dilated cardiomyopathy</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">There is indeed a decrease in resting LVEF in athletes (between 53-48%), but values below this range raise suspicion of cardiomyopathy.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">GLS &lt; −16%</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (if associated with LV hypertrophy) or subclinical LV dysfunction of any etiology</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Early functional alteration, even with preserved ejection fraction. Adaptive LV hypertrophy does not reduce GLS.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">RAS &lt; 38%</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Diastolic dysfunction or chronic overload</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Early sign of loss of atrial compliance.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Excessive trabeculations + segmental dysfunction and/or myocardial wall thinning (end-diastolic thickness &lt; 5 mm)</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Non-compaction myocardium</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Prominent trabeculations may occur in healthy athletes, but concomitant segmental dysfunction and/or myocardial wall thinning indicate a pathological origin.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Significant LV dilation + systolic dysfunction</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Dilated cardiomyopathy</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Combination incompatible with isolated physiological adaptation.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">RV dilation<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">*</xref> + contractile abnormalities or aneurysms (including in the LV)</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Arrhythmogenic RV cardiomyopathy</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Suggests RV structural involvement outside the athlete&apos;s spectrum.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Coronary artery origin anomalies</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Malignant coronary artery course susceptible to ischemia</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Abnormalities indicating an interarterial or intramural course are susceptible to coronary obstruction and, therefore, a risk of sudden death. Even non-classically malignant anomalies (retroaortic and prepulmonary courses) should indicate further evaluation.</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN2">
<label>*</label>
<p>The presence of RV longitudinal dysfunction (S’ ≤ 9 cm/s and/or TAPSE ≤ 16 mm) or reduced RV FAC (&lt; 31%) is not normal in athletes and indicates further evaluation with stress echocardiography. LA: Left atrium; LVDD: Left ventricular diastolic diameter; LVEF: Left ventricular ejection fraction; PP: Posterior wall; GLS: Global longitudinal strain; IVS: Ventricular septum; RAS: Left atrial reservoir strain; RV: Right ventricle.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>How to Manage Suspicious Findings on Athletes’ Echocardiograms?</title>
<p>The identification of a red flag on echocardiography should not, by itself, justify the athlete&apos;s immediate disqualification. Any isolated abnormality must be interpreted within a broader clinical context that considers symptoms, family history of sudden cardiac death or cardiovascular disease, electrocardiographic findings, and the nature of the sport involved. Within this integrated framework, the echocardiographer plays a pivotal role, not only in documenting structural or functional alterations but also in identifying patterns that warrant further investigation. This may call for additional testing, including three-dimensional echocardiography, cardiac magnetic resonance imaging, exercise stress testing, or genetic analysis.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusion</title>
<p>Echocardiography remains the cornerstone for structural and functional evaluation of the athlete&apos;s heart. A clear understanding of its strengths and limitations, combined with the expertise of the echocardiographer, is essential to distinguish true warning signs from benign findings, safeguarding the athlete&apos;s health while avoiding unnecessary restriction from sports participation.</p>
</sec>
</body>
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<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S1" xml:lang="pt">
<front-stub>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20250059</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Editorial</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Entre o Fisiológico e o Patológico: Quando o Coração do Atleta Exige Mais do que Admiração</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6569-0776</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Calvilho</surname><given-names>Antonio Amador</given-names><suffix>Júnior</suffix></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0003-0058-4413</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Nisgoski</surname><given-names>Julia Galetto</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0005-8699-4812</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Pires</surname><given-names>Maria Eduarda da Silva</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0008-2779-963X</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Nunes</surname><given-names>Joao Nádson Granja</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0002-5988-7622</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Branco</surname><given-names>Beatriz Moraes dos Santos</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia, São Paulo SP – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff4">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade Paulista – Medicina, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c2"><label>Correspondência:</label> <bold>Antonio Amador Calvilho Júnior</bold> • UNIP Sorocaba – Departamento Medicina, Av. Independência, 210, Bairro Iporanga, Sorocaba, CEP: <postal-code>18087-101</postal-code>. São Paulo, SP – Brasil E-mail: <email>dr.calvilho@gmail.com</email></corresp>
</author-notes>
<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
<title>Palavras-chave</title>
<kwd>Ecocardiografia</kwd>
<kwd>Cardiomegalia Induzida por Exercícios</kwd>
<kwd>Cardiomiopatias</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<sec>
<title/>
<p>A crescente participação de indivíduos em atividades esportivas de alta intensidade tem ampliado o papel da cardiologia na triagem e acompanhamento de atletas. A Morte Súbita Cardíaca (MSC), ainda que rara, reverbera fortemente na sociedade. Nesse contexto, a ecocardiografia assume um papel central, sendo o principal exame de imagem para diferenciar o coração do atleta de miocardiopatias estruturais.</p>
<p>O exercício prolongado e intenso induz alterações fenotípicas e fisiológicas adaptativas que melhoram a capacidade do miocárdio de suprir a demanda de oxigênio. Essas adaptações, conhecidas como &quot;coração do atleta&quot;, são extensamente estudadas pois precisam ser diferenciadas de doenças cardiovasculares potencialmente fatais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> O Coração do atleta compartilha características fenotípicas com diversas condições patológicas, como a Cardiomiopatia Hipertrófica (CMH), a Cardiomiopatia Dilatada (CMD) e a Cardiomiopatia Arritmogênica do Ventrículo Direito (CAVD).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Os cardiologistas precisam estar atentos a essas sobreposições para diagnosticar corretamente e prevenir desfechos graves, especialmente em indivíduos jovens e aparentemente saudáveis, que podem não apresentar sintomas até se envolverem em exercício intenso. Ao mesmo tempo, é igualmente importante reconhecer e distinguir as alterações cardíacas adaptativas normais ao exercício, a fim de fornecer triagem precisa e orientação adequada a jovens atletas de elite.</p>
<p>A avaliação pré-participação esportiva é recomendada como forma de prevenção para a MSC do atleta e tem como ponto de partida a avaliação clínica e o eletrocardiograma. Entretanto, estima-se que até 16% dos casos de MSC estejam associados a doenças cardíacas estruturais que não apresentam anormalidades eletrocardiográficas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Esses casos poderiam ser detectados de forma precoce por meio de exames de imagem cardiovascular. Por essa razão, algumas organizações esportivas profissionais passaram a incluir o ecocardiograma, ferramenta de baixo custo e amplamente disponível, como exame de triagem inicial, ou até como exame único realizado na primeira avaliação do atleta.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<p>Este editorial tem como foco destacar a importância da identificação de sinais de alerta (<italic>red flags</italic>) ecocardiográficos no coração do atleta, que devem deflagrar investigações adicionais ou afastamento temporário das atividades. Tais achados estão na fronteira entre adaptações fisiológicas e manifestações iniciais de doenças potencialmente fatais e detectá-los depende da obtenção efetiva das informações ecocardiográficas e sua adequada interpretação. Portanto, estabelecer o escopo das análises pertinentes ao exame ecocardiográfico nesta população é importante, bem como definir quais adaptações são esperadas e quando estas devem levantar suspeita de origem patológica.</p>
<sec>
<title>Avaliação Ecocardiográfica Abrangente no Atleta</title>
<p>Uma ecocardiografia bem conduzida deve seguir os protocolos mínimos de qualidade, sendo adaptada ao contexto clínico do atleta.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Para aumentar a sensibilidade na detecção de cardiopatias estruturais, recomenda-se garantir que no ecocardiograma dos atletas inclua-se:</p>
<list list-type="order">
<list-item><p>Múltiplos cortes no eixo curto para avaliar a espessura das paredes ventriculares em todos segmentos.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Avaliação detalhada da presença de trabeculações miocárdicas.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Visualização da origem das artérias coronárias esquerda e direita.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Medição do Strain Longitudinal Global (SLG) do ventrículo esquerdo e Strain do Átrio Esquerdo (SAE) sempre que possível.</p></list-item>
</list>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Ecocardiografia no Atleta: O que se Espera?</title>
<p>Avaliar o coração de um atleta exige do ecocardiografista não apenas o domínio técnico, mas também a sensibilidade clínica para reconhecer as complexidades e nuances do remodelamento fisiológico. É essencial admitir que, em muitos casos, haverá incertezas na interpretação dos achados, o que pode demandar investigações complementares mais específicas e direcionadas. Para isso, o profissional deve compreender as adaptações cardíacas esperadas, a variabilidade dos achados de acordo com o tipo e o volume do exercício e o impacto de fatores como etnia, sexo, idade e composição corporal do atleta.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<p>As alterações estruturais e funcionais do coração do atleta variam amplamente de acordo com o tipo predominante de esforço envolvido na prática esportiva. Esportes de resistência, por exemplo, tendem a provocar maior dilatação das câmaras cardíacas, enquanto esportes de força podem levar a um aumento mais pronunciado da espessura das paredes ventriculares. A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">tabela 1</xref> resume as principais características ecocardiográficas esperadas no coração normalmente adaptado do atleta.</p>
<table-wrap id="t3">
<label>Tabela 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Achados ecocardiográficos normais no coração do atleta<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="50%">
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Achado ecocardiográfico</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Descrição nos atletas</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Dilatação das câmaras cardíacas</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Dilatação simétrica de VE e VD; comum em diversas modalidades.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Espessamento ventricular esquerdo</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Leve aumento da espessura da parede, especialmente em atletas de <italic>Endurance</italic> (resistência).</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Remodelamento excêntrico do VE</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Aumento de volume do VE sem espessura desproporcional.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Função sistólica do VE</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Preservada ou aumentada quando avaliada por métodos específicos, como a deformação longitudinal pelo speckle tracking, isto é evidente mesmo quando a fração de ejeção apresenta-se discretamente reduzida.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Função diastólica</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">A função diastólica do VE costuma estar preservada ou até otimizada em estados adaptativos, como é o caso do padrão &quot;supernormal&quot; com relação E/A do fluxo mitral &gt;2.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Dilatação atrial</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Dilatação biatrial frequente, especialmente em homens.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Raiz aórtica</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Dilatação leve da raiz aórtica pode ocorrer dentro de limites fisiológicos.</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN3">
<p>AE: Átrio esquerdo; VD: Ventrículo direito; VE: ventrículo esquerdo.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Red Flags Ecocardiográficas: Como Reconhecer Alterações Suspeitas no Coração do Atleta</title>
<p>Determinados achados ecocardiográficos devem levantar suspeita de patologia em atletas por destoarem das adaptações fisiológicas típicas. Uma parede septal com espessura &gt; 15 mm ou assimetria significativa aponta para possível CMH. Dilatação atrial esquerda desproporcional à ventricular indica sobrecarga crônica ou disfunção diastólica. Valores de E/e’ superiores a 14 sugerem elevação da pressão de enchimento ventricular, o que não é habitual em adaptações normais. A redução do SLG (&lt; −16%) pode revelar disfunção subclínica mesmo com fração de ejeção preservada, enquanto a medida strain reservatório do AE abaixo de 38% é sinal precoce de comprometimento da complacência atrial. Além disso, presença de trabeculações excessivas, aneurismas apicais ou disfunção segmentar foge ao padrão fisiológico. Esses critérios fundamentam a necessidade de investigação adicional.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
<p>A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">tabela 2</xref> resume as principais <italic>red flags</italic> ecocardiográficas, suas entidades relacionadas e o racional envolvido para que cada uma delas seja considerada um sinal de alerta.</p>
<table-wrap id="t4">
<label>Table 4</label>
<caption>
<title><italic>Red flags</italic> ecocardiográficas<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="33%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle"><italic>Red Flag</italic> Ecocardiográfica</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Possível Entidade Associada</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Justificativa Clínica</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Espessura septal ≥ 15 mm<break/>ou<break/>Espessura septal entre 13–15 mm e associada a DDVE ≤ 53 mm, diâmetro anteroposterior do AE ≤ 39 mm, disfunção diastólica geometria concêntrica ou assimetria da hipertrofia (relação SIV:PP ≤ 1,3)</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Cardiomiopatia hipertrófica</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Valores superiores aos limites fisiológicos sugerem patologia estrutural. Os valores que caem na zona cinzenta (13–15 mm) quando associados a câmaras pequenas e/ou assimetria e/ou disfunção diastólica também sugerem cardiomiopatia hipertrófica.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Dilatação ventricular esquerda isolada</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Cardiomiopatia dilatada</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Dilatação ventricular esquerda isolada não deve ser considerada fisiológica e deve levantar suspeitas imediatas para cardiomiopatia dilatada.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Dilatação atrial esquerda desproporcional ou aumento pronunciado do diâmetro anteroposterior do AE (homem &gt; 50 mm - mulher &gt; 45 mm)</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Cardiomiopatia hipertrófica ou disfunção diastólica precoce</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Embora possa ocorrer isoladamente, em situações adaptativas fisiológicas tende a coexistir com aumento ventricular, portanto o aumento isolado ou desproporcional do AE deve levantar suspeita de causa patológica.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">E/e&apos; &gt; 14</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Aumento da pressão de enchimento ventricular</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Indicador de pressão de enchimento elevada, condição não usual no atleta saudável e que indica presença de doença miocárdica.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">FEVE ≤ 47%</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Cardiomiopatia dilatada</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Existe de fato uma queda na FEVE de repouso dos atletas (ficando entre 53-48%), mas valores abaixo desta margem levantam suspeita de cardiomiopatia.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">SGL &lt; −16%</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Cardiomiopatia hipertrófica (se associado a hipertrofia do VE) ou disfunção subclínica do VE de qualquer etiologia</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Alteração funcional precoce, mesmo com Fração de Ejeção Preservada. A hipertrofia adaptativa do VE não reduz o SGL.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">SRAE &lt; 38%</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Disfunção diastólica ou sobrecarga crônica</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Sinal precoce de perda de complacência atrial.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Trabeculações excessivas + disfunção segmentar e/ou afilamento da parede miocárdica (espessura diastólica final &lt; 5 mm)</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Miocárdio não compactado</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Trabeculações proeminentes podem ocorrer no atleta saudável, porém a concomitância de disfunção segmentar e/ou afilamento de parede miocárdica indica origem patológica.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Dilatação importante do VE + disfunção sistólica</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Cardiomiopatia dilatada</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Combinação incompatível com adaptação fisiológica isolada.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Dilatação do VD<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN4">*</xref> + anormalidades contráteis ou aneurismas (inclusive no VE)</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Cardiomiopatia arritmogênica do VD</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Sugere envolvimento estrutural do VD fora do espectro do atleta.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Anomalias da origem das artérias coronárias</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Trajeto maligno da artéria coronária suscetível à isquemia</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Anormalidades que indiquem trajeto interarterial ou intramural são suscetíveis à obstrução coronária e, portanto, risco de morte súbita. Até mesmo as anomalias não classicamente malignas (trajeto retroaórtico e pré-pulmonar) devem indicar avaliação adicional.</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN4">
<label>*</label>
<p>A presença de disfunção longitudinal do VD (S’ ≤ 9 cm/s e/ou TAPSE ≤ 16 mm) ou FAC do VD reduzida (&lt; 31%) não é normal em atletas e indica avaliação adicional com ecocardiografia de esforço. AE: Átrio esquerdo; DDVE: Diâmetro diastólico do ventrículo esquerdo; FEVE: Fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo; PP: Parede posterior; SGL: Strain global longitudinal; SIV: Septo interventricular; SRAE: Strain reservatório do átrio esquerdo; VD: Ventrículo direito.</p>
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</sec>
<sec>
<title>Como Conduzir Achados Suspeitos no Ecocardiograma de Atletas?</title>
<p>A identificação de uma <italic>red flag</italic> ecocardiográfica não deve, por si só, levar ao afastamento imediato do atleta. O achado isolado precisa ser interpretado dentro de um contexto clínico mais amplo, que inclua: sintomas, histórico familiar de morte súbita ou cardiopatia, achados eletrocardiográficos e o tipo de esporte praticado. Nessa abordagem integrada, o papel do ecocardiografista é fundamental, não apenas para descrever alterações estruturais ou funcionais, mas também para reconhecer padrões que exigem investigação complementar. Isso pode envolver exames adicionais como ecocardiografia tridimensional, ressonância magnética cardíaca, teste ergométrico e testes genéticos.</p>
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</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusão</title>
<p>A ecocardiografia permanece como a principal ferramenta na avaliação estrutural e funcional do coração do atleta. A compreensão de seus limites e possibilidades, associada à experiência do ecocardiografista, é essencial para reconhecer os verdadeiros sinais de alerta e garantir a segurança do indivíduo sem restringir desnecessariamente a prática esportiva.</p>
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