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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abcic</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Imagem Cardiovasc.</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
<issn pub-type="ppub">2318-8219</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Departamento de Imagem Cardiovascular da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiolodia (DIC/SBC)</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20250003i</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abcimg.20250003i</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Research Letter</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>3D Printing of a Heart With Amyloidosis</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Cruz</surname><given-names>Mariana de Paula</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>Acquisition of data</role>
<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3988-4304</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Yahiro</surname><given-names>Davi Shunji</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>Acquisition of data</role>
<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Neves</surname><given-names>Daniel Gama das</given-names></name>
<role>Acquisition of data</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Barbosa</surname><given-names>Renato Pereira</given-names></name>
<role>Acquisition of data</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7687-3161</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Fabro</surname><given-names>Alexandre Todorovic</given-names></name>
<role>Acquisition of data</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7975-6932</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Garibaldi</surname><given-names>Pedro Manoel Marques</given-names></name>
<role>Acquisition of data</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6553-8387</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Simões</surname><given-names>Marcus</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1466-9413</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Mesquita</surname><given-names>Claudio Tinoco</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Niterói</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Universitário Antônio Pedro</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Health, Science &amp; Education Lab, Radiology Department</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Niterói</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Health, Science &amp; Education Lab, Radiology Department, Hospital Universitário Antônio Pedro, EBSERH, Niterói, RJ – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>3</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de São Paulo</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Ribeirão Preto</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><label>Mailing Address:</label> <bold>Mariana de Paula Cruz</bold> • Universidade Federal Fluminense. Avenida Marques do Paraná, 349. Postal code: <postal-code>24030215</postal-code>. Niterói, RJ – Brazil E-mail: <email>m_cruz@id.uff.br</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="coi-statement"><label>Potential Conflict of Interest</label>
<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><label>Editor responsible for the review:</label> <p>Isabela Costa</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>17</day>
<month>11</month>
<year>2025</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2025</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>38</volume>
<issue>3</issue>
<elocation-id>e20250003</elocation-id>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>17</day>
<month>01</month>
<year>2025</year>
</date>
<date date-type="rev-recd">
<day>30</day>
<month>05</month>
<year>2025</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>27</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2025</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>Cardiac Amyloidosis is a restrictive cardiomyopathy caused by the accumulation of amyloid protein in the heart. The advances in non-invasive diagnosis have been increasing its identification among patients with Heart Failure (HF), being previously considered to be a rare condition. Currently, it represents around 13% of the cases of Heart Failure with preserved Ejection Fraction (HFpEF). We report the case of a 72-year-old male patient who presented to the clinic reporting dyspnea and fatigue in low-effort activities. Laboratory exams were conducted, revealing increased cardiac markers, along with evidence of ventricular hypertrophy in electrocardiographic analysis. Cardiac imaging, serum free light chain (AL) assay, and endomyocardial biopsy indicated the diagnosis of AL amyloidosis. A three-dimensional model was constructed using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data. This model is intended to increase the awareness around amyloidosis as a possible differential diagnosis of HF, while also promoting patients’ and families’ education, demonstrating the typical structural abnormalities of the disease.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords</title>
<kwd>Amyloidosis</kwd>
<kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
<kwd>Three-Dimensional Printing</kwd>
<kwd>Magnetic Resonance Imaging</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<funding-group>
<funding-statement>This study was partially funded by Fundação Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ) and Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq).</funding-statement>
</funding-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="8"/>
<table-count count="0"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="6"/>
</counts>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introduction</title>
<p>Cardiac amyloidosis results from disorders in the folding of amyloidogenic proteins, leading to the formation of insoluble amyloid fibrils that accumulate in the extracellular matrix of the heart.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> The most common variants are primary or light chain (AL) and transthyretin-related (ATTR) amyloidosis. AL amyloidosis is caused by the deposition of ALs of immunoglobulin, produced in excess by normal or malignant plasma cells.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Cardiac manifestations of amyloidosis include Heart Failure with preserved Ejection Fraction (HFpEF), arrhythmias, angina with non-obstructive coronary lesions, and thromboembolic events. Some cases of cardiac amyloidosis are associated with aortic stenosis, particularly in cases with low flow and low gradient.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> The three-dimensional printing has been widely explored in the healthcare field for various applications, ranging from the production of surgical parts to educational models. This tool has stood out for allowing the creation of patient-specific materials, which aid in the study and understanding of complex pathological anatomies. We report a case of AL cardiac amyloidosis in which 3D printing was used to model the affected organ. This modeling was intended to increase the awareness of amyloidosis as a possible differential diagnosis of heart failure (HF) with preserved ejection fraction, while also promoting patients’ and families’ education.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Description</title>
<p>A 72-year-old male patient with a previous history of myocardial infarction presented to the cardiology department with progressive dyspnea and fatigue on exertion for the past year. He reported worsening over the last two months, affecting his usual activities, along with orthopnea, blurred vision, dizziness, and a sensation of imminent fainting upon standing. Physical examination revealed postural hypotension, lower limb edema (++/4), as well as distal hypoesthesia and hypopallesthesia. Cardiac auscultation revealed a holosystolic murmur at the tricuspid focus, with P2 hyperphonesis. Laboratory tests showed proteinuria (+++/4) in routine urine analysis, along with elevated cardiac markers NT-ProBNP and Troponin I, with no further abnormalities. An electrocardiogram indicated left ventricular hypertrophy and left anterior fascicular block. The evaluation was followed by an echocardiogram, which showed thickening of the right ventricle, interventricular septum, and valves. The Global Longitudinal Strain (GLS) displayed an apical sparing pattern. The ratio between the left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) and the GLS was elevated, suggesting cardiac amyloidosis. New suggestive findings were observed in Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), which showed diffuse subendocardial late enhancement and confirmed the thickening of the chambers (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f1">
<label>Figure 1</label>
<caption>
<title>MRI showing thickening of the ventricular walls (panels A, B, and C) and diffuse late enhancement patterns in gadolinium contrast (shown in panels D, E, and F).</title>
<p>This pattern arises from a difference in contrast uptake throughout cardiac tissue and may be found in various myocardial injuries.</p></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-38-03-e20250003-gf01.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>With the suspicion established, the investigation proceeded with the assays of free ALs of immunoglobulins. The results were as follows: free light kappa chain 18.1 mg/dL (6.7–22.4), lambda chain 168.4 mg/dL (8.3–27), with a ratio of Kappa to Lambda chains (K/L) of 0,11 (0.31-1.56). The finding of K/L ratio below the reference value is highly suggestive of AL Amyloidosis, due to the deposition of lambda ALs. Bone marrow and skin/subcutaneous biopsies did not show any infiltrations. An endomyocardial biopsy was performed (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>), stained with Congo Red, which exhibited characteristic birefringence of amyloid infiltration under polarized light (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>). Mass spectrometry confirmed the AL typing. The patient had clinical improvement after AL Amyloidosis-specific treatment.</p>
<fig id="f2">
<label>Figure 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Endomyocardial biopsy of the left ventricle, stained with Congo Red, showing subtle red coloring of the amyloid protein deposits.</title>
<p>Evaluation under polarized light can be utilized to increase sensitivity.</p></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-38-03-e20250003-gf02.tif"/>
</fig>
<fig id="f3">
<label>Figure 3</label>
<caption>
<title>Endomyocardial biopsy of the left ventricle, stained with Congo Red, exhibiting a birefringence pattern under polarized light.</title>
<p>The apple green birefringence is characteristically found in amyloid protein deposits, as the staining reacts with the misfolded proteins to form complexes that present optical reactivity. The polarized light evaluation enhances the sensitivity of the staining technique.</p></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-38-03-e20250003-gf03.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="discussion">
<title>Discussion</title>
<sec>
<title>AL Amyloidosis</title>
<p>AL Amyloidosis, also known as primary amyloidosis, is the most common form of the disease among systemic variants. It arises from the tissue deposition of AL immunoglobulins in cardiac tissue, produced excessively by normal or malignant plasma cells. It is a rare condition, with 5.1 to 12.8 cases per million person-years worldwide. The vast majority of affected patients are over 40 years old, with a median age at diagnosis of 64 years. The progression of the disease is rapid and poses significant risks when not identified early.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> The deposition of amyloid protein is characterized by significant thickening of the ventricular walls, septa, and valves, resulting in HF of a restrictive nature. Currently, cardiac amyloidosis accounts for about 13% of cases of HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Diagnosis begins with the investigation of clinical findings consistent with HFpEF Symptoms may be more associated with left-sided HF (pulmonary congestion, dyspnea) or right-sided HF (edema, ascites). Other important alterations arise from amyloid infiltration in the atria, causing atrial fibrillation and other arrhythmias, and the cardiac conduction system, producing atrioventricular blocks.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Elevated serum levels of cardiovascular markers (especially troponin T and NT-ProBNP) should be present. The electrocardiogram of these patients typically shows low QRS voltage, inconsistent with the thickness of the ventricular wall, especially in AL Amyloidosis.</p>
<p>The investigation should continue with echocardiography and MRI, revealing more specific findings of the disease. The reduction in longitudinal strain with an &quot;apical sparing&quot; pattern is an important modification seen on echocardiography, along with thickening of the ventricles and valves. MRI may reveal a pattern of diffuse delayed enhancement using gadolinium-based contrast, with subendocardial or transmural distribution, consistent with the presence of amyloid deposits. Finally, the investigation of immunoglobulin ALs, combined with peripheral biopsy (or, if necessary, cardiac biopsy), will be conclusive for diagnosis. The assessment of ALs is best performed with the combination of three tests: immunofixation in blood and urine, which aids in their detection, and the measurement of the ratio between kappa and lambda chains, which yields a positive result when abnormal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
<p>The most important factor in determining prognosis is the extent of damage to the cardiac tissue. Understanding the physiopathology of amyloidosis and discussing its clinical and morphological manifestations are crucial for the early diagnosis of this increasingly understood yet still underrecognized condition in medical practice.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>The 3D model</title>
<p>The three-dimensional model (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 4</xref>) was produced from the patient&apos;s imaging examinations (MRI). The processing of the files includes the steps of segmentation—isolating the desired anatomical structures—and slicing, which involves dividing the structure into printable layers. From these interventions, the final file (in STL format, Standard Tessellation Language) can be read by the machine as a sequence of two-dimensional planes, which are then built on top of each other by the printer (additive manufacturing). The material used in this process was plastic filament, a solid component that is melted by the machine and reshaped into the contours of the desired piece. This type of printer operates using the FDM (Fused Deposition Modeling) technique, which is the most accessible among the options for three-dimensional modeling. Filament modeling was chosen for this project to demonstrate the applicability of the technique even with the simplest forms of this technology.</p>
<fig id="f4">
<label>Figure 4</label>
<caption>
<title>Three-dimensional heart model with AL amyloidosis, produced using imaging data from MRI.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-38-03-e20250003-gf04.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>The model displays the characteristic morphological changes of amyloidosis in cardiac tissue, reinforcing its similarity to the physiology of HF. Notably, there is left ventricular thickening, with a significant reduction in the ventricular lumen, as well as considerable thickening of the interventricular septum. To a lesser extent, the same modification is observed in the right ventricular wall. This type of material, which has significant anatomical and pathological correspondence with the actual organ, can be applied in various contexts in medical practice. Its use for educational purposes, patient and family instruction, and especially guiding surgical approaches benefits from a more complete and consistent understanding of the studied organ structures. Furthermore, the dissemination and popularization of 3D printers have facilitated the development of more realistic and reproducible models without imposing significant financial costs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Three-dimensional models can improve professional and patient education through the visual and tactile experience they allow.<sup>7</sup> In this regard, we emphasize the great potential for exploring this tool in the healthcare field, complementing imaging studies and possibly revealing new important information that enhances our understanding of diseases.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1"><label>Sources of Funding</label>
<p>This study was partially funded by Fundação Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ) and Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq).</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2"><label>Study Association</label>
<p>This article is part of Mariana de Paula Cruz&apos;s Final Course Project at the Federal Fluminense University (UFF).</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3"><label>Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate</label>
<p>This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Medicine of UFF under protocol number 6.594.419/CAAE:70417223.1.0000.5243. All the procedures in this study were in accordance with the 1975 Helsinki Declaration, updated in 2013. Informed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn4"><label>Use of Artificial Intelligence</label>
<p>The authors did not use any artificial intelligence tools in the development of this work.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
<sec sec-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-available-upon-request">
<label>Availability of Research Data</label>
<p>All datasets supporting the results of this study are available upon request from the corresponding author: Mariana de Paula Cruz.</p>
</sec>
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<name><surname>Abreu</surname><given-names>IP</given-names><suffix>Neto</suffix></name>
<name><surname>Tastaldi</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Hernia 3D Training Model: A New Inguinal Hernia 3D-Printed Simulator</article-title>
<source>Einstein</source>
<year>2024</year>
<volume>22</volume>
<elocation-id>eAO0620</elocation-id>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.31744/einstein_journal/2024AO0620</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Barros PHF, Borges CS, Ferreira CPDC, Hernani BL, Abreu IP Neto, Tastaldi L, et al. Hernia 3D Training Model: A New Inguinal Hernia 3D-Printed Simulator. Einstein. 2024;22:eAO0620. doi: 10.31744/einstein_journal/2024AO0620.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
</ref-list>
</back>
<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S1" xml:lang="pt">
<front-stub>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20250003</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Carta Científica</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Impressão 3D de um Coração com Amiloidose</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Cruz</surname><given-names>Mariana de Paula</given-names></name>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
<role>Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"><sup>2</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3988-4304</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Yahiro</surname><given-names>Davi Shunji</given-names></name>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
<role>Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Neves</surname><given-names>Daniel Gama das</given-names></name>
<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Barbosa</surname><given-names>Renato Pereira</given-names></name>
<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7687-3161</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Fabro</surname><given-names>Alexandre Todorovic</given-names></name>
<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6"><sup>3</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7975-6932</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Garibaldi</surname><given-names>Pedro Manoel Marques</given-names></name>
<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6"><sup>3</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6553-8387</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Simões</surname><given-names>Marcus</given-names></name>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6"><sup>3</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1466-9413</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Mesquita</surname><given-names>Claudio Tinoco</given-names></name>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff4">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Niterói</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff5">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Niterói</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Health, Science &amp; Education Lab, Radiology Department, Hospital Universitário Antônio Pedro, EBSERH, Niterói, RJ – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff6">
<label>3</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Ribeirão Preto</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c2"><label>Correspondência:</label> <bold>Mariana de Paula Cruz</bold> • Universidade Federal Fluminense. Avenida Marques do Paraná, 349. CEP: <postal-code>24030215</postal-code>. Niterói, RJ – Brasil E-mail: <email>m_cruz@id.uff.br</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><label>Editor responsável pela revisão:</label> <p>Isabela Costa</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="coi-statement"><label>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</label>
<p>Declaro não haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<abstract>
<title>Resumo</title>
<p>A Amiloidose cardíaca é uma cardiomiopatia restritiva causada pelo acúmulo de proteína amiloide no coração. Anteriormente considerada uma condição rara, avanços no diagnóstico não invasivo têm aumentado sua identificação entre pacientes com Insuficiência Cardíaca (IC). Atualmente, representa cerca de 13% dos casos de Insuficiência Cardíaca com Fração de Ejeção Preservada (ICFEP). Neste estudo, relatamos o caso de um paciente do sexo masculino, com 72 anos de idade, que compareceu à clínica relatando dispneia e fadiga em atividades de baixo esforço. Foram realizados exames laboratoriais que revelaram marcadores cardíacos aumentados, juntamente com evidência de hipertrofia ventricular na análise eletrocardiográfica. À imagem cardíaca, o ensaio de cadeias leves (AL) livres no soro e a biópsia endomiocárdica indicaram o diagnóstico de amiloidose por AL. Um modelo tridimensional foi construído com dados de ressonância magnética (RM). O modelo visa aumentar a conscientização sobre a amiloidose como possível diagnóstico diferencial de IC, além de promover a educação de pacientes e familiares, demonstrando as alterações estruturais típicas da doença.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
<title>Palavras-chave</title>
<kwd>Amiloidose</kwd>
<kwd>Insuficiência Cardíaca</kwd>
<kwd>Impressão Tridimensional</kwd>
<kwd>Imageamento por Ressonância Magnética</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<funding-group>
<funding-statement>O presente estudo foi parcialmente financiado pela Fundação Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ) e pelo Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)</funding-statement>
</funding-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introdução</title>
<p>A amiloidose cardíaca resulta de distúrbios no dobramento de proteínas amiloidogênicas, levando à formação de fibrilas amiloides insolúveis que se acumulam na matriz extracelular do coração.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> As variantes mais comuns são a amiloidose primária ou por cadeias leves (AL) e a relacionada à transtirretina (ATTR). A amiloidose AL é causada pela deposição de AL de imunoglobulina, produzidas em excesso por plasmócitos normais ou malignos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> As manifestações cardíacas da amiloidose incluem Insuficiência Cardíaca com Fração de Ejeção Preservada (ICFEP), arritmias, angina com lesões coronárias não obstrutivas e eventos tromboembólicos. Alguns casos de amiloidose cardíaca estão associados à estenose aórtica, particularmente nos casos de baixo fluxo e baixo gradiente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> A impressão 3D tem sido amplamente explorada na área da saúde para diversas aplicações, desde a produção de peças cirúrgicas até modelos educacionais. Essa ferramenta se destaca por permitir a criação de materiais específicos para o paciente, auxiliando no estudo e na compreensão de anatomias patológicas complexas. Aqui, relatamos um caso de amiloidose cardíaca AL em que a impressão 3D foi utilizada para modelar o órgão afetado. Essa modelagem teve como objetivo aumentar a conscientização sobre a amiloidose como possível diagnóstico diferencial de Insuficiência Cardíaca (IC) com Fração de Ejeção Preservada, além de promover a educação de pacientes e familiares.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Descrição</title>
<p>Nosso paciente, um homem de 72 anos, com histórico prévio de infarto do miocárdio, procurou o serviço de cardiologia com quadro de dispneia progressiva e fadiga aos esforços no último ano. Relatava piora nos últimos dois meses, comprometendo suas atividades habituais, associada a ortopneia, visão turva, tontura e sensação de desmaio iminente ao se levantar. Ao exame físico, revelou hipotensão postural, edema de membros inferiores (++/4), além de hipoestesia e hipopalestesia distal. A ausculta cardíaca revelou sopro holossistólico no foco tricúspide, com hiperfonese de P2. Os exames laboratoriais mostraram proteinúria (+++/4) no exame de urina de rotina, além de marcadores cardíacos elevados NT-ProBNP e Troponina I, sem demais alterações. O eletrocardiograma revelou hipertrofia ventricular esquerda e bloqueio divisional ântero-superior esquerdo. A avaliação prosseguiu com ecocardiograma, que demonstrou espessamento do ventrículo direito, septo interventricular e valvas. O Strain Longitudinal Global (GLS) mostrou padrão de preservação apical (<italic>apical sparing)</italic>. A razão entre a Fração de Ejeção do Ventrículo Esquerdo (FEVE) e o GLS estava elevada, sugerindo amiloidose cardíaca. Novos achados sugestivos foram observados na ressonância magnética (RM), indicando realce tardio subendocárdico difuso e confirmando o espessamento das câmaras (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figura 1</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f5">
<label>Figura 1</label>
<caption>
<title>RM mostrando espessamento das paredes ventriculares (painéis A, B e C) e padrão difuso de realce tardio com contraste de gadolínio (mostrado nos painéis D, E e F).</title>
<p>Esse padrão decorre de uma diferença na captação do contraste ao longo do tecido cardíaco, podendo ser encontrado em diversas lesões miocárdicas.</p></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-38-03-e20250003-gf01-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Com a suspeita estabelecida, a investigação prosseguiu com os testes de AL livres de imunoglobulinas. Os resultados foram: cadeia leve kappa livre 18,1 mg/dL (6,7–22,4), cadeia lambda 168,4 mg/dL (8,3–27), com razão Kappa/Lambda (K/L) de 0,11 (0,31–1,56). A razão K/L abaixo do valor de referência é altamente sugestiva de amiloidose AL, devido à deposição de AL lambda. As biópsias de medula óssea e pele/subcutâneo não mostraram infiltrações. Foi realizada uma biópsia endomiocárdica (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 2</xref>), corada com Vermelho de Congo, que exibiu birrefringência característica da infiltração amiloide sob luz polarizada (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura 3</xref>). A espectrometria de massas confirmou o subtipo AL. O paciente apresentou melhora clínica após tratamento específico para amiloidose AL.</p>
<fig id="f6">
<label>Figura 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Biópsia endomiocárdica do ventrículo esquerdo, corada com Vermelho de Congo, mostrando coloração avermelhada sutil dos depósitos de proteína amiloide.</title>
<p>A avaliação sob luz polarizada pode ser utilizada para aumentar a sensibilidade.</p></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-38-03-e20250003-gf02-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<fig id="f7">
<label>Figura 3</label>
<caption>
<title>Biópsia endomiocárdica do ventrículo esquerdo, corada com Vermelho de Congo, exibindo padrão de birrefringência sob luz polarizada.</title>
<p>A birrefringência verde-maçã é característica dos depósitos de proteína amiloide, pois a coloração reage com as proteínas mal conformadas formando complexos que apresentam reatividade óptica. A avaliação sob luz polarizada aumenta a sensibilidade da técnica de coloração.</p></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-38-03-e20250003-gf03-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="discussion">
<title>Discussão</title>
<sec>
<title>Amiloidose AL</title>
<p>A amiloidose por AL, também conhecida como amiloidose primária, é a forma mais comum entre as variantes sistêmicas da doença, decorrendo da deposição tecidual de imunoglobulinas de cadeia leve no tecido cardíaco, produzidas em excesso por plasmócitos normais ou malignos. É uma condição rara, com 5,1 a 12,8 casos por milhão de pessoas-ano em todo o mundo. A maioria dos pacientes afetados tem mais de 40 anos, com idade mediana ao diagnóstico de 64 anos. A progressão da doença é rápida e representa riscos significativos quando não identificada precocemente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> A deposição da proteína amiloide é caracterizada pelo espessamento significativo das paredes ventriculares, septos e valvas, resultando em IC de caráter restritivo. Atualmente, a amiloidose cardíaca representa cerca de 13% dos casos de ICFEP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> O diagnóstico se inicia com a investigação de achados clínicos compatíveis com ICFEP. Os sintomas podem estar mais associados à IC esquerda (congestão pulmonar, dispneia) ou à direita (edema, ascite). Outras alterações importantes surgem da infiltração amiloide nos átrios, causando fibrilação atrial e outras arritmias, e no sistema de condução cardíaco, produzindo bloqueios atrioventriculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Níveis séricos elevados de marcadores cardiovasculares (especialmente troponina T e NT-ProBNP) devem estar presentes. O eletrocardiograma desses pacientes geralmente apresenta baixa tensão do QRS, incompatível com a espessura da parede ventricular, especialmente na Amiloidose AL.</p>
<p>A investigação deve prosseguir com ecocardiograma e RM, que revelam achados mais específicos da doença. A redução do strain longitudinal com padrão de preservação apical, ou <italic>apical sparing</italic>, é uma alteração importante observada no ecocardiograma, juntamente com o espessamento dos ventrículos e valvas. A RM pode revelar padrão de realce tardio difuso com contraste à base de gadolínio, com distribuição subendocárdica ou transmural, compatível com a presença de depósitos amiloides. Por fim, a investigação das AL de imunoglobulina, combinada com biópsia periférica (ou, se necessário, cardíaca), será conclusiva para o diagnóstico. A avaliação das AL é melhor realizada com a combinação de três exames: imunofixação no sangue e urina, que auxilia na detecção, e a dosagem da razão entre cadeias kappa e lambda, que devolve resultados positivos quando anormal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
<p>O fator mais importante na determinação do prognóstico é a extensão do comprometimento do tecido cardíaco. Compreender a fisiopatologia da amiloidose e discutir suas manifestações clínicas e morfológicas é fundamental para o diagnóstico precoce dessa condição, que é cada vez mais compreendida, porém ainda sub-reconhecida na prática médica.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>O modelo 3D</title>
<p>O modelo tridimensional (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figura 4</xref>) foi produzido a partir dos exames de imagem do paciente (RM). O processamento dos arquivos inclui as etapas de segmentação, sendo o isolamento das estruturas anatômicas desejadas e fatiamento, que consiste na divisão da estrutura em camadas imprimíveis. A partir dessas intervenções, o arquivo final (em formato STL, Linguagem de Tesselação Padrão) pode ser lido pela máquina como uma sequência de planos bidimensionais, que são então construídos uns sobre os outros pela impressora (fabricação aditiva). O material utilizado neste processo foi filamento plástico, um componente sólido que é derretido pela máquina e remodelado conforme os contornos da peça desejada. Esse tipo de impressora opera com a técnica FDM (Modelagem por Deposição Fundida), que é a mais acessível entre as opções para modelagem tridimensional. A modelagem por filamento foi selecionada neste projeto para demonstrar a aplicabilidade da técnica, mesmo nas formas mais simples dessa tecnologia.</p>
<fig id="f8">
<label>Figura 4</label>
<caption>
<title>Modelo tridimensional de coração com amiloidose AL, produzido a partir de dados de imagem de RM.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-abcic-38-03-e20250003-gf04-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>O modelo exibe as alterações morfológicas características da amiloidose no tecido cardíaco, reforçando sua semelhança com a fisiologia da IC. Nota-se espessamento do ventrículo esquerdo, com redução significativa do lúmen ventricular, além de espessamento considerável do septo interventricular. Em menor grau, essa mesma modificação é observada na parede do ventrículo direito. Esse tipo de material, com uma correspondência anatômica e patológica significativa com o órgão real, pode ser aplicado em diversos contextos da prática médica. Seu uso para fins educacionais, instrução de pacientes e familiares, e especialmente no planejamento de abordagens cirúrgicas, beneficia-se de uma compreensão mais completa e consistente das estruturas estudadas do órgão. Além disso, a disseminação e popularização das impressoras 3D têm facilitado o desenvolvimento de modelos mais realistas e reprodutíveis, sem impor custos financeiros significativos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Modelos 3D podem melhorar a educação de profissionais e pacientes por meio da experiência visual e tátil que proporcionam. Nesse sentido, enfatizamos o grande potencial de exploração dessa ferramenta na área da saúde, complementando os estudos por imagem e, possivelmente, revelando novas informações que aprimoram nossa compreensão sobre as doenças.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn5"><label>Fontes de Financiamento</label>
<p>O presente estudo foi parcialmente financiado pela Fundação Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ) e pelo Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6"><label>Vinculação Acadêmica</label>
<p>Este artigo é parte do Trabalho de Conclusão de Curso de Mariana de Paula Cruz pela Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF).</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn7"><label>Aprovação Ética e Consentimento Informado</label>
<p>Este estudo foi aprovado pelo Comitê de Ética em Pesquisa da Faculdade de Medicina da UFF sob o número de protocolo 6.594.419/CAAE:70417223.1.0000.5243. Todos os procedimentos envolvidos nesse estudo estão de acordo com a Declaração de Helsinki de 1975, atualizada em 2013. O consentimento informado foi obtido de todos os participantes incluídos no estudo.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn8"><label>Uso de Inteligência Artificial</label>
<p>Os autores não utilizaram ferramentas de inteligência artificial no desenvolvimento deste trabalho.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
<sec sec-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-in-article">
<label>Disponibilidade de Dados</label>
<p>Todo o conjunto de dados que dá suporte aos resultados deste estudo está disponível mediante solicitação ao autor correspondente: Mariana de Paula Cruz.</p>
</sec>
</back>
</sub-article>
</article>