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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abcic</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Imagem Cardiovasc.</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
<issn pub-type="ppub">2318-8219</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Departamento de Imagem Cardiovascular da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiolodia (DIC/SBC)</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20250057i</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abcimg.20250057i</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Review Article</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>My Approach to Three-Dimensional Echocardiography in Mitral Stenosis: How and When?</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0842-8223</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Souza</surname><given-names>Alexandre Costa</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>Acquisition of data</role>
<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2425-4569</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Carvalho</surname><given-names>Marcus Vinicius Silva Freire de</given-names></name>
<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0656-8399</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Sales</surname><given-names>Marco André Moraes</given-names></name>
<role>Acquisition of data</role>
<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital São Rafael</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital São Rafael, Salvador, BA – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Instituto D’Or de Pesquisa e Ensino</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Instituto D’Or de Pesquisa e Ensino (IDOR), Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><label>Mailing Address:</label> <bold>Alexandre Costa Souza</bold> • Hospital São Rafael – Ecocardiografia. Avenida São Rafael, 2152. Postal Code: <postal-code>41253-190</postal-code>, Salvador, BA – Brazil E-mail: <email>alexandrecostahsr@gmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="coi-statement"><label>Potential conflict of interest</label>
<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><label>Editor responsible for the review:</label> <p>Marcelo Tavares</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>14</day>
<month>11</month>
<year>2025</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2025</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>38</volume>
<issue>3</issue>
<elocation-id>e20250057</elocation-id>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>13</day>
<month>08</month>
<year>2025</year>
</date>
<date date-type="rev-recd">
<day>29</day>
<month>08</month>
<year>2025</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>29</day>
<month>08</month>
<year>2025</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract abstract-type="summary">
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>Three-dimensional echocardiography has become an essential tool in the assessment of mitral stenosis, allowing detailed anatomical analyses and reliable measurements, even in complex anatomies or extensive calcification. Based on daily clinical experience in an imaging laboratory, this article offers a practical guide for image acquisition and optimization, multiplanar reconstruction, and three-dimensional planimetry, focusing on technical adjustments, the use of tools such as rotation and cropping, and strategies for integrating the method into the routine workflow of cardiovascular imaging centers.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords</title>
<kwd>Three-Dimensional Echocardiography</kwd>
<kwd>Mitral Valve Stenosis</kwd>
<kwd>Three-Dimensional Imaging</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<funding-group>
<funding-statement><bold>Sources of funding</bold> There were no external funding sources for this study</funding-statement>
</funding-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="12"/>
<table-count count="2"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="12"/>
</counts>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<fig id="f6">
<caption>
<title>Schematic illustration of the anatomical manifestations of mitral stenosis according to etiology.</title>
<p>On the left, a normal mitral valve. In the upper right quadrant, the rheumatic pattern shows diffuse leaflet thickening with fusion and asymmetric calcification of one commissure. In the lower right quadrant, the degenerative calcific pattern shows extensive calcium deposition in the posterior annulus and the leaflet bases.</p></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-38-03-e20250057-gf06.tif"/>
</fig>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introduction</title>
<p>Mitral stenosis remains a clinically relevant condition worldwide. It is associated with significant morbidity, and it impacts patient quality of life and survival. Moreover, in older populations in developed countries, degenerative etiologies have become progressively more frequent, reflecting population aging and increased life expectancy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> International guidelines emphasize that mitral stenosis, regardless of etiology, is associated with severe complications, such as pulmonary hypertension, atrial fibrillation, and heart failure, requiring accurate diagnostic and therapeutic strategies to provide details on disease progression and improve prognosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>Two-dimensional (2D) echocardiography is still the primary method for quantifying valve area in mitral stenosis. However, 2D planimetry is highly dependent on an exact orthogonal slice over the leaflet tips, and slight deviations in the plane or the presence of acoustic shadowing due to calcification can lead to overestimation of the area and even make it impossible to measure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
<p>Recognizing these limitations, European guidelines recommend the complementary use of three-dimensional (3D) planimetry, which improves the definition of the smallest functional orifice when 2D imaging is suboptimal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Additionally, area calculation by pressure half-time (PHT) is directly influenced by atrial and ventricular compliance, transient hemodynamic conditions (e.g., aortic regurgitation, diastolic dysfunction), and associated lesions, such as mitral regurgitation, which shorten or lengthen PHT and lead to errors in valve area estimation. These factors explain why, in complex clinical scenarios, the integration of additional parameters such as 3D planimetry may be relevant for accurate classification of mitral stenosis severity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>My Approach in Practice</title>
<p>Given these limitations and the need for more accurate measurements, 3D echocardiography has become increasingly integral to mitral stenosis assessment, not only as a supplement but also as a central tool in complex scenarios, especially due to the fact that it allows for orthogonal alignment of the pyramidal beam in relation to the valve plane and due to its high spatial resolution. Below, we describe our approach to this assessment in daily practice.</p>
<p>The first step is always to optimize 2D acquisition. An inadequate 2D image directly compromises the quality of 3D reconstruction. Adjustments such as gain, compression, and alignment should be made before activating 3D mode. A quality 3D assessment cannot be achieved without a stable and well-oriented 2D basis.</p>
<p>Following image optimization, we use 2D multiplane mode to align the orthogonal axes and correctly identify the plane of the leaflet tips. Subsequently, we activate 3D zoom mode to obtain an en face view of the valve orifice, positioning the cutting plane at the smallest diameter during diastole. When necessary, we apply color Doppler, integrated with the reconstruction to assess residual flow or associated regurgitation. Leaflet mobility, symmetry of commissural fusion, and the presence of calcification or subvalvular alterations are assessed by means of multiplanar reconstructions and en face views obtained in 3D mode, allowing detailed analysis of the mitral apparatus in different orthogonal planes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
<sec>
<title>The Role of 3D Transthoracic Echocardiography</title>
<p>Three-dimensional transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) represents a strategic initial phase in mitral stenosis assessment, especially due to the fact that it provides real-time images with good spatial resolution in patients with a favorable acoustic window.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Its main contribution is quick, noninvasive acquisition of the mitral valve. Furthermore, 3D TTE facilitates the morphological characterization of the valve regarding symmetry of commissural fusion, leaflet thickening, and extent of calcifications; this information is relevant to etiological diagnosis and selection of candidates for percutaneous valvotomy. Although it has limitations in complex anatomies or in patients with inadequate windows, this step can anticipate relevant data and more efficiently guide the planning of transesophageal assessment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref> displays an example of 3D TTE in severe rheumatic mitral stenosis with tunneling, demonstrating the morphological alterations that are typical of this etiology in atrial and ventricular views.</p>
<fig id="f1">
<label>Figure 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Three-dimensional transthoracic echocardiography of the mitral valve in severe rheumatic mitral stenosis with tunneling.</title>
<p>On the left, atrial view with the tunneled valve orifice, typical of severe rheumatic anatomies. On the right, ventricular view showing the elongated, narrow trajectory of the functional orifice, with commissural fusion and associated subvalvular restriction.</p></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-38-03-e20250057-gf01.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>In a prospective study involving 105 patients with severe mitral stenosis, despite the lower image resolution of 3D TTE compared to 3D transesophageal echocardiography, both techniques showed excellent agreement (significant correlation; mean bias &lt; 0.01 cm²), confirming the reliability of 3D TTE for quantifying valve area.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
<p>Although the role of 3D TTE is relevant and can provide reliable data, especially in favorable acoustic windows, transesophageal echocardiography is still an indispensable step for detailed assessment. It is during this phase that we systematically apply the following acquisition and optimization parameters.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Image Assessment and Optimization Parameters</title>
<sec>
<title>3D Planimetry</title>
<p>Three-dimensional planimetry is currently considered the most accurate method for determining mitral valve area in mitral stenosis, as it reduces errors related to oblique views and dependence on acoustic windows that limit 2D planimetry. Using multiplanar reconstructions and en face visualization in 3D transesophageal mode, it is possible to accurately identify the smallest orifice in diastole, even in complex anatomies with calcification or asymmetric commissural fusion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<p>In addition to greater accuracy in measuring valve area, 3D planimetry has demonstrated relevance in prognostic stratification. In a comparative study, the method consistently yielded smaller valve areas than PHT and 2D planimetry, reclassifying mitral stenosis severity in nearly 20% of cases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> More importantly, only classifications of severe stenosis obtained by 3D planimetry were significantly associated with clinical outcomes, such as the need for valvotomy, valve surgery, or hospitalization for heart failure; it also showed better correlation with hemodynamic markers, such as right ventricular systolic pressure and left atrial volume.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> These findings reinforce the value of 3D planimetry not only in anatomical assessment but also in identifying patients at higher risk of clinical events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref> illustrates an example of 3D planimetry obtained by 3D transesophageal echocardiography, highlighting multiplanar reconstruction and en face visualization for precise plane positioning in the smallest functional orifice during diastole. FlexiSlice<sup>®</sup> (GE Healthcare) was used for precise plane alignment and visual optimization.</p>
<fig id="f2">
<label>Figure 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Multiplanar reconstruction by three-dimensional transesophageal echocardiography in mitral stenosis, allowing precise positioning of the plane in the narrowest portion of the valve orifice during diastole, facilitating reliable anatomical measurement of the functional area.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-38-03-e20250057-gf02.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Comparison with PHT and 2D Planimetry</title>
<p>When compared to traditional methods, 3D planimetry shows lower interobserver variability and avoids biases associated with the method of PHT and 2D planimetry.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Whereas PHT is directly influenced by atrial and ventricular compliance, the presence of associated regurgitation, and transient hemodynamic conditions, compromising the accuracy of valve area estimation, 2D planimetry can overestimate or underestimate stenosis severity when there are non-orthogonal slices or acoustic shadowing.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Therefore, the integration of 3D planimetry into the diagnostic workflow has a significant clinical impact, allowing more accurate stratification of disease severity and assisting in decision-making and planning of interventions, such as percutaneous valvotomy or surgery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Multiplanar Alignment in Volume Acquisition</title>
<p>Before capturing 3D volume, whether in zoom or full-volume mode, it is essential to use 2D multiplanar mode in order to correctly align the orthogonal axes to the mitral valve plane. This alignment during the acquisition phase is especially important in cases of mitral stenosis, where anatomy is often asymmetrical, and the minimum functional area may not coincide with a standard anatomical plane. Adjusting the lateral-medial and anteroposterior planes over the leaflet ends ensures that the plane of maximum diastolic opening is recorded, thus reducing errors and facilitating post-processing.</p>
<p>For rheumatic valves, it is recommended to align the coronal plane between the commissures (anterolateral and posteromedial), respecting any eventual asymmetries. The axial (transverse) plane should be verified to ensure that the functional orifice is centered and avoid tangential cuts. When there is asymmetric calcification or anatomical distortion, small adjustments to probe tilt can reposition the beam in a more favorable manner. The presence of an irregular rhythm, such as in atrial fibrillation, justifies the preference for 3D zoom mode with single-beat acquisition, avoiding stitch artifacts, which are common in full-volume images.</p>
<p>During 3D zoom acquisition, it is important to maintain a reasonable frame rate, ideally above 20 volumes per second (VPS), in order to preserve temporal clarity. Single-beat acquisition modes can reach up to 25 VPS, improving definition in patients with irregular rhythms, whereas multiple beats can increase the frame rate to even higher values (such as 80 VPS), but they require regular rhythm and pose the risk of artifacts. Very low rates can make it difficult to identify the smallest functional diameter, especially in complex anatomies.</p>
<p>The systematic adoption of these strategies during acquisition provides volumes that are more representative of functional anatomy, reduces the need for extensive corrections in post-processing, and increases the accuracy of valve area measurement by 3D planimetry.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Post-processing and Optimization of 3D Images</title>
<p>High-quality 3D images for mitral stenosis assessment directly depend on appropriate gain, brightness, and compression settings during acquisition and post-processing. Gain should be adjusted to enhance the echogenicity of the leaflets and commissures without saturating the image or introducing artifacts. Excessive gain amplifies low-intensity echoes, which can generate artificial shadows, whereas insufficient gain compromises visualization of the valve edges and valve orifice. A proper balance ensures that anatomical boundaries are clear, facilitating multiplanar reconstruction and 3D planimetry.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
<p>Brightness and compression (contrast adjustment) also play a fundamental role. In the analysis of mitral stenosis, low- to medium-intensity compression is recommended, preserving the contrast necessary to clearly differentiate the edges of the functional orifice and commissures, without saturating echogenic areas. Excessive compression reduces the grayscale range, which can mask fine calcifications or partial fusions; very low compression excessively increases the dynamic range, resulting in reduced margin definition. Adjustment should be performed progressively during post-processing, verifying sharpness and anatomical continuity in multiplanar reconstructions before planimetry, in order to highlight the valve apparatus without distorting morphology.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
<p>Smoothing is another available feature, which acts to reduce the graininess of a reconstructed surface. Although it is useful for creating a more homogeneous appearance of the valve and facilitating visual analysis, excessive use of this tool can distort irregular surfaces and attenuate the perception of critical structures, such as punctual calcifications or areas of fusion. In mitral stenosis, smoothing should be applied cautiously, only to improve image uniformity without compromising anatomical accuracy. Similarly, a well-optimized 2D image prior to volume capture is indispensable, given that any artifacts that arise during acquisition propagate to the 3D dataset, compromising multiplanar analysis and subsequent measurement of the valve area.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<p>Gamma adjustment can also be used to balance the distribution of grayscale in 3D imaging. Lower values increase contrast in darker areas, enhancing edges and fine calcifications, whereas higher values facilitate the visualization of less echogenic structures. Adjustments should be moderate in order to avoid loss of detail or distortion of anatomical perception.</p>
<p>In 3D analysis of mitral stenosis, features such as Clarity can be used to enhance edges and reduce noise, improving valve contour definition and facilitating planimetry, especially in complex anatomies or those with calcification. Adjustments should be moderate in order to avoid artifacts or artificial highlights. As a complementary and optional feature, HD Live can be used for volumetric rendering with lighting simulation, altering depth perception and 3D realism. Although this feature does not directly influence measurement accuracy, it can assist in spatial understanding and visual communication of anatomical findings.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Artifact and Noise Correction</title>
<p>High-quality 3D images for mitral stenosis assessment do not depend only on appropriate gain, brightness, and compression adjustments, as mentioned above, but also on strategies to reduce artifacts and noise that can compromise valve area measurement. A frequent challenge is acoustic shadowing caused by extensive calcification, which leads to loss of definition in the leaflets and subvalvular region. In order to mitigate this, the following are recommended:</p>
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>Slightly reduce the gain and adjust the compression to enhance valve edges without saturating calcified areas.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Experiment with small changes in the probe angle, seeking windows with lower acoustic interference.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>In persistent cases, apply 3D zoom mode with a restricted focus on the valve, minimizing the need for extensive reconstructions and areas affected by shadowing.</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>Speckle noise is another issue that can make accurate identification of the valve contour difficult. Smoothing or noise suppression filters may be applied, provided that they are used moderately, given that excessive use tends to distort the actual geometry, especially in areas with calcification or commissural fusion.</p>
<p>In full-volume acquisitions, motion artifacts, for example, stitch artifacts, are common in patients with atrial fibrillation or tachycardia. In these cases, the use of smaller volumes or single-beat acquisition is preferable to avoid loss of anatomical continuity, even with lower spatial resolution.</p>
<p>Careful application of these techniques, combined with proper alignment of orthogonal planes and rational use of rotation and cropping tools, is essential to ensure that the final dataset faithfully represents anatomy, enabling reliable and reproducible planimetry.</p>
<p>Finally, it is important to bear in mind that all 3D analyses depend on the quality of the original 2D image. Artifacts acquired in the 2D base propagate to the reconstructed volume, impacting the accuracy of planimetry. A stable, well-centered, and distortion-free acquisition is the first step to effective post-processing.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Rotation and Cropping Functions in Post-processing</title>
<p>During 3D analysis of mitral stenosis, volume manipulation with the rotation and cropping functions is applied to optimize visualization of the valve orifice and mitral apparatus. Rotation of the volumetric block along orthogonal axes allows for precise alignment of the plane of view with the leaflet tips, facilitating an en face view of valve opening during diastole. This step is particularly important in complex anatomies, where asymmetric commissural fusions or calcifications can distort the standard orientation, making it difficult to measure the functional area.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<p>The cropping feature makes it possible to remove portions of the 3D volume that do not contribute to analysis, for example, adjacent cavities or redundant portions of the left atrium, allowing for exclusive focus on the mitral valve and its orifice. This cleaning process improves image clarity and structural definition, in addition to facilitating multiplanar reconstruction and planimetry.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Careful use of the cropping function also reduces artifacts and avoids overlapping structures, especially in cases with significant atrial dilation or multiple flow planes that could interfere with interpretation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<p>The combination of these techniques, in conjunction with previously applied gain, brightness, compression, and smoothing adjustments, results in a more stable reconstruction that is faithful to the actual anatomy. Accordingly, systematic use of rotation and cropping tools not only improves visual quality but also increases the accuracy of valve area measurement and anatomical characterization, contributing to more reliable diagnostic analysis in mitral valve stenosis.</p>
<p>Systematic application of appropriate acquisition strategies, in association with image optimization techniques in post-processing and careful volume manipulation with tools such as rotation and cropping, improves the quality of 3D reconstruction and diagnostic reliability in mitral stenosis. <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref> summarizes the main recommendations for reducing artifacts and obtaining accurate measurements. When the technical stage is optimized, it is possible to advance to individualized assessment of mitral stenosis according to etiology.</p>
<table-wrap id="t1">
<label>Table 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Practical strategies to minimize artifacts in acquisition and post-processing of 3D volumes in mitral stenosis assessment</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="100%">
<col/>
</colgroup>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Reduce gain and adjust contrast in regions with calcification to avoid saturation and acoustic shadowing.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">If there is loss of definition due to acoustic shadowing, adjust the probe angle slightly.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Give preference to 3D zoom mode when full-volume mode generates artifacts, especially in irregular rhythms.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Use smoothing moderately, only to homogenize the image, without losing anatomical definition.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">In patients with atrial fibrillation, avoid multi-beat acquisition; single-beat mode is preferable for reduced volumes.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Ensure a good 2D image before capturing volume, as initial artifacts compromise the entire reconstruction.</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN1">
<p>2D: two-dimensional; 3D: three-dimensional.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Individual Assessment According to Etiology</title>
<sec>
<title>Mitral Stenosis of Rheumatic Etiology</title>
<p>Mitral stenosis of rheumatic etiology is characterized by commissural fusion, leaflet thickening that begins at the ends and extends toward the base, and fusion of the subvalvular apparatus, resulting in an orifice with a &quot;fish mouth&quot; appearance and diastolic doming motion of the anterior leaflet<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>). Echocardiographic assessment should document not only the extent of commissural fusion but also the presence and distribution of calcium in the commissures, which are fundamental parameters for determining the feasibility and safety of percutaneous balloon valvotomy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Asymmetric commissural involvement or the presence of extensive calcification in the commissures are associated with lower hemodynamic success of percutaneous balloon valvotomy and greater risk of significant post-procedural mitral regurgitation<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 4</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f3">
<label>Figure 3</label>
<caption>
<title>Three-dimensional images obtained by transesophageal echocardiography demonstrating commissural fusion, a characteristic of rheumatic mitral stenosis.</title>
<p>(A) Atrial view. (B) Ventricular view.</p></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-38-03-e20250057-gf03.tif"/>
</fig>
<fig id="f4">
<label>Figure 4</label>
<caption>
<title>Images obtained by three-dimensional transesophageal echocardiography demonstrating partial commissural fusions and asymmetric calcification in rheumatic mitral stenosis.</title>
<p>(A) Transillumination image, highlighting extensive calcification and asymmetric fusion of the posteromedial commissure. (B) Three-dimensional en face view of the mitral valve, highlighting the fusion and asymmetric distribution of calcium between the commissures. (C) Three-dimensional transesophageal planimetry showing severe stenosis.</p></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-38-03-e20250057-gf04.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Recent studies show that 3D scores, such as the Anwar score, better capture the severity of commissural calcification and subvalvular involvement. These elements are directly related to the occurrence of suboptimal outcomes, such as final valve area &lt; 1.5 cm² or significant post-procedural mitral regurgitation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> In a study by Farrag et al., the 3D-Anwar score was superior to the traditional Wilkins 2D score in predicting adverse outcomes, with a more robust negative correlation between the score and the valve area obtained.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Therefore, 3D assessment of commissures not only enhances the accuracy of planimetry and anatomical characterization but also also provides fundamental prognostic parameters for candidate selection and planning of percutaneous interventions, reducing the risk of complications such as residual mitral regurgitation (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 5</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f5">
<label>Figure 5</label>
<caption>
<title>Images obtained by three-dimensional transesophageal echocardiography, representing a mitral valve with rheumatic anatomy that is favorable for percutaneous balloon valvotomy.</title>
<p>(A) Three-dimensional atrial en face view demonstrating symmetrical commissural fusion with reduced valve area. (B) Three-dimensional ventricular en face view, with typical restricted posterior mobility and absence of significant subvalvular calcification. (C) Multiplanar (Multi-D) reconstruction integrating orthogonal slices for complementary mitral valve assessment.</p></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-38-03-e20250057-gf05.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Mitral stenosis of degenerative etiology</title>
<p>Mitral stenosis of degenerative etiology predominantly occurs in elderly patients, and it results from progressive calcification of the mitral annulus, with frequent extension to the base of the leaflets. This configuration leads to the formation of a tubular or tunnel-shaped orifice, generally without significant commissural fusion, and it usually generates lower transmitral gradients for the same valve area when compared to the rheumatic form.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> These anatomical peculiarities make conventional 2D echocardiography assessment challenging, given that the presence of extensive calcium often produces acoustic shadowing, making accurate 2D planimetry difficult or impossible.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
<p>In this scenario, 3D echocardiography also plays an important role in calcific degenerative etiology, as it allows multiplanar reconstructions and en face visualization of the valve orifice, overcoming limitations imposed by acoustic shadowing and providing more reproducible and accurate measurements of mitral valve area.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
<p>In addition to accurately measuring the valve area, 3D echocardiography allows for characterization of the distribution and extent of calcification, detailing annular involvement and calcium penetration in the leaflet bases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> This analysis is particularly relevant because the tubular geometry that is typical in this etiology tends to generate smaller gradients for the same valve area, which can mask the severity of the obstruction when only hemodynamic parameters are considered.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> The use of 3D assessment helps differentiate between low gradients due to reduced flow and those related to valve anatomy, avoiding underdiagnosis of significant stenosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> In cases with extensive calcification or complex anatomical deformity, the integration of 3D assessment with computed tomography has been recommended to complement anatomical definition and guide therapeutic planning.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
<p>The Central Illustration displays a comparative summary of the main anatomical characteristics with therapeutic implications for rheumatic and degenerative forms of mitral stenosis.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusion</title>
<p>Three-dimensional planimetry is currently the most reliable method for estimating mitral valve area, especially in scenarios with complex anatomy, asymmetric commissural fusion, or extensive calcification. Even though 2D echocardiography continues to play a central role in the initial assessment, the systematic use of 3D echocardiography should be recommended in both the pre-procedure phase and the follow-up of patients with significant mitral stenosis, contributing to greater diagnostic accuracy and improved therapeutic guidance.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1"><label>Sources of funding</label>
<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2"><label>Study association</label>
<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3"><label>Ethics approval and consent to participate</label>
<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn4"><label>Use of Artificial Intelligence</label>
<p>The authors did not use any artificial intelligence tools in the development of this work.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
<sec sec-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-in-article">
<label>Data Availability</label>
<p>The underlying content of the research text is contained within the manuscript.</p>
</sec>
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</back>
<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S1" xml:lang="pt">
<front-stub>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20250057</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Como Eu Faço Ecocardiograma Tridimensional na Estenose Mitral: Como e Quando</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0842-8223</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Souza</surname><given-names>Alexandre Costa</given-names></name>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
<role>Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2425-4569</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Carvalho</surname><given-names>Marcus Vinicius Silva Freire de</given-names></name>
<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0656-8399</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Sales</surname><given-names>Marco André Moraes</given-names></name>
<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital São Rafael, Salvador, BA – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff4">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Instituto D’Or de Pesquisa e Ensino (IDOR), Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c2"><label>Correspondência:</label> <bold>Alexandre Costa Souza</bold> • Hospital São Rafael – Ecocardiografia. Avenida São Rafael, 2152. CEP: <postal-code>41253-190</postal-code>, Salvador, BA – Brasil E-mail: <email>alexandrecostahsr@gmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="coi-statement"><label>Potencial conflito de interesse</label>
<p>Declaro não haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><label>Editor responsável pela revisão:</label> <p>Marcelo Tavares</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<abstract abstract-type="summary">
<title>Resumo</title>
<p>A ecocardiografia tridimensional (3D) tornou-se ferramenta essencial na avaliação da estenose mitral, permitindo análises anatômicas detalhadas e mensurações confiáveis, mesmo em anatomias complexas ou com calcificação extensa. Este artigo apresenta um guia prático baseado na experiência clínica diária no laboratório de imagem para aquisição e otimização de imagens, reconstrução multiplanar e planimetria 3D, destacando ajustes técnicos, uso de ferramentas como rotação e <italic>crop</italic> e estratégias para integrar o método ao fluxo de trabalho rotineiro em centros de imagem cardiovascular.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
<title>Palavras-chave</title>
<kwd>Ecocardiografia Tridimensional</kwd>
<kwd>Estenose da Valva Mitral</kwd>
<kwd>Imageamento Tridimensional</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<funding-group>
<funding-statement><bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold> O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas</funding-statement>
</funding-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<fig id="f12">
<caption>
<title>Ilustração esquemática das manifestações anatômicas da estenose mitral de acordo com a etiologia.</title>
<p>À esquerda, valva mitral sem alterações. No quadrante superior direito, padrão reumático evidenciando espessamento difuso dos folhetos com fusão e calcificação assimétrica de uma das comissuras. No quadrante inferior direito, padrão degenerativo calcífico, com deposição extensa de cálcio no anel posterior e nas bases dos folhetos.</p></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-38-03-e20250057-gf06-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introdução</title>
<p>A estenose mitral permanece uma condição clinicamente relevante em todo o mundo, associada a morbidade significativa e impacto na qualidade de vida e sobrevida dos pacientes. Além disso, em populações mais idosas de países desenvolvidos, a etiologia degenerativa tem se tornado progressivamente mais frequente, refletindo o envelhecimento populacional e a maior expectativa de vida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> As diretrizes internacionais destacam que a estenose mitral, independentemente da etiologia, está associada a complicações graves, como hipertensão pulmonar, fibrilação atrial e insuficiência cardíaca, justificando estratégias diagnósticas e terapêuticas precisas para detalhar a progressão da doença e melhorar o prognóstico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>A ecocardiografia bidimensional (2D) continua sendo o primeiro método para quantificar a área valvar na estenose mitral; contudo, a planimetria 2D é altamente dependente de um corte ortogonal exato sobre as pontas dos folhetos e pequenos desvios no plano ou a presença de sombreamento acústico por calcificação podem superestimar a área e até inviabilizar a mensuração.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
<p>Reconhecendo essas limitações, as diretrizes europeias recomendam o uso complementar da planimetria tridimensional (3D), que melhora a definição do menor orifício funcional quando a imagem 2D é subótima.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Além disso, o cálculo da área pela metodologia do <italic>pressure half-time</italic> (PHT) sofre influência direta da complacência atrial e ventricular, de condições hemodinâmicas transitórias (p. ex., insuficiência aórtica, disfunção diastólica) e de lesões associadas, como regurgitação mitral, que encurtam ou prolongam o PHT e levam a erros na estimativa da área valvar. Esses fatores explicam por que, em cenários clínicos complexos, a integração de parâmetros adicionais, como a planimetria 3D pode ser relevante para uma classificação precisa da gravidade da estenose mitral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>&quot;Como eu Faço&quot; na Prática</title>
<p>Diante dessas limitações e da necessidade de mensurações mais precisas, a ecocardiografia 3D passou a integrar de forma crescente a avaliação da estenose mitral, não apenas como complemento, mas como ferramenta central em cenários complexos, em especial por permitir alinhamento do feixe piramidal de forma ortogonal ao plano valvar e pela sua alta resolução espacial. A seguir, descreve-se como realizamos essa avaliação na prática diária.</p>
<p>O primeiro passo é sempre otimizar a aquisição 2D. Uma imagem 2D inadequada compromete diretamente a qualidade da reconstrução 3D. Ajustes como ganho, compressão e alinhamento devem ser feitos antes da ativação do modo 3D. Não existe exame 3D de qualidade sem uma base 2D estável e bem orientada.</p>
<p>Após otimizada a imagem, utilizamos o modo multiplano 2D para alinhar os eixos ortogonais e identificar corretamente o plano das pontas dos folhetos. Em seguida, ativamos o modo 3D zoom para obter uma visão <italic>en face</italic> do orifício valvar, posicionando o plano de corte no menor diâmetro durante a diástole. Quando necessário, aplica-se o Doppler colorido integrado à reconstrução para avaliar fluxo residual ou regurgitação associada. A mobilidade dos folhetos, a simetria de fusão comissural e a presença de calcificação ou alterações subvalvares são avaliadas por meio de reconstruções multiplanares e visões <italic>en face</italic> obtidas com o modo 3D, permitindo a análise detalhada do aparato mitral em diferentes planos ortogonais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
<sec>
<title>O Papel da Ecocardiografia Transtorácica 3D</title>
<p>A etapa transtorácica da ecocardiografia tridimensional (ETT-3D) representa uma fase inicial estratégica na avaliação da estenose mitral, sobretudo por oferecer imagens em tempo real com boa resolução espacial em pacientes com janela acústica favorável.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Sua principal contribuição está na obtenção rápida e não invasiva da valva mitral. Além disso, a ETT-3D facilita a caracterização morfológica da valva quanto à simetria da fusão comissural, espessamento dos folhetos e extensão de calcificações, informações relevantes para o diagnóstico etiológico e para a seleção de candidatos à valvotomia percutânea. Embora tenha limitações em anatomias complexas ou em pacientes com janela inadequada, essa etapa pode antecipar dados relevantes e direcionar de forma mais eficiente o planejamento do estudo transesofágico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura 1</xref>, observa-se um exemplo de ETT-3D em estenose mitral reumática grave com tunelização, evidenciando nas vistas atrial e ventricular as alterações morfológicas típicas dessa etiologia.</p>
<fig id="f7">
<label>Figura 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Ecocardiografia transtorácica tridimensional da valva mitral em estenose mitral reumática grave com tunelização.</title>
<p>À esquerda, vista atrial com o orifício valvar tunelizado, típico de anatomias reumáticas graves. À direita, vista ventricular evidenciando o trajeto alongado e estreito do orifício funcional, com fusão comissural e restrição subvalvar associada.</p></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-38-03-e20250057-gf01-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Em estudo prospectivo envolvendo 105 pacientes com estenose mitral grave, demonstrou-se que, apesar da menor resolução de imagem da ETT-3D em relação à ecocardiografia transesofágica 3D, ambas as técnicas exibem excelente concordância (correlação significativa; viés médio &lt; 0,01 cm²), confirmando a confiabilidade da ETT-3D para quantificação da área valvar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
<p>Embora o papel da ETT-3D seja relevante e possa fornecer dados confiáveis, especialmente em janelas acústicas favoráveis, a etapa transesofágica permanece indispensável para avaliação detalhada. É nessa fase que se aplicam de forma sistemática os parâmetros de aquisição e otimização discutidos a seguir.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Parâmetros de Avaliação e Otimização da Imagem</title>
<sec>
<title>Planimetria 3D</title>
<p>A planimetria 3D é atualmente considerada o método mais preciso para determinação da área valvar mitral na estenose mitral, por reduzir erros relacionados ao corte oblíquo e à dependência de janelas acústicas que limitam a planimetria 2D. Utilizando reconstruções multiplanares e visualização <italic>en face</italic> no modo 3D transesofágico, é possível identificar com precisão o menor orifício na diástole, mesmo em anatomias complexas, com calcificação ou fusão comissural assimétrica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<p>Além de maior acurácia na mensuração da área valvar, a planimetria 3D tem se mostrado relevante na estratificação prognóstica. Em estudo comparativo, o método forneceu áreas valvares consistentemente menores que o PHT e a planimetria 2D, reclassificando a gravidade da estenose mitral em quase 20% dos casos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Mais importante, apenas as classificações de estenose grave obtidas pelo 3D foram significativamente associadas a desfechos clínicos, como necessidade de valvotomia, cirurgia valvar ou hospitalização por insuficiência cardíaca, além de apresentar melhor correlação com marcadores hemodinâmicos, como pressão sistólica ventricular direita e volume atrial esquerdo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Esses achados reforçam o valor do 3D não apenas na avaliação anatômica, mas também na identificação dos pacientes com maior risco de eventos clínicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p>A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figura 2</xref> ilustra um exemplo de planimetria 3D obtida por ecocardiografia transesofágica 3D, destacando a reconstrução multiplanar e a visualização <italic>en face</italic> para posicionamento preciso do plano no menor orifício funcional durante a diástole. Foi utilizada a ferramenta FlexiSlice<sup>®</sup> (GE Healthcare) para o alinhamento preciso dos planos e otimização da visualização.</p>
<fig id="f8">
<label>Figura 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Reconstrução multiplanar por ecocardiografia transesofágica tridimensional em estenose mitral, permitindo posicionar precisamente o plano na porção mais estreita do orifício valvar durante a diástole, facilitando mensuração anatômica confiável da área funcional.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-38-03-e20250057-gf02-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Comparação com PHT e Planimetria 2D</title>
<p>Quando comparada aos métodos tradicionais, a planimetria 3D apresenta menor variabilidade interobservador e evita vieses associados à metodologia do PHT e à planimetria 2D.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Enquanto o PHT sofre influência direta da complacência atrial e ventricular, da presença de regurgitações associadas e de condições hemodinâmicas transitórias, comprometendo a acurácia da estimativa da área valvar, a planimetria 2D pode superestimar ou subestimar a gravidade da estenose quando há cortes não ortogonais ou sombreamento acústico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Assim, a integração da planimetria 3D ao fluxo diagnóstico tem impacto clínico relevante, permitindo estratificação mais acurada da gravidade da doença e auxiliando na seleção e no planejamento de intervenções, como valvotomia percutânea ou cirurgia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Alinhamento Multiplanar na Aquisição Volumétrica</title>
<p>Antes da captura do volume 3D, seja no modo zoom ou <italic>full-volume</italic>, a utilização do modo multiplanar 2D é fundamental para alinhar corretamente os eixos ortogonais ao plano valvar mitral. Esse alinhamento durante a fase de aquisição é especialmente importante em casos de estenose mitral, onde a anatomia frequentemente é assimétrica e a mínima área funcional pode não coincidir com o plano anatômico padrão. Ao ajustar os planos lateral-medial e ântero-posterior sobre as extremidades dos folhetos, garante-se o registro do plano de máxima abertura diastólica, reduzindo erros e facilitando o pós-processamento.</p>
<p>Para valvas reumáticas, recomenda-se alinhar o plano coronal entre as comissuras (ântero-lateral e póstero-medial), respeitando eventuais assimetrias. A verificação do plano axial (transversal) deve ser feita para assegurar centralização do orifício funcional e evitar cortes tangenciais. Quando há calcificação assimétrica ou distorção anatômica, pequenos ajustes na inclinação da sonda podem reposicionar o feixe de forma mais favorável. A presença de ritmo irregular, como na fibrilação atrial, justifica a preferência pelo modo 3D zoom com aquisição em batimento único, evitando artefatos de costura (<italic>stitch artifacts</italic>) comuns em volumes compostos (<italic>full-volume</italic>).</p>
<p>Durante a aquisição com 3D zoom, é importante manter um <italic>frame rate</italic> razoável, idealmente acima de 20 volumes por segundo (VPS) para preservar a nitidez temporal. Modos de captura em batimento único podem atingir até 25 VPS, melhorando a definição em pacientes com ritmo irregular, enquanto múltiplos batimentos podem elevar o <italic>frame rate</italic> para valores ainda mais altos (como 80 VPS), mas exigem ritmo regular e trazem risco de artefatos. Taxas muito baixas podem dificultar a identificação do menor diâmetro funcional, especialmente em anatomias complexas.</p>
<p>A adoção sistemática dessas estratégias durante a aquisição proporciona volumes mais representativos da anatomia funcional, reduz a necessidade de correções extensas no pós-processamento e aumenta a acurácia da mensuração da área valvar por planimetria 3D.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Pós-processamento e Otimização de Imagens 3D</title>
<p>A obtenção de imagens 3D de alta qualidade para avaliação da estenose mitral depende diretamente de ajustes adequados de ganho, brilho e compressão durante a aquisição e no pós-processamento. O ganho deve ser ajustado de forma a realçar a ecogenicidade dos folhetos e comissuras sem saturar a imagem ou introduzir artefatos. Um ganho excessivo amplifica ecos de baixa intensidade e pode gerar sombras artificiais, enquanto um ganho insuficiente compromete a visualização das bordas valvares e do orifício valvar. O equilíbrio adequado garante que os limites anatômicos sejam nítidos, facilitando a reconstrução multiplanar e a planimetria 3D.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
<p>O brilho e a compressão (ajuste de contraste) também exercem papel fundamental. Na análise da estenose mitral, recomenda-se compressão de baixa a média intensidade, preservando o contraste necessário para diferenciar com clareza as bordas do orifício funcional e das comissuras, sem saturar áreas ecogênicas. Compressões muito altas reduzem o intervalo de tons de cinza e podem mascarar calcificações finas ou fusões parciais; compressões muito baixas aumentam excessivamente o intervalo dinâmico, resultando em menor definição das margens. O ajuste deve ser realizado de forma progressiva durante o pós-processamento, verificando, em reconstruções multiplanares, a nitidez e a continuidade anatômica antes da planimetria, de modo a realçar o aparato valvar sem distorcer a morfologia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
<p>Outro recurso disponível é a suavização (<italic>smoothing</italic>), que atua reduzindo a granulação da superfície reconstruída. Embora útil para gerar uma aparência mais homogênea da valva e facilitar a análise visual, o uso excessivo dessa ferramenta pode distorcer superfícies irregulares e atenuar a percepção de estruturas críticas, como calcificações pontuais ou áreas de fusão. Em estenose mitral, o <italic>smoothing</italic> deve ser aplicado de forma criteriosa, apenas para melhorar a uniformidade da imagem sem comprometer a acurácia anatômica. Da mesma forma, uma imagem 2D bem otimizada antes da captura do volume é indispensável, pois eventuais artefatos originados na aquisição se propagam para o conjunto de dados 3D, comprometendo a análise multiplanar e a mensuração da área valvar posteriormente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<p>O ajuste de Gamma também pode ser utilizado para equilibrar a distribuição dos tons de cinza na imagem 3D. Valores mais baixos aumentam o contraste nas áreas mais escuras, realçando bordas e calcificações finas, enquanto valores mais altos facilitam a visualização de estruturas pouco ecogênicas. O ajuste deve ser feito de forma moderada para evitar perda de detalhes ou distorção da percepção anatômica.</p>
<p>Na análise 3D da estenose mitral, recursos como o Clarity podem ser empregados para realçar bordas e reduzir ruídos, melhorando a definição do contorno valvar e facilitando a planimetria, sobretudo em anatomias complexas ou com calcificação. O ajuste deve ser moderado para evitar artefatos ou realces artificiais. De forma complementar e opcional, o HD Live pode ser utilizado para renderização volumétrica com simulação de iluminação, alterando a percepção de profundidade e o realismo 3D. Embora esse recurso não influencie diretamente a acurácia da mensuração, pode auxiliar na compreensão espacial e na comunicação visual de achados anatômicos.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Correção de Artefatos e Ruídos</title>
<p>A obtenção de imagens 3D de alta qualidade para avaliação da estenose mitral depende de ajustes adequados não apenas de ganho, brilho e compressão como citado anteriormente, mas também de estratégias para reduzir artefatos e ruídos que podem comprometer a mensuração da área valvar. Um desafio frequente é a sombra acústica provocada por calcificações extensas, que gera perda de definição nos folhetos e na região subvalvar. Para atenuá-la, recomenda-se:</p>
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>Reduzir levemente o ganho e ajustar a compressão para realçar bordas valvares sem saturar áreas calcificadas.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Experimentar pequenas mudanças de ângulo da sonda, buscando janelas com menor interferência acústica.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Em casos persistentes, usar o modo 3D zoom com foco restrito na valva, minimizando a necessidade de reconstruções extensas e áreas afetadas pela sombra.</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>Outro ponto é o ruído granular do volume (<italic>speckle noise</italic>), que pode dificultar a identificação precisa do contorno da valva. Filtros de supressão de ruído ou suavização (<italic>smoothing</italic>) podem ser aplicados, desde que com moderação, pois o uso excessivo tende a distorcer a geometria real, principalmente em áreas com calcificação ou fusão comissural.</p>
<p>Artefatos de movimento, como os <italic>stitch artifacts</italic>, em aquisições <italic>full-volume</italic>, são comuns em pacientes com fibrilação atrial ou taquicardia. Nestes casos, o uso de volumes menores ou aquisição em <italic>single beat</italic> é preferível para evitar a perda de continuidade anatômica, ainda que com menor resolução espacial.</p>
<p>A aplicação criteriosa dessas técnicas, associada ao alinhamento adequado dos planos ortogonais e ao uso racional das ferramentas de rotação e corte, é fundamental para garantir que o conjunto de dados final represente fielmente a anatomia, permitindo planimetrias confiáveis e reproduzíveis.</p>
<p>Por fim, é importante lembrar que toda análise 3D depende da qualidade da imagem 2D original. Artefatos adquiridos na base 2D se propagam para o volume reconstruído, impactando a acurácia da planimetria. Uma aquisição estável, bem centralizada e livre de distorções é o primeiro passo para um pós-processamento eficaz.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Funções de Rotação e Corte (crop) no Pós-processamento</title>
<p>Durante a análise 3D na estenose mitral, a manipulação do volume com as funções de rotação e corte (<italic>crop</italic>) é utilizada para otimizar a visualização do orifício valvar e do aparato mitral. A rotação do bloco volumétrico em eixos ortogonais permite alinhar precisamente o plano de visão com as pontas dos folhetos, facilitando a obtenção de uma visão <italic>en face</italic> da abertura valvar na diástole. Essa etapa é particularmente importante em anatomias complexas, onde fusões comissurais assimétricas ou calcificações podem distorcer a orientação padrão, dificultando a mensuração da área funcional.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<p>O recurso de corte (<italic>crop</italic>) possibilita remover porções do volume 3D que não contribuem para a análise, como cavidades adjacentes ou porções redundantes do átrio esquerdo, permitindo focar exclusivamente na valva mitral e no seu orifício. Esse processo de limpeza melhora a clareza da imagem e a definição das estruturas, além de facilitar a reconstrução multiplanar e a planimetria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> A utilização criteriosa da função <italic>crop</italic> também reduz artefatos e evita sobreposição de estruturas, especialmente em casos com dilatação atrial importante ou múltiplos planos de fluxo que podem interferir na interpretação.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<p>A combinação dessas técnicas, aliada aos ajustes de ganho, brilho, compressão e suavização previamente aplicados, resulta em uma reconstrução mais estável e fiel à anatomia real. Dessa forma, o uso sistemático das ferramentas de rotação e corte não apenas melhora a qualidade visual, mas também aumenta a acurácia da mensuração da área valvar e da caracterização anatômica, contribuindo para uma análise diagnóstica mais confiável em estenose valvar mitral.</p>
<p>A aplicação sistemática de estratégias adequadas de aquisição, associada a técnicas de otimização de imagem no pós-processamento e à manipulação criteriosa do volume com ferramentas como rotação e <italic>crop</italic>, eleva a qualidade da reconstrução 3D e a confiabilidade diagnóstica na estenose mitral. A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 1</xref> resume as principais recomendações para redução de artefatos e obtenção de mensurações precisas. Com a etapa técnica otimizada, é possível avançar para a avaliação individualizada da estenose mitral segundo sua etiologia.</p>
<table-wrap id="t2">
<label>Tabela 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Estratégias práticas para minimizar artefatos na aquisição e pós-processamento de volumes 3D na avaliação da estenose mitral</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="100%">
<col/>
</colgroup>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Reduza o ganho e ajuste o contraste em regiões com calcificação para evitar saturação e sombra acústica.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Ajuste o ângulo da sonda discretamente, se houver perda de definição por sombra acústica.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Prefira o modo 3D zoom quando o <italic>full-volume</italic> gerar artefatos, principalmente em ritmo irregular.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Utilize a suavização (<italic>smoothing</italic>) com moderação, apenas para homogeneizar a imagem sem perder definição anatômica.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Em fibrilação atrial, evite a aquisição em <italic>multi-beat</italic>; utilize preferencialmente o modo single-beat com volumes reduzidos.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Garanta uma boa imagem 2D antes de capturar o volume, pois artefatos iniciais comprometem toda a reconstrução.</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN2">
<p>2D: bidimensional; 3D: tridimensional.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Avaliação Individualizada Conforme a Etiologia</title>
<sec>
<title>Estenose Mitral – Etiologia Reumática</title>
<p>A estenose mitral de etiologia reumática caracteriza-se por fusão comissural, espessamento dos folhetos que se inicia nas extremidades e se estende em direção à base, e fusão do aparato subvalvar, resultando em orifício em formato de &quot;boca de peixe&quot; e domo diastólico do folheto anterior<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">Figura 3</xref>). A avaliação ecocardiográfica deve documentar não apenas a extensão da fusão comissural, mas também a presença e a distribuição do cálcio nas comissuras, parâmetros fundamentais para determinar a viabilidade e a segurança da valvotomia percutânea com balão (VPB).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> O comprometimento comissural assimétrico ou a presença de calcificação extensa nas comissuras estão associados a menor sucesso hemodinâmico da VPB e maior risco de regurgitação mitral significativa pós-procedimento<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figura 4</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f9">
<label>Figura 3</label>
<caption>
<title>Imagens tridimensionais obtidas por ecocardiografia transesofágica demonstrando fusão comissural, característica da estenose mitral reumática.</title>
<p>Vista atrial (A) e vista ventricular (B).</p></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-38-03-e20250057-gf03-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<fig id="f10">
<label>Figura 4</label>
<caption>
<title>Imagens obtidas por ecocardiografia transesofágica tridimensional evidenciando fusões comissurais parciais e calcificação assimétrica em estenose mitral reumática.</title>
<p>(A) Recurso de transluminescência, ressaltando a calcificação extensa e a fusão assimétrica da comissura póstero-medial. (B) Visão en face tridimensional da valva mitral, destacando a fusão e a distribuição assimétrica do cálcio entre as comissuras. (C) Planimetria tridimensional transesofágica com estenose grave.</p></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-38-03-e20250057-gf04-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Estudos recentes mostram que escores 3D, como o de Anwar, capturam melhor a severidade da calcificação comissural e do comprometimento subvalvar, elementos diretamente relacionados à ocorrência de resultados subótimos, como área valvar final &lt; 1,5 cm² ou regurgitação mitral significativa pós-procedimento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> No estudo de Farrag et al., o 3D-Anwar score apresentou superioridade ao Wilkins tradicional (2D) na predição de desfechos adversos, com correlação negativa mais robusta entre o escore e a área valvar obtida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> A avaliação 3D das comissuras, portanto, não apenas aprimora a acurácia da planimetria e a caracterização anatômica, mas também fornece parâmetros prognósticos fundamentais para a seleção de candidatos e o planejamento de intervenções percutâneas, reduzindo o risco de complicações como regurgitação mitral residual (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11">Figura 5</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f11">
<label>Figura 5</label>
<caption>
<title>Imagem obtida através de ecocardiografia transesofágica tridimensional, representando uma valva mitral com anatomia reumática favorável para valvotomia percutânea com balão.</title>
<p>(A) Vista en face tridimensional atrial evidenciando fusão comissural simétrica, com área valvar reduzida. (B) Vista en face tridimensional ventricular, com típica restrição de mobilidade posterior e ausência de calcificação subvalvar significativa. (C) Reconstrução multiplanar (Multi-D) integrando cortes ortogonais para avaliação complementar da valva mitral.</p></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-38-03-e20250057-gf05-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
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<sec>
<title>Estenose Mitral – Etiologia Degenerativa</title>
<p>A estenose mitral de etiologia degenerativa ocorre predominantemente em idosos e resulta da calcificação progressiva do anel mitral, com extensão frequente para a base dos folhetos. Essa configuração leva à formação de um orifício tubular ou em túnel, geralmente sem fusão comissural significativa, e costuma gerar gradientes transmitrais mais baixos para uma mesma área valvar, quando comparada à forma reumática.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Essas particularidades anatômicas tornam a avaliação convencional por ecocardiografia 2D desafiadora, uma vez que a presença de cálcio extenso frequentemente produz sombreamento acústico, dificultando ou inviabilizando a planimetria 2D precisa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
<p>Nesse cenário, a ecocardiografia 3D desempenha papel importante também na etiologia degenerativa calcífica, pois permite reconstruções multiplanares e visualização <italic>en face</italic> do orifício valvar, superando limitações impostas pelas sombras acústicas e fornecendo mensurações mais reprodutíveis e precisas da área valvar mitral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
<p>Além da mensuração precisa da área valvar, a ecocardiografia 3D permite caracterizar a distribuição e a extensão da calcificação, detalhando o envolvimento anular e a penetração do cálcio na base dos folhetos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Essa análise é particularmente relevante porque a geometria tubular, típica dessa etiologia, tende a gerar gradientes menores para uma mesma área valvar, podendo mascarar a gravidade da obstrução quando apenas parâmetros hemodinâmicos são considerados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> O uso do 3D ajuda a diferenciar entre gradientes baixos por fluxo reduzido e aqueles relacionados à anatomia valvar, evitando subdiagnóstico da estenose significativa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Nos casos com calcificação extensa ou deformidade anatômica complexa, a integração da avaliação 3D com tomografia computadorizada tem sido recomendada para complementar a definição anatômica e guiar o planejamento terapêutico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
<p>Um resumo comparativo das principais características anatômicas com implicações terapêuticas das formas reumática e degenerativa de estenose mitral encontra-se esquematizado na Figura Central.</p>
</sec>
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<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusão</title>
<p>A planimetria 3D é atualmente o método mais confiável para estimar a área da valva mitral, sobretudo em cenários com anatomia complexa, fusão comissural assimétrica ou calcificação extensa. Embora a ecocardiografia 2D siga desempenhando papel central na avaliação inicial, a utilização sistemática do 3D deve ser recomendada tanto na fase pré-procedimento quanto no seguimento de pacientes com estenose mitral significativa, contribuindo para maior precisão diagnóstica e melhor orientação terapêutica.</p>
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<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn5"><label>Fontes de financiamento</label>
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<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6"><label>Vinculação acadêmica</label>
<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p></fn>
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<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p></fn>
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