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<article article-type="review-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" xml:lang="en" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">
	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abcic</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Imagem Cardiovasc.</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">2318-8219</issn>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Departamento de Imagem Cardiovascular da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiolodia (DIC/SBC)</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="other">00200</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20250045i</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Review Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Assessment of Acute Chest Pain in the Emergency Department: How Point-of-Care Ultrasound Can Assist the Cardiologist</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3777-1947</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Soeiro</surname>
						<given-names>Alexandre de Matos</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>analysis and interpretation of the data and critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
					<role>acquisition of data and writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Oliveira</surname>
						<given-names>Lucas Lentini Herling de</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>acquisition of data and writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Moraes</surname>
						<given-names>Rômulo Fonseca de</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>acquisition of data and writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7410-3147</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Leal</surname>
						<given-names>Tatiana de Carvalho Andreucci Torres</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>acquisition of data and writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de São Paulo</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Instituto do Coração</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Universidade de São Paulo, Instituto do Coração, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">HCor</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">HCor, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3">
				<label>3</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">BP Mirante</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">BP Mirante, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01">
					<label>Mailing Address:</label> Alexandre de Matos Soeiro • Universidade de São Paulo, Instituto do Coração. Av. Dr Eneas de Carvalho Aguiar, 44. Postal code: 05403-000. São Paulo, SP – Brazil E-mail: <email>alexandre.soeiro@bol.com.br</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<label>Potential Conflict of Interest:</label>
					<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by">
					<label>Editor responsible for the review:</label>
					<p>Marcelo Tavares</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>08</day>
				<month>10</month>
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<month>10</month>
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>38</volume>
			<issue>3</issue>
			<elocation-id>e20250045</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>25</day>
					<month>05</month>
					<year>2025</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>29</day>
					<month>05</month>
					<year>2025</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>2</day>
					<month>06</month>
					<year>2025</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>Abstract</title>
				<p>The use of point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) in emergency settings is now well established as part of the initial assessment of critically ill patients. In cases of acute chest pain, POCUS plays a significant role in differential diagnosis, helping to reduce diagnostic errors and, most importantly, preventing the discharge of patients with potentially life-threatening conditions. In this context, the main diagnostic considerations include acute coronary syndrome (ACS), pericarditis, pulmonary thromboembolism (PTE), and acute aortic syndromes (AAS). POCUS has proven effective in all of these scenarios and can be widely applied with proper training, both by novice physicians and experienced echocardiographers. This article aims to discuss the key ways in which POCUS can specifically aid in the differential diagnosis of chest pain.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords:</title>
				<kwd>Emergencies</kwd>
				<kwd>Acute Coronary Syndrome</kwd>
				<kwd>Pulmonary Embolism</kwd>
				<kwd>Aortic Dissection</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="6"/>
				<table-count count="2"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="18"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<p>
					<fig id="f01">
						<label>Central Illustration:</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Assessment of Acute Chest Pain in the Emergency Department: How Point-of-Care Ultrasound Can Assist the Cardiologist</title>
							<p>Use of POCUS in the differential diagnosis of acute chest pain. IVC: inferior vena cava; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; LV: left ventricle; RA: right atrium; RV: right ventricle; RWMA: regional wall motion abnormality; Se: sensitivity; Sp: specificity; TAPSE: tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion.</p>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-38-03-e20250045-gf01.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introduction</title>
			<p>The use of point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) in emergency settings is now well established as an integral part of the initial assessment of critically ill patients. In cases of acute chest pain, POCUS has proven to be a valuable tool in differential diagnosis, helping reduce diagnostic errors and, most importantly, preventing the discharge of patients with potentially life-threatening conditions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Among the main differential diagnoses in this scenario are acute coronary syndrome (ACS), pericarditis, pulmonary thromboembolism (PTE), and acute aortic syndromes (AAS).</p>
			<sec>
				<title>a) ACS</title>
				<p>The diagnosis of ACS is primarily based on clinical history, electrocardiography (ECG), and troponin levels. Although these tools are simple and widely used, the increasing adoption of POCUS raises questions about its potential to improve diagnostic accuracy, shorten time to diagnosis, assist in risk stratification, and detect complications associated with ACS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Following clinical assessment, patients with suspected ACS in the emergency department (ED) can be pragmatically classified into three groups:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
				<list list-type="bullet">
					<list-item>
						<p>Definitive or highly probable diagnosis of ACS (e.g., typical clinical presentation with ST-segment elevation and/or troponin elevation);</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Ruled-out diagnosis (e.g., low-suspicion presentation with normal ECG and troponin levels);</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Indeterminate diagnosis.</p>
					</list-item>
				</list>
				<p>In confirmed cases, POCUS can be helpful in identifying complications in unstable patients, such as acute pulmonary edema or cardiogenic shock. When the diagnosis of ACS is ruled out, POCUS may assist in the differential diagnosis, such as AAS, pericarditis, or PTE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The indeterminate diagnosis group includes, for instance, patients with initially negative troponins but at intermediate risk for adverse events (e.g., a History, ECG, Age, Risk factors, Troponin [HEART] score between 4 and 6, or a 0/1-hour algorithm from the European Society of Cardiology [ESC] falling into the observation zone). In such cases, POCUS may reveal signs of poor prognosis and support the decision to conduct an earlier inpatient investigation. This group also includes patients presenting to the ED with a clinical or electrocardiographic presentation suggestive of acute coronary occlusion (ACO). If uncertainty remains, POCUS may help to increase or decrease the pretest probability of ACO.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In recent years, there has been a growing recognition of the limitations of using ST-segment elevation as a dichotomous criterion to define ACO. Consequently, greater importance is being placed on clinical presentation and other ECG findings. In this context, POCUS emerges as a valuable complementary tool for detecting regional wall motion abnormalities (RWMA). As with ECG findings, echocardiographic findings should not be interpreted in a binary manner but rather as part of a broader process of clinical reasoning.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A recent study evaluated whether the presence of RWMA on POCUS could predict obstructive coronary artery disease (CAD) in patients presenting to the ED with chest pain. Among the 657 participants with suspected ACS, approximately 11% showed RWMA. These findings were significantly more frequent in those who required revascularization (26.2% vs. 7.6%), with odds ratios ranging from 3.16 to 3.68 depending on the statistical adjustment. The analysis included all three risk groups of the ESC 0/1-hour algorithm (rule-in, observe, and rule-out), demonstrating that the presence or absence of RWMA influenced CAD risk across all categories. These findings reinforce that POCUS can help identify higher-risk patients, even without offering a definitive diagnosis. However, the accuracy of the method in detecting acute myocardial infarction (AMI) varies depending on the population studied.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Another retrospective study examined whether the detection of RWMA on POCUS could accelerate the indication for revascularization in patients with possible ACO. The study included 234 patients presenting to the ED with chest pain and negative troponins, excluding those with ST-segment elevation. Among the 23 patients who underwent revascularization, 14 had RWMA on POCUS, which was performed on average 36 minutes before the first troponin result. The mean time to revascularization was 432 minutes in patients with RWMA, compared to 2,158 minutes in those without. Despite methodological limitations, the study suggests that POCUS may provide relevant information in less time than troponin testing.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
				<p>RWMA may represent either an acute coronary event or sequelae of prior events. Some studies on the topic choose to exclude patients with a history of AMI from their analyses. Although this distinction is not always possible based solely on clinical history, the presence of RWMA supports clinical reasoning and risk stratification by identifying patients with a higher likelihood of adverse outcomes. These patients should therefore be considered for hospital admission and further investigation, taking into account other factors that contribute to pretest probability.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Several studies have investigated the value of POCUS performed by emergency physicians. A study published in 2020 compared trained emergency physicians with experienced echocardiographers, evaluating the accuracy of the former in detecting RWMA in patients with chest pain in the ED. A total of 89 patients were assessed, and the emergency physicians achieved a sensitivity of 76.9% and a specificity of 92.1%. The professionals evaluated were three in-hospital physicians with approximately 5 years of POCUS experience who underwent a specific 3-hour training on RWMA detection conducted by a cardiologist.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Another similar study compared RWMA assessments performed by emergency medicine residents with formally conducted echocardiograms in the context of ST-elevation AMI. The study included five first-year residents, three second-year residents, and one third-year resident, all of whom underwent video-based training focused on RWMA identification. These residents had prior experience with at least 25 cardiac POCUS exams and 150 general POCUS exams, although they had no specific training in RWMA detection before the study. A total of 75 patients were included, 62% of whom showed RWMA on formal echocardiography. POCUS performed by the residents achieved a sensitivity of 88% and a specificity of 92% compared to the gold standard used in the study (formal echocardiography or, in some cases, ventriculography).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
				<p>These studies highlight several important points. First, it appears feasible to train physicians who are not echocardiography specialists to assess RWMA using POCUS. However, the accuracy achieved by these professionals tends to be lower than that of experienced echocardiographers. Moreover, findings observed in studies using echocardiograms performed by specialists are likely not fully reproducible when POCUS is used by less experienced operators. The level of agreement, as well as the sensitivity and specificity of the exam, can vary significantly depending on the clinical context and the provider’s level of training. Prospective studies incorporating POCUS into clinical decision-making may help clarify its true impact on the assessment of patients with chest pain.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Finally, in unstable patients — such as those with acute pulmonary edema or cardiogenic shock — POCUS can aid in the differential diagnosis by enabling the assessment of biventricular function, volume status, and the identification of mechanical complications such as mitral regurgitation and/or pericardial effusion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>b) Pericardial assessment</title>
				<p>In the systematic evaluation of the heart using POCUS, visualization of the pericardium plays a key role in hemodynamic characterization and the differential diagnosis of chest pain.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In particular, when managing pericardial effusions, POCUS offers healthcare professionals a fast, accurate, and bedside-available diagnostic tool. Its use enables not only precise estimation of effusion volume but also early detection of cardiac tamponade and appropriate guidance for interventions such as pericardiocentesis, significantly contributing to improved clinical outcomes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Under physiological conditions, the pericardial space contains approximately 15 to 50 mL of fluid, a volume that is generally undetectable by simpler ultrasound machines. A pericardial effusion is defined as the abnormal accumulation of fluid in this space, becoming more easily visualized on ultrasound examination.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Among the differential diagnoses of chest pain, pericarditis accounts for approximately 5% of ED visits. Its clinical criteria include chest pain with features typical of pericardial involvement, suggestive ECG findings, presence of a pericardial friction rub, and evidence of pericardial effusion or an increase in the volume of a previously known effusion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Performing POCUS at the bedside facilitates the diagnosis of both pericarditis and pericardial effusion, as even small abnormal fluid collections in the pericardial space can be detected and considered diagnostic. The method has high accuracy, with sensitivity reaching up to 96% and specificity up to 98% when performed by adequately trained emergency physicians — not necessarily cardiologists.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Pericardial effusion can be measured using several basic echocardiographic windows, such as parasternal long and short axes, apical four-chamber, and subcostal views. Based on the observed thickness of the fluid layer, the effusion can be classified as minimal, small, moderate, or large (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t1">
						<label>Table 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Classification of pericardial effusion according to thickness and estimated fluid volume</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th>Pericardial effusion measurement</th>
									<th align="left">Approximate fluid volume</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">&lt; 5 mm</td>
									<td>50–100 mL (minimal)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">5–10 mm</td>
									<td>100–250 mL (small)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">10–20 mm</td>
									<td>250–500 mL (moderate)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">&gt; 20 mm</td>
									<td>&gt; 500 mL (large)</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>The presence of abnormal fluid in the pericardial space — its volume and rate of accumulation — may exert extrinsic compression on the cardiac chambers, directly affecting atrial and ventricular relaxation. This restriction depends not only on the absolute fluid volume but also on the pericardium’s elasticity to accommodate it. In cases of rapid accumulation, even small volumes may significantly increase intrapericardial pressure. On the other hand, in cases of slow and progressive accumulation, the pericardium can adapt due to its distensibility, accommodating volumes exceeding 500 mL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The echocardiographic findings most commonly identified on POCUS in patients with cardiac tamponade include:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
				<sec>
					<title>b.1) Late diastolic collapse of the right atrium (RA)</title>
					<p>Diastolic collapse of the RA is one of the most important and earliest echocardiographic signs of cardiac tamponade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> This phenomenon occurs during atrial relaxation, when RA volume is reduced and intrapericardial pressure peaks, causing the atrial wall to invaginate into the chamber. It is a highly sensitive finding, particularly when the collapse lasts for more than one-third of the cardiac cycle. However, its specificity is moderate (approximately 82%), as brief RA collapses can also occur in other conditions, such as elevated intrathoracic pressure. Nevertheless, sustained RA collapse is a strong indicator of cardiac tamponade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>b.2) Diastolic collapse of the right ventricle (RV)</title>
					<p>Diastolic collapse of the RV is typically observed during early diastole, when the chamber volume is still reduced. Although its sensitivity is slightly lower than that of RA collapse (approximately 93%), this finding is highly specific for tamponade. It is important to note that in certain clinical scenarios—such as RV hypertrophy or elevated diastolic pressure in the RV (e.g., acute or chronic cor pulmonale)—this collapse may be absent even in the presence of tamponade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>b.3) Dilated inferior vena cava (IVC) with minimal or absent respiratory variation</title>
					<p>In cases of cardiac tamponade, the RA becomes unable to adequately accommodate venous return due to the compression caused by increased intrapericardial pressure. As a result, the IVC remains dilated, with minimal or absent respiratory variation. This finding has high sensitivity for cardiac tamponade (95–97%) and a high negative predictive value (NPV). However, its specificity is low (around 40%), as it can also be seen in other conditions such as chronic lung disease, heart failure, tricuspid regurgitation, and other cardiopathies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
					<p>The IVC is typically visualized in a sagittal subcostal view, just below the xiphoid process. The diameter should be measured approximately 2 to 3 cm before its junction with the RA, near the confluence with the hepatic vein. In some cases, M-mode can be used to improve measurement accuracy. The IVC is considered abnormal when its diameter exceeds 2.1 cm and inspiratory variation is less than 50%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>b.4) Swinging heart</title>
					<p>This finding is characteristic of large pericardial effusions and refers to the pendular movement of the heart within the pericardial sac.</p>
					<p>The integration of POCUS into routine clinical practice has been shown to improve diagnostic accuracy and enable timely interventions, optimizing care for patients with pericardial involvement. However, it is essential to recognize the limitations of this modality. The effectiveness of POCUS is highly dependent on the operator’s experience and training, which can lead to variability in results. In addition, limited access to ultrasound equipment and trained personnel remains a significant barrier, particularly in resource-constrained settings.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>c) PTE</title>
			<p>PTE is one of the leading causes of chest pain in ED s, accounting for 5% to 10% of cases. Without treatment, its mortality rate is approximately 30%, but this can be reduced to 3%–8% with early therapy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Early diagnosis is essential but challenging. POCUS has proven to be a valuable bedside tool, allowing for rapid and integrated evaluation of cardiac, pulmonary, and vascular findings, with reported specificity as high as 96.7%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
			<p>The ultrasound assessment of patients with suspected PTE should include three main regions: the heart, lungs, and deep venous system of the lower limbs. The combination of findings across these areas increases diagnostic accuracy and can support early therapeutic decisions, including the initiation of reperfusion therapy even in the absence of a pulmonary CT angiogram.</p>
			<sec>
				<title>c.1) Cardiac assessment</title>
				<p>In the context of PTE, cardiac POCUS aims to identify signs of acute RV strain and dysfunction. In the absence of such findings, the exam can help rule out PTE in hemodynamically unstable patients and assist in identifying alternative causes of instability, such as left ventricle (LV) dysfunction or valvular disease. The main echocardiographic findings associated with PTE include:</p>
				<list list-type="bullet">
					<list-item>
						<p>RV dilation: RV/LV ratio &gt; 1 in apical or subxiphoid views and/or end-diastolic diameter &gt; 30 mm in the parasternal long-axis view. Sensitivity: 31%–72%; specificity: 87%–96%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>McConnell’s sign: hypokinesia of the RV free wall with preserved apical motion. Sensitivity: 77%; specificity: 94%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Interventricular septal flattening (“D-sign”): characterized by flattening of the septum toward the LV, predominantly during diastole, observed in the parasternal short-axis view.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>60/60 sign: pulmonary artery acceleration time (PAT) &lt; 60 ms combined with tricuspid regurgitation gradient (TRG) &lt; 60 mmHg. This pattern is suggestive of acute PTE, with sensitivity up to 98% when associated with RV overload (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figure 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
						<p>
							<fig id="f02">
								<label>Figure 1</label>
								<caption>
									<title>– Doppler showing pulmonary midsystolic notch and 60/60 sign (reduced PAT and TRG). TRG: tricuspid regurgitation gradient; PAT: pulmonary artery acceleration time.</title>
								</caption>
								<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-38-03-e20250045-gf02.tif"/>
							</fig>
						</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Pulmonary midsystolic notch: a Doppler finding in the RV outflow tract, characterized by a pronounced notch after a sharp initial peak, followed by a dome-shaped waveform. Alerhand et al. reported 92% sensitivity and 99% specificity for massive or submassive PTE; for PTE in general, sensitivity was 34% and specificity 97%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Dilated IVC with inspiratory collapse &lt; 50%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion (TAPSE) &lt; 17 mm, indicating RV systolic dysfunction. Sensitivity: 88%; specificity: 77%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
					</list-item>
				</list>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>c.2) Pulmonary assessment</title>
				<p>Pulmonary POCUS can be performed using either a convex or linear transducer, scanning the intercostal spaces in the anterior, lateral, and posterior regions of the chest. The main findings suggestive of pulmonary infarction secondary to PTE include (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figure 2</xref>):</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f03">
						<label>Figure 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Pulmonary consolidations: A – triangular; B – rounded; C – polygonal with adjacent pleural effusion.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-38-03-e20250045-gf03.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<list list-type="bullet">
					<list-item>
						<p>Triangular subpleural consolidations (the most common, seen in approximately 85% of cases) or, less frequently, rounded or polygonal consolidations (3%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Presence of A-lines associated with pleural sliding.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Pleural effusion, usually unilateral and associated with the area of consolidation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
					</list-item>
				</list>
				<p>When combined with cardiac findings and evidence of deep vein thrombosis (DVT), these ultrasound patterns significantly increase clinical suspicion for PTE, with specificity reaching up to 99%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>c.3) Deep vein assessment</title>
				<p>Ultrasound evaluation of the deep venous system of the lower limbs is a key component of the POCUS protocol in patients with suspected PTE. The absence of venous compressibility is highly suggestive of DVT. When identified in patients with compatible clinical signs or in those with suggestive cardiac and pulmonary POCUS findings, it may justify the immediate initiation of anticoagulant therapy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The multi-organ POCUS approach allows for the integration of both direct and indirect signs of PTE, providing a rapid assessment with high sensitivity and specificity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> The simultaneous presence of RV dysfunction, pulmonary consolidations, and DVT carries high predictive value. Recent studies highlight the growing role of POCUS, especially in emergency settings and resource-limited environments. In addition, POCUS enables the exclusion of other critical differential diagnoses, such as pneumothorax, cardiac tamponade, and aortic dissection. Thus, POCUS is increasingly recognized as an essential tool in the evaluation of patients with chest pain and suspected PTE — particularly when pulmonary CT angiography is not available.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>d) Aortic assessment</title>
			<p>AAS should always be considered key differential diagnoses in the evaluation of chest pain in emergency settings. As with other conditions discussed, visualization of the ascending aorta should be part of the initial POCUS assessment, forming an integral part of the diagnostic algorithm for patients presenting with chest pain.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
			<p>The ADvISED study (Diagnostic Accuracy of the Aortic Dissection Detection Risk Score Plus D-Dimer for Acute Aortic Syndromes), which evaluated patients with chest pain in the ED, applied a protocol combining the Aortic Dissection Detection Risk Score (ADD-RS) with D-dimer testing. The results demonstrated a negative predictive value (NPV) of 99.7% for ruling out AAS, although the specificity of the model alone was limited (57.3%) for positive diagnosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
			<p>A subanalysis of that study incorporated POCUS into the algorithm and showed that the presence of direct signs of AAS raised the diagnostic specificity to 97.4%. Even indirect signs performed well, with specificity of 74.5%. The inclusion of POCUS increased the NPV to 100% and improved overall diagnostic accuracy, with the area under the curve (AUC) rising from 0.77 to 0.88.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
			<p>The PROFUNDUS study, conducted prospectively with over 1,900 patients, also evaluated the use of POCUS combined with D-dimer for AAS investigation in emergency settings. In that study, the presence of direct signs on POCUS showed 98.4% specificity for diagnosing AAS, while indirect signs reached specificity between 88% and 96.5%. As with ADvISED, the combined use of POCUS and D-dimer achieved an NPV of 100%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
			<p>In clinical practice, the key question becomes: “Which echocardiographic views should be used, and what findings should be sought?” The preferred views include:</p>
			<list list-type="bullet">
				<list-item>
					<p>Parasternal long-axis view: allows assessment of the LV outflow tract and ascending aorta;</p>
				</list-item>
				<list-item>
					<p>Suprasternal view (at the suprasternal notch): provides visualization of the aortic arch and descending thoracic aorta.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
				</list-item>
			</list>
			<p>During the evaluation, physicians should actively search for direct and indirect signs of AAS, as outlined below:</p>
			<p>Direct signs:</p>
			<list list-type="bullet">
				<list-item>
					<p>Presence of an intimal flap (dissection of the tunica intima);</p>
				</list-item>
				<list-item>
					<p>Aortic wall hematoma;</p>
				</list-item>
				<list-item>
					<p>Penetrating aortic ulcer.</p>
				</list-item>
			</list>
			<p>Indirect signs:</p>
			<list list-type="bullet">
				<list-item>
					<p>Aortic dilation;</p>
				</list-item>
				<list-item>
					<p>Pericardial effusion;</p>
				</list-item>
				<list-item>
					<p>Aortic valve insufficiency.</p>
				</list-item>
			</list>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
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		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<label>Study Association:</label>
				<p> This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<label>Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate:</label>
				<p> This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<label>Use of Artificial Intelligence:</label>
				<p> The authors did not use any artificial intelligence tools in the development of this work.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-in-article">
				<label>Availability of Research Data:</label>
				<p> The underlying content of the research text is contained within the manuscript.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
				<label>Sources of Funding:</label>
				<p> There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRpt" xml:lang="pt">
		<front-stub>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20250045</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Avaliação da Dor Torácica Aguda no Pronto-Socorro: Como o Ultrassom <italic>Point-of-Care</italic> Pode Auxiliar o Cardiologista</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3777-1947</contrib-id>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2002"><sup>2</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3002"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7410-3147</contrib-id>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1002">
				<label>1</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Universidade de São Paulo, Instituto do Coração, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2002">
				<label>2</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">HCor, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3002">
				<label>3</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">BP Mirante, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01002">
					<label>Correspondência</label>: Alexandre de Matos Soeiro • Universidade de São Paulo, Instituto do Coração. Av. Dr Eneas de Carvalho Aguiar, 44. CEP: 05403-000. São Paulo, SP – Brasil E-mail: alexandre.soeiro@bol.com.br </corresp>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by">
					<label>Editor responsável pela revisão:</label>
					<p> Marcelo Tavares</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<label>Potencial Conflito de Interesse:</label>
					<p> Declaro não haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumo</title>
				<p>O uso da ultrassonografia <italic>point-of-care</italic> (POCUS) nas unidades de emergência já está consolidado como parte da avaliação inicial de pacientes críticos. Em casos de dor torácica aguda, o POCUS contribui significativamente para o diagnóstico diferencial, reduzindo a taxa de erros diagnósticos e, sobretudo, evitando a alta hospitalar de pacientes com doenças potencialmente fatais. Nessa situação, os principais diagnósticos são a síndrome coronariana aguda (SCA), a pericardite, a tromboembolia pulmonar (TEP) e as síndromes aórticas agudas (SAA). Em todos esses cenários, o POCUS já demonstrou sua eficácia e pode ser amplamente aplicado com o treinamento adequado, tanto por médicos iniciantes quanto por ecocardiografistas experientes. Este artigo tem como objetivo discutir os principais aspectos em que o POCUS pode auxiliar, de forma direcionada, no diagnóstico diferencial da dor torácica.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<title>Palavras-chave:</title>
				<kwd>Emergência</kwd>
				<kwd>Síndrome Coronariana Aguda</kwd>
				<kwd>Embolia Pulmonar</kwd>
				<kwd>Dissecção Aórtica</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<p>
					<fig id="f01002">
						<label>Figura Central:</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Avaliação da Dor Torácica Aguda no Pronto-Socorro: Como o Ultrassom Point-of-Care Pode Auxiliar o Cardiologista</title>
							<p>Utilização do POCUS no diagnóstico diferencial da dor torácica aguda. AD: átrio direito; ACS: alteração da contratilidade segmentar; E: especificidade; FEVE: fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo; S: sensibilidade; TAPSE: tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion; VCI: veia cava inferior; VD: ventrículo direito; VE: ventrículo esquerdo.</p>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-38-03-e20250045-gf01-pt.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introdução</title>
				<p>O uso da ultrassonografia <italic>point-of-care</italic> (POCUS) nas unidades de emergência já está consolidado como parte integrante da avaliação inicial de pacientes críticos. Em casos de dor torácica aguda, o POCUS tem se mostrado uma ferramenta útil no diagnóstico diferencial, contribuindo para a redução de erros diagnósticos e, principalmente, evitando a alta hospitalar de pacientes com doenças potencialmente fatais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Entre os principais diagnósticos nessa situação, destacam-se a síndrome coronariana aguda (SCA), a pericardite, a tromboembolia pulmonar (TEP) e as síndromes aórticas agudas (SAA).</p>
				<sec>
					<title>a) SCA</title>
					<p>O diagnóstico da SCA baseia-se principalmente na história clínica, na eletrocardiografia (ECG) e na dosagem de troponinas. Embora essas ferramentas sejam simples e amplamente utilizadas, o crescente uso do POCUS levanta questões sobre sua capacidade de aumentar a acurácia diagnóstica, reduzir o tempo até o diagnóstico, auxiliar na estratificação de risco e detectar complicações associadas à SCA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Após a avaliação clínica, os pacientes com suspeita de SCA no departamento de emergência (DE) podem ser divididos, de forma pragmática, em três grupos:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
					<list list-type="bullet">
						<list-item>
							<p>Diagnóstico definitivo ou muito provável de SCA (p. ex.: quadro clínico típico com supradesnível de ST e/ou elevação de troponinas);</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Diagnóstico descartado (p. ex.: quadro pouco sugestivo, ECG e troponinas normais);</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Diagnóstico indeterminado.</p>
						</list-item>
					</list>
					<p>Nos casos confirmados, o POCUS pode ser útil na identificação de complicações em pacientes instáveis, como edema agudo de pulmão ou choque cardiogênico. Quando o diagnóstico de SCA é descartado, o POCUS pode contribuir para o diagnóstico diferencial, como SAA, pericardite ou TEP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
					<p>No grupo com diagnóstico indeterminado, estão incluídos, por exemplo, pacientes com troponinas inicialmente negativas, mas com risco intermediário de eventos (ex: escore <italic>History, ECG, Age, Risk factors, Troponin</italic> [HEART] entre 4 e 6, ou algoritmo de 0/1 hora da <italic>European Society of Cardiology</italic> [ESC] em zona de observação). Nesses casos, o POCUS pode revelar sinais de mau prognóstico e ajudar na decisão por uma investigação mais precoce durante a internação. Também se incluem pacientes que chegam ao DE com quadro sugestivo de oclusão coronariana aguda (OCA), seja pela clínica ou por ECG. Nessas situações, se persistirem dúvidas, o POCUS pode contribuir para aumentar ou reduzir a probabilidade pré-teste de OCA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Nos últimos anos, vem crescendo o reconhecimento de que o supradesnível de ST, como critério dicotômico para definir OCA, é limitado. Assim, dá-se cada vez mais valor à apresentação clínica e a outros achados de ECG. O POCUS surge como um elemento complementar nesse cenário, especialmente pela detecção de alterações da contratilidade segmentar (ACS). Vale ressaltar que, assim como a ECG, os achados no ecocardiograma também não devem ser interpretados de forma binária, mas como parte de um raciocínio clínico mais amplo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Um estudo contemporâneo avaliou se a presença de ACS ao POCUS poderia predizer doença arterial coronariana (DAC) obstrutiva em pacientes com dor torácica no DE. Entre os 657 participantes com suspeita de SCA, cerca de 11% apresentavam ACS. Esses achados foram significativamente mais frequentes entre os que necessitaram de revascularização (26,2% vs. 7,6%), com OR entre 3,16 e 3,68, a depender do ajuste estatístico. A análise considerou os três grupos de risco do algoritmo de 0/1 hora da ESC (<italic>rule-in</italic>, observe e <italic>rule-out</italic>), demonstrando que a presença ou ausência de ACS modificava o risco de DAC em todos eles. Esses dados reforçam que o POCUS pode auxiliar na identificação de pacientes com maior risco, mesmo sem fornecer um diagnóstico definitivo. A acurácia do método para detectar infarto agudo do miocárdio (IAM), no entanto, varia conforme a população estudada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Outro estudo retrospectivo analisou se a detecção de ACS ao POCUS poderia acelerar a indicação de revascularização em pacientes com possível OCA. Foram incluídos 234 pacientes com dor torácica no DE e troponinas negativas, excluindo aqueles com supradesnível de ST. Dentre os 23 pacientes submetidos à revascularização, 14 apresentavam ACS ao POCUS, realizado em média 36 min antes do primeiro resultado de troponina. O tempo médio até a revascularização foi de 432 min nos pacientes com ACS, contra 2.158 min nos que não apresentavam. Apesar das limitações metodológicas, o estudo sugere que o POCUS pode fornecer informações relevantes em menos tempo que a troponina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
					<p>ACS podem representar tanto um evento coronariano agudo quanto sequelas de eventos prévios. Alguns estudos sobre o tema optam por excluir pacientes com histórico de IAM das análises. Embora essa diferenciação nem sempre seja possível apenas com base na história clínica, a presença de ACS contribui para o raciocínio clínico e para a estratificação de risco, identificando pacientes com maior probabilidade de desfechos adversos e que, por isso, devem ser considerados para internação e investigação complementar, levando-se em conta os demais fatores que compõem a probabilidade pré-teste.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Diversos estudos têm investigado o valor do POCUS realizado por médicos emergencistas. Um estudo publicado em 2020 comparou emergencistas treinados com ecocardiografistas experientes, avaliando a acurácia dos primeiros na detecção de ACS em pacientes com dor torácica no DE. Foram avaliados 89 pacientes, e os emergencistas alcançaram uma sensibilidade de 76,9% e especificidade de 92,1%. Os profissionais avaliados eram três médicos do próprio hospital, com cerca de 5 anos de experiência em POCUS, que receberam treinamento específico para detecção de ACS ministrado por um cardiologista, com duração de 3 horas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Outro estudo semelhante comparou a avaliação de ACS realizada por residentes de medicina de emergência com ecocardiogramas formalmente executados, no contexto de IAM com supradesnível de ST. Participaram do estudo cinco residentes do primeiro ano, três do segundo e um do terceiro ano, todos submetidos a um treinamento em vídeo voltado à identificação de ACS. Esses residentes possuíam, no mínimo, experiência prévia com 25 exames cardíacos por POCUS e 150 exames gerais, embora não tivessem treinamento específico em ACS antes do estudo. Foram incluídos 75 pacientes, dos quais 62% apresentavam ACS ao ecocardiograma. O POCUS realizado pelos residentes alcançou sensibilidade de 88% e especificidade de 92% quando comparado ao padrão-ouro adotado no estudo (ecocardiograma formal ou, em alguns casos, ventriculografia).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Esses estudos trazem algumas mensagens importantes. Primeiro, parece ser possível treinar médicos não especialistas em ecocardiografia para realizarem a avaliação de ACS com POCUS. No entanto, a acurácia desses profissionais tende a ser inferior à dos ecocardiografistas experientes. Além disso, os achados observados em estudos com ecocardiogramas realizados por especialistas provavelmente não são totalmente reprodutíveis com o uso do POCUS por operadores menos experientes. O grau de concordância, bem como a sensibilidade e especificidade do exame, pode variar significativamente conforme o contexto clínico e o nível de treinamento do profissional. Estudos prospectivos que incorporem o uso do POCUS na tomada de decisão clínica poderão ajudar a esclarecer o real impacto dessa ferramenta na avaliação de pacientes com dor torácica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Por fim, em pacientes instáveis — como aqueles com edema agudo de pulmão ou choque cardiogênico —, o POCUS pode contribuir para o diagnóstico diferencial, permitindo a avaliação da função biventricular, do estado volêmico e a identificação de complicações mecânicas, como insuficiência mitral e/ou derrame pericárdico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>b) Avaliação do pericárdio</title>
					<p>Na avaliação sistemática do coração por meio do POCUS, a visualização do pericárdio desempenha papel fundamental na caracterização hemodinâmica e no diagnóstico diferencial da dor torácica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Particularmente na abordagem clínica dos derrames pericárdicos, o POCUS oferece aos profissionais de saúde uma ferramenta diagnóstica rápida, precisa e disponível à beira do leito. Sua utilização permite não apenas a estimativa acurada do volume do derrame, mas também a detecção precoce de tamponamento cardíaco e o direcionamento adequado de intervenções como a pericardiocentese, contribuindo significativamente para a melhora dos desfechos clínicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Em condições fisiológicas, o espaço pericárdico contém cerca de 15 a 50 ml de líquido, volume que geralmente não é detectável por aparelhos de ultrassom mais simples. O derrame pericárdico corresponde ao acúmulo anormal de fluido nesse espaço, tornando-se mais facilmente visualizado ao exame ultrassonográfico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Entre os diagnósticos diferenciais de dor torácica, a pericardite representa cerca de 5% dos atendimentos em serviços de emergência. Seus critérios clínicos incluem dor torácica com características típicas de comprometimento pericárdico, achados eletrocardiográficos sugestivos, presença de atrito pericárdico e evidência de derrame no espaço pericárdico, bem como aumento do volume de um derrame previamente conhecido.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A realização do POCUS à beira do leito facilita o diagnóstico tanto da pericardite quanto do derrame pericárdico, uma vez que mesmo pequenas quantidades anormais de líquido no espaço pericárdico podem ser detectadas, passando a ser consideradas como critério diagnóstico. A acurácia é elevada, com sensibilidade de até 96% e especificidade de até 98% quando o exame é realizado por médicos emergencistas — não cardiologistas — com treinamento adequado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A mensuração do derrame pericárdico pode ser feita por meio de várias janelas ecocardiográficas básicas, como as vistas paraesternal em eixo longo e curto, apical de quatro câmaras e subcostal. De acordo com a espessura do acúmulo observado, o derrame pode ser classificado como mínimo, pequeno, moderado ou importante (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1002">Tabela 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t1002">
							<label>Tabela 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Classificação do derrame pericárdico de acordo com a espessura e o volume estimado de líquido</title>
							</caption>
							<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
								<colgroup>
									<col/>
									<col/>
								</colgroup>
								<thead>
									<tr>
										<th>Medida do derrame pericárdico</th>
										<th align="left">Volume aproximado de líquido</th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td align="center">&lt; 5 mm</td>
										<td>50–100 ml (mínimo)</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="center">5–10 mm</td>
										<td>100–250 ml (pequeno)</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="center">10–20 mm</td>
										<td>250–500 ml (moderado)</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="center">&gt; 20 mm</td>
										<td>&gt; 500 ml (importante)</td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
					<p>A presença de líquido anormal no espaço pericárdico, seu volume e a velocidade com que se acumula podem gerar compressão extrínseca sobre as câmaras cardíacas, afetando diretamente a capacidade de relaxamento atrial e ventricular. É importante destacar que essa restrição não depende apenas do volume absoluto de líquido, mas também da elasticidade do pericárdio para acomodá-lo. Quando o acúmulo é rápido, até mesmo volumes pequenos podem elevar a pressão intrapericárdica de forma significativa. Por outro lado, em situações de acúmulo lento e progressivo, o pericárdio pode adaptar-se devido à sua distensibilidade, chegando a comportar volumes superiores a 500 ml.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Os achados ecocardiográficos mais frequentemente identificados pelo POCUS em pacientes com tamponamento cardíaco incluem:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
					<sec>
						<title>b.1) Colapso diastólico tardio do átrio direito (AD)</title>
						<p>O colapso diastólico do AD é um dos sinais ecocardiográficos mais importantes e precoces do tamponamento cardíaco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Esse fenômeno ocorre durante o relaxamento atrial, quando o volume do AD está reduzido e a pressão intrapericárdica atinge seu pico, levando à invaginação da parede atrial para o interior da câmara. Trata-se de um achado com alta sensibilidade, especialmente quando o colapso persiste por mais de um terço do ciclo cardíaco. No entanto, sua especificidade é moderada (aproximadamente 82%), uma vez que colapsos breves do AD podem ocorrer em outras condições, como em aumento da pressão intratorácica. Ainda assim, o colapso sustentado do AD é um forte indicativo de tamponamento cardíaco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>b.2) Colapso diastólico do ventrículo direito (VD)</title>
						<p>O colapso diastólico do VD é observado, em geral, durante a diástole precoce, quando o volume da câmara ainda é reduzido. Apesar de apresentar sensibilidade ligeiramente inferior à do colapso do AD (cerca de 93%), o achado é altamente específico para tamponamento. Vale destacar que em algumas situações clínicas — como hipertrofia do VD ou pressão diastólica elevada nessa câmara (ex.: cor pulmonale agudo ou crônico) — esse colapso pode não estar presente, mesmo na presença de tamponamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>b.3) Veia cava inferior (VCI) dilatada, com variação respiratória mínima ou ausente</title>
						<p>Em casos de tamponamento cardíaco, o AD torna-se incapaz de acomodar adequadamente a pré-carga devido à compressão exercida pelo aumento da pressão intrapericárdica. Como resultado, a VCI permanece dilatada, com variação respiratória mínima ou ausente. Esse achado apresenta alta sensibilidade para tamponamento cardíaco (95–97%) e elevado valor preditivo negativo (VPN). No entanto, sua especificidade é baixa (cerca de 40%), pois também pode ser observado em outras condições, como doença pulmonar crônica, insuficiência cardíaca, insuficiência tricúspide e outras cardiopatias. A VCI é geralmente visualizada em corte sagital subcostal, abaixo do processo xifoide.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
						<p>A VCI é normalmente visualizada em corte sagital subcostal, abaixo do processo xifoide. A mensuração do diâmetro deve ser feita cerca de 2 a 3 cm antes da junção da VCI com o AD, na altura da confluência com a veia hepática. Em alguns casos, pode-se utilizar o modo M para melhor acurácia na medida. Considera-se a VCI alterada quando seu diâmetro excede 2,1 cm e a variação inspiratória é inferior a 50%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>b.4) <italic>Swinging heart</italic> (coração oscilante)</title>
						<p>Esse achado é característico de derrames pericárdicos volumosos e se refere ao movimento pendular do coração dentro do saco pericárdico.</p>
						<p>A incorporação do POCUS à prática clínica rotineira tem demonstrado aumentar a acurácia diagnóstica e viabilizar intervenções em tempo oportuno, otimizando o cuidado de pacientes com acometimento pericárdico. No entanto, é fundamental reconhecer as limitações inerentes a essa modalidade. A eficácia do POCUS depende fortemente da experiência e do treinamento do operador, o que pode resultar em variabilidade nos resultados. Além disso, a disponibilidade de equipamentos de ultrassonografia e de profissionais capacitados ainda representa uma barreira importante, especialmente em contextos com recursos limitados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>c) TEP</title>
				<p>O TEP é uma das principais causas de dor torácica em serviços de emergência, correspondendo a 5% a 10% dos atendimentos. Sem tratamento, apresenta mortalidade de aproximadamente 30%, valor que pode ser reduzido para 3% a 8% com terapia precoce.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> O diagnóstico precoce é essencial, mas desafiador. O POCUS se mostra uma ferramenta valiosa à beira leito, permitindo uma avaliação rápida e integrada de achados cardíacos, pulmonares e vasculares, com especificidade relatada de até 96,7%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A abordagem ultrassonográfica de pacientes com suspeita de TEP deve incluir três regiões principais: coração, pulmões e sistema venoso profundo dos membros inferiores. A combinação dos achados nesses territórios aumenta a acurácia diagnóstica e pode subsidiar decisões terapêuticas precoces, incluindo a instituição de terapia de reperfusão mesmo na ausência de angiotomografia pulmonar.</p>
				<sec>
					<title>c.1) Avaliação cardíaca</title>
					<p>O POCUS cardíaco no contexto de TEP busca identificar sinais de sobrecarga aguda e disfunção do VD. Na ausência desses achados, o exame pode contribuir para descartar TEP em pacientes hemodinamicamente instáveis, além de auxiliar na identificação de outras causas de instabilidade, como disfunção do ventrículo esquerdo (VE) ou valvopatias. Os principais achados ecocardiográficos associados ao TEP incluem:</p>
					<list list-type="bullet">
						<list-item>
							<p>Dilatação do VD: relação VD/VE &gt; 1 nas janelas apical ou subxifoide, e/ou volume diastólico final &gt; 30 mm na vista paraesternal em eixo longo. Sensibilidade: 31%–72%; especificidade: 87%–96%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Sinal de McConnell: hipocinesia da parede livre do VD com preservação do movimento apical. Sensibilidade: 77%; especificidade: 94%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Desvio do septo interventricular (sinal do D): caracterizado pelo achatamento do septo em direção ao VE, principalmente na diástole, observado na janela paraesternal em eixo curto.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Sinal 60/60: tempo de aceleração da artéria pulmonar (TAP) &lt; 60 ms combinado com gradiente de regurgitação tricúspide (GRT) &lt; 60 mmHg. Esse padrão é sugestivo de TEP agudo, com sensibilidade de até 98% quando associado à sobrecarga de VD (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02002">Figura 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
							<p>
								<fig id="f02002">
									<label>Figura 1</label>
									<caption>
										<title>– Doppler com incisura mesossistólica pulmonar e sinal 60/60 (TAP e GRT reduzidos). GRT: gradiente de regurgitação tricúspide; TAP: tempo de aceleração da artéria pulmonar.</title>
									</caption>
									<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-38-03-e20250045-gf02-pt.tif"/>
								</fig>
							</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Incisura mesossistólica pulmonar: achado doppler na via de saída do VD, caracterizado por uma incisura acentuada após pico estreito inicial, seguido por uma onda em forma de cúpula. O estudo de Albricker et al. demonstrou sensibilidade de 92% e especificidade de 99% para TEP maciço ou submaciço; para TEP em geral, sensibilidade foi de 34% e especificidade de 97%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>VCI dilatada com colapso inspiratório &lt; 50%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Excursão sistólica do plano anular da valva tricúspide (TAPSE) &lt; 17 mm, associada à disfunção sistólica do VD. Sensibilidade: 88%; especificidade: 77%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
					</list>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>c.2) Avaliação pulmonar</title>
					<p>O POCUS pulmonar pode ser realizado com transdutor convexo ou linear, explorando os espaços intercostais nas regiões anterior, lateral e posterior do tórax. As principais alterações sugestivas de infarto pulmonar secundário ao TEP incluem (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03002">Figura 2</xref>):</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f03002">
							<label>Figura 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Consolidações pulmonares: A – triangulares; B – arredondadas; C – poligonal com derrame pleural adjacente.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-38-03-e20250045-gf03-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<list list-type="bullet">
						<list-item>
							<p>Consolidações subpleurais triangulares (mais comuns, cerca de 85%) ou, em menor frequência, arredondadas ou poligonais (3%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Presença de linhas A associadas ao deslizamento pleural.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Derrame pleural, geralmente unilateral e relacionado à área de consolidação.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
					</list>
					<p>Quando associados a achados cardíacos e sinais de trombose venosa profunda (TVP), esses padrões aumentam substancialmente a suspeita clínica de TEP, podendo alcançar especificidade de até 99%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>c.3) Avaliação de veias profundas</title>
					<p>A avaliação ultrassonográfica do sistema venoso profundo dos membros inferiores é parte fundamental do protocolo POCUS em pacientes com suspeita de TEP. A ausência de compressibilidade venosa é altamente sugestiva de TVP. Quando identificada em pacientes com sinais clínicos compatíveis ou com achados cardíacos e pulmonares sugestivos no POCUS, pode justificar o início imediato do tratamento anticoagulante.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A abordagem multiorgânica com POCUS permite integrar sinais diretos e indiretos de TEP, fornecendo uma avaliação rápida, com alta sensibilidade e especificidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> A presença concomitante de disfunção do VD, consolidações pulmonares e TVP possui elevado valor preditivo. Estudos recentes reforçam o papel crescente do POCUS, especialmente em ambientes de emergência e em cenários com recursos limitados. Além disso, o POCUS possibilita a exclusão de diagnósticos diferenciais importantes, como pneumotórax, tamponamento cardíaco e dissecção aórtica. Diante disso, o POCUS consolida-se como ferramenta essencial na avaliação de pacientes com dor torácica e suspeita de TEP, sobretudo quando a angiotomografia pulmonar não está disponível.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>d) Avaliação da aorta</title>
				<p>As SAA devem sempre ser consideradas como importantes diagnósticos diferenciais na avaliação da dor torácica em contextos de emergência. Assim como nas demais condições abordadas, a visualização da aorta ascendente deve integrar a avaliação inicial por POCUS, compondo o algoritmo diagnóstico adotado no atendimento de pacientes com dor torácica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
				<p>O estudo ADvISED (<italic>Diagnostic Accuracy of the Aortic Dissection Detection Risk Score Plus D-Dimer for Acute Aortic Syndromes</italic>), que avaliou pacientes com dor torácica na emergência, aplicou um protocolo combinando escore clínico (<italic>Aortic Dissection Detection Risk Score</italic>, ADD-RS) e D-dímero. Os resultados demonstraram um VPN de 99,7% para exclusão de SAA, embora a especificidade do modelo isolado fosse limitada (57,3%) para o diagnóstico positivo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Uma subanálise desse estudo incorporou o POCUS ao algoritmo e mostrou que a presença de sinais diretos de SAA elevou a especificidade diagnóstica para 97,4%. Mesmo sinais indiretos apresentaram boa performance, com especificidade de 74,5%. A inclusão do POCUS elevou o VPN para 100% e aumentou a acurácia global, com a área sob a curva (AUC) passando de 0,77 para 0,88.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
				<p>O estudo PROFUNDUS, conduzido de forma prospectiva com mais de 1.900 pacientes, também avaliou a utilização do POCUS combinado ao D-dímero na investigação de SAA em serviços de emergência. Nesse estudo, a presença de sinais diretos no POCUS apresentou especificidade de 98,4% para o diagnóstico de SAA, enquanto os sinais indiretos alcançaram especificidade entre 88% e 96,5%. Assim como no ADvISED, o uso combinado do POCUS com o D-dímero resultou em VPN de 100%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Na prática clínica, surge a questão: “quais janelas ecocardiográficas utilizar e quais achados buscar?” As janelas preferencialmente empregadas são:</p>
				<list list-type="bullet">
					<list-item>
						<p>Paraesternal em eixo longo: permite a avaliação da via de saída do VE e da aorta ascendente;</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Supraesternal (na região da fúrcula): oferece visualização do arco aórtico e da porção descendente da aorta torácica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
					</list-item>
				</list>
				<p>Durante a avaliação, o médico deve ativamente buscar sinais diretos e indiretos de SAA, conforme descrito a seguir:</p>
				<p>Sinais diretos:</p>
				<list list-type="bullet">
					<list-item>
						<p>Presença de <italic>flap intimal</italic> (descolamento da túnica íntima);</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Hematoma da parede aórtica;</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Úlcera de aorta.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Sinais indiretos:</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Dilatação da aorta;</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Derrame pericárdico;</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Insuficiência da valva aórtica.</p>
					</list-item>
				</list>
			</sec>
		</body>
		<back>
			<fn-group>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<label>Vinculação Acadêmica:</label>
					<p> Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<label>Aprovação Ética e Consentimento Informado:</label>
					<p> Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<label>Uso de Inteligência Artificial:</label>
					<p> Os autores não utilizaram ferramentas de inteligência artificial no desenvolvimento deste trabalho.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-in-article">
					<label>Disponibilidade de Dados:</label>
					<p> Os conteúdos subjacentes ao texto da pesquisa estão contidos no manuscrito.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
					<label>Fontes de Financiamento:</label>
					<p> O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
		</back>
	</sub-article>
</article>