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<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" article-type="review-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.8" xml:lang="en">
  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">ijcs</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>International Journal of Cardiovascular Sciences</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Int. J. Cardiovasc. Sci.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">2359-4802</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">2359-5647</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">TW8pBFjsffj9tyM6K6rkQLm</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S2359-56472018000400433</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/2359-4802.20180027</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Articles</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Fatigue: A Complex Symptom and its Impact on Cancer and Heart Failure</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Borges</surname>
            <given-names>Jacqueline Aparecida</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Quint&#227;o</surname>
            <given-names>M&#244;nica Maria Pena</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Chermont</surname>
            <given-names>Sergio S. M.C.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mendon&#231;a</surname>
            <given-names>Hugo Tannus Furtado de</given-names>
            <suffix>Filho</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mesquita</surname>
            <given-names>Evandro Tinoco</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <city>Niter&#243;i</city>
            <state>RJ</state>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Niter&#243;i, RJ - Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Jacqueline Aparecida Borges</bold> Rua Martins Ferreira, 81/704. Postal Code: 22271-010, Botafogo, Rio de Janeiro, RJ - Brazil. E-mail: <email>jackborges@yahoo.com</email>; <email>jborges@inca.gov.br</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research: Borges JA, Quint&#227;o MMP, Chermont SSMC, Mendon&#231;a Filho HTF, Mesquita ET. Acquisition of data: Borges JA, Quint&#227;o MMP, Chermont SSMC, Mendon&#231;a Filho HTF, Mesquita ET. Analysis and interpretation of the data: : Borges JA, Quint&#227;o MMP, Chermont SSMC, Mendon&#231;a Filho HTF, Mesquita ET. Statistical analysis: Borges JA. Writing of the manuscript: Borges JA, Quint&#227;o MMP, Chermont SSMC, Mendon&#231;a Filho HTF, Mesquita ET. Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Borges JA, Quint&#227;o MMP, Chermont SSMC, Mendon&#231;a Filho HTF, Mesquita ET.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub-ppub">
        <season>Jul-Aug</season>
        <year>2018</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>31</volume>
      <issue>4</issue>
      <fpage>433</fpage>
      <lpage>442</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>11</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2017</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>12</day>
          <month>12</month>
          <year>2017</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>19</day>
          <month>12</month>
          <year>2017</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <p>In chronic diseases like cancer and heart failure (HF), fatigue is a common and complex symptom from an etiological and pathophysiological point of view, thus, a relevant issue in the recent area of oncocardiology. Fatigue is prevalent in 80-90% of the oncological patients treated with chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy and affects approximately 50-96% of the individuals with IC. The toxicity attributed to chemotherapeutic agents can determine the patients&#8217; degree of fatigue and may even predict their survival. In recent decades, the advancement of antineoplastic therapies has substantially impacted the survival of patients with cancer, and the risks of harmful effects from these therapies to the cardiovascular system have been increasingly described. Therefore, the cooperation between oncologists and cardiologists has led to the emergence of oncocardiology and the new concept of cardiac surveillance. Cardiotoxicity is one of the clinical complications in the treatment of cancer, and its typical manifestation is left ventricular systolic dysfunction. New diagnostic and therapeutic strategies have been employed in the cardiac surveillance of patients with cancer. Fatigue in these patients has been carefully studied with a multidisciplinary approach and with the development of visual scales to quantify and correlate better its real impact on these individuals&#8217; quality of life and survival. The Fatigue Pictogram and Piper Fatigue Scale are tools increasingly used in research and clinical practice. The mechanisms involved in fatigue, from a conceptual point of view, may be of central (central nervous system) or peripheral (muscular skeletal) origin, both of which may be present in patients with cancer. The present review aims to discuss the new concepts in the assessment of fatigue in oncological patients. These concepts are fundamental to professionals who work in the emerging area of oncocardiology.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords:</title>
        <kwd>Heart Failure / physiopathology</kwd>
        <kwd>Neoplasms / physiopathology</kwd>
        <kwd>Cardiotoxicity / complications</kwd>
        <kwd>Ventricular Dysfunction, Left</kwd>
        <kwd>Neoplasias / drug therapy</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>The survival rate of patients with cancer has improved substantially in recent decades with the emergence of new chemotherapeutic agents and advancement of radiotherapy. However, oncological patients are more susceptible to cardiotoxic effects developed during treatment, which can increase the morbidity and mortality of this population.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> Within this new scenario, oncocardiology emerged as a new area of specialization based on a multidisciplinary integrative approach. Oncocardiology seeks to improve the quality of cardiologic care offered to patients with cancer, and to study the different dimensions of cardiotoxicity.</p>
      <p>Among cardiovascular symptoms, fatigue is a common and very prevalent clinical manifestation in patients with cancer, and its characterization and mechanisms still defy healthcare professionals. Fatigue associated with cancer is a subjective experience characterized by fatigue not relieved by sleep or rest, and is considered a predictor of decreased personal satisfaction and quality of life.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> The symptom fatigue varies in duration and intensity, reduces in varying degrees the patient&#8217;s ability to develop daily activities, and decreases the functional capacity of patients with cancer.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> Fatigue can affect 80-99% of the patients with cancer treated with chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> and may persist for months to years. Cella et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> reported that one-third of the patients cured of cancer showed fatigue for 5 years after the end of chemotherapy.</p>
      <p>The multifactorial nature of fatigue associated with cancer is a crucial point to be considered by professionals dealing with oncological patients. The main causes of fatigue are associated with the cancer effects and treatment on the central nervous system. Other causes include depression and anxiety, anemia, endocrine abnormalities (such as hypothyroidism and diabetes), activation of the immune system, inflammatory mediators, emotional stress, electrolytic disorders, myopathies, pulmonary fibrosis, and heart failure (HF).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>
			</p>
      <p>HF is a complex and multisystemic syndrome found in elderly patients presenting with the clinical triad fatigue, dyspnea, and edema. The mechanisms associated with fatigue in HF are triggered by inadequate blood perfusion affecting the respiratory and peripheral muscles, leading to decreased oxidative capacity.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> Fatigue affects 50-96% of the patients with HF and is associated with a reduction in quality of life, restriction of physical activity, and worse prognosis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>
			</p>
      <p>A successful HF treatment depends on a comprehensive assessment of the symptoms and knowledge of the available approaches to alleviating not only the physical aspects of the patient but also his emotional and spiritual suffering. The &#8220;person-centered care&#8221; strategy, including a partnership between healthcare professionals and patients with HF, decreases the duration of hospitalization.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> The prescriptions are specific to those patients with HF who present with dyspnea at the end of life, with the objective of symptom relief, in addition to full support of the team specialized in palliative care.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>
			</p>
      <p>In clinical practice, healthcare professionals dedicated to oncology and cardiovascular diseases encounter patients, especially elderly ones, presenting with both conditions. Therefore, the identification and evaluation of fatigue by these professionals is fundamental and must include scientifically validated instruments, as well as a clinical assessment and complementary tests to perform an adequate therapeutic plan.</p>
      <p>The objective of this review is to discuss the new aspects of fatigue present in oncological patients and emphasize the importance of early detection of HF and monitoring of cardiac function for more appropriate management of patients undergoing chemotherapy and radiotherapy.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Defining fatigue in clinical practice</title>
        <p>There is no consensus in regards to the concept of fatigue. Describing fatigue is a difficult task due to a large number of synonyms associated with this term. Healthcare professionals attribute different terms to fatigue, such as asthenia, lethargy, exhaustion, feeling of weakness, extreme tiredness, and lack of motivation. Patients with cancer refer to fatigue using different terms, such as weakness, exhaustion, fatigue, depletion, slowness, or weight.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The scientific literature, in turn, defines fatigue as &#8220;a subjective feeling of physical tiredness or exhaustion disproportionate to the level of activity.&#8221; Additionally, &#8220;fatigue may manifest as difficulty or inability in initiating an activity (perception of general weakness); reduced capacity of maintaining an activity (easy tiredness); and difficult concentration, memory problems, and emotional stability (mental fatigue).&#8221;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Muscle fatigue, in turn, is regarded by many authors as &#8220;an inability to maintain a level of potency or strength during repeated muscle contractions,&#8221;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> &#8220;decreased strength in sustained maximal contraction,&#8221;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> and &#8220;reduced availability of energy substrate for the skeletal muscle during exercise.&#8221;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Mechanisms of fatigue</title>
        <p>Fatigue originates in the cerebral cortex and may extend up to the cross-bridges of the muscle, induced by a reduction in the number of functional motor units involved in the activity or in the frequency of triggering. The mechanisms responsible for fatigue may be central or peripheral and are investigated through kinesthetic sensations (effort and strength) and by electromyography.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Electromyographic signs allow the identification of the manifestation of fatigue of a given muscle through a reduction in the amplitude of the electrical impulse registered, indicative of loss of recruitment or synergic activation of multiple muscles. Another method of study of the physiology of fatigue is the addition of a force by supramaximal electrical stimulation during a maximal voluntary contraction, which translates into impaired muscle activation (at a level proximal to the neuromuscular junction).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The central mechanism of fatigue occurs due to changes in the neural input arriving at the muscles, <italic>i.e.</italic>, the recruitment of motor units remains below the ideal one for generation of adequate muscle strength during exercise.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Peripheral fatigue stems from homeostatic changes in the skeletal muscle itself and from decreased contractile force. One of the mechanisms inducing muscle fatigue during exercises influencing the production of force is the depletion of energy substrate required for ATP synthesis and the variation in intracellular concentration of Ca++, H+, lactate, phosphate, and ADP. A failure of the muscle in maintaining homeostasis (depending on variations in Ca++ and H+ levels, for example) compromises force production at the cross-bridge level, resulting in the development of fatigue. Another mechanism that contributes to muscle fatigue is the production of free radicals. Current evidence suggests that free radicals can damage the contractile proteins myosin and troponin and decrease the number of cross-bridges, compromising muscle strength. The increased production of free radicals can also compromise the function of the sodium/potassium pump in the skeletal muscle and cause muscle fatigue.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Skeletal muscle contraction is a complex process that involves a certain number of cellular proteins and the energy production system, with the interaction of the contractile proteins actin and myosin in the presence of intracellular ATP and Ca++. The process of muscle contraction begins with the arrival of a nerve impulse in the neuromuscular junction. The action potential of the motor neuron causes the release of acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft, which in turn leads to depolarization of the muscle cell. When it reaches the sarcoplasmic reticulum, the action potential promotes the release of Ca++, which binds to troponin and causes a change in the position of tropomyosin. The active sites in actin are then exposed, allowing an &#8220;energized&#8221; myosin cross-bridge to bind to the actin molecule. When the neural activity ceases at the level of the neuromuscular junction, Ca++ is removed from the sarcoplasm and actively pumped into the sarcoplasmic reticulum by the Ca++ pump, breaking the cycle of muscle contraction. The term &#8220;excitation-contraction coupling&#8221; is defined as the sequence of events in which the nerve impulse reaches the muscle membrane and causes shortening of the muscle via cross-bridge activity.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Fatigue in chronic diseases</title>
        <p>Clinical fatigue is often found in chronic diseases like HF and cancer. Several metabolic, neurological, and myofibrillar adaptations are involved in these conditions and implicated in the onset of fatigue.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> Ewans &amp; Lambert<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> have pointed out that cachexia and deconditioning are probably involved in the persistence of fatigue at the end of treatment and after resolution of the disease.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Fatigue in heart failure</title>
        <p>Fatigue and dyspnea are cardinal symptoms of HF. Fatigue is triggered by inadequate blood perfusion affecting the respiratory and peripheral muscles and leads to reduced oxidative capacity. Dyspnea, in turn, is caused by an excessive ventilatory demand or a ventilatory disorder arising from sensory systems involved in breathing. The symptom fatigue can be caused by cardiac cachexia and malnutrition that accompany the severe metabolic stage of the disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> Patients with advanced HF may develop sarcopenia associated with aging and physical inactivity, resulting in worsening of fatigue. The symptom fatigue connected to HF is also related to anemia, sleep apnea, electrolyte disturbance, use of beta-blockers and diuretics, in addition to depression.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The exercise intolerance present in HF may be associated with central (chronotropic response and reduced ejection fraction) or peripheral (endothelial dysfunction with decreased release of nitric oxide, increased total peripheral resistance and lower vasodilatory response) limitations. The ventilatory muscle weakness present in HF, in turn, is also a limitation that may reflect a greater increase in the work of the diaphragm, triggering a sensation of dyspnea.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Another adaptation found in HF that can contribute to aggravate fatigue is the decrease in contractile function. The myopathy observed in HF clearly reflects the reduction in oxidative phosphorylation with increased type IIb fibers and decreased type I fibers, which are regarded as determinants in the reduction of functional capacity. The administration of drugs used in HF, such as losartan and enalapril, improves exercise tolerance with normalization of the composition of the muscle fibers (i.e., reduction in glycolytic fibers [type IIb] and increase in aerobic fibers [type 1]), in addition to improving the maximum energy expenditure (VO<sub>2</sub>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> Similar results have been obtained with exercise training in patients with HF, which resulted in improved endurance, physical activity, and oxidative phosphorylation of the skeletal muscle.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The muscle weakness eventually observed in patients with HF can be attributed to changes in function and amount of proteins in the myofilaments and not only to muscle atrophy. These changes are probably secondary and apparent in relation to the deconditioning and/or disuse resulting from the disease and allow the definition of the muscle phenotype in patients with HF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Assessment of fatigue in heart failure</title>
        <p>Several validated scales are available to measure symptoms during care of patients with HF, which allows for individualized treatment to each patient based on his scores. For a better understanding of the symptoms, numerical scales are used with the purpose of evaluating physical, emotional, and cognitive aspects of the patient in relation to the aspects observed by other professionals, for example, the Edmonton Symptom Assessment System (ESAS). The information collected with ESAS helps to measure HF symptoms not traditionally evaluated.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>
				</p>
        <p>ESAS is a simple instrument, of easy application, which may be filled out by the patient himself (self-assessment) or by a family member or professional. This scale comprises 10 common symptoms found in patients with cancer receiving palliative care, including lack of appetite, fatigue, nausea, depression, sleepiness, anxiety, pain, dyspnea, malaise, and other symptoms. The scale is graded from 0 to 10, where 0 represents the absence of the evaluated symptom and 10 represents the presence of the evaluated symptom in its strongest intensity.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A prospective study conducted in Canada assessed the applicability of different questionnaires of palliative care in patients with HF. The study correlated the New York Heart Association (NYHA) functional class and the Kansas City Cardiomyopathy Questionnaire (KCCQ) with the palliative care scales ESAS and Palliative Performance Scale (PPS). The study found a positive correlation of NYHA with PPS and ESAS (R2 = 0.57, p = 0.001); however, the KCCQ questionnaire correlated negatively with ESAS (R2 = - 0.72, p = 0.001). Depending on the difficulty of the identification of patients with HF eligible for palliative care, these tools may be useful in clinical practice.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Fatigue related to cancer</title>
        <p>The symptom fatigue is directly associated with cancer itself and the side effects of its treatment, including toxicity from chemotherapy. Patients with cancer who present severe fatigue during treatment remain fatigued after the end of the therapy or the resolution of the disease. The chronicity of fatigue is implicated in possible metabolic and physiological adaptations, such as deconditioning and cachexia. Increased physical activity is a strategy adopted to reduce the loss of skeletal muscle during chemotherapy.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Cachexia in cancer is characterized by a continuous loss of skeletal muscle mass and may cause generalized weakness and fatigue. Roberts et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> investigated the weakness of the diaphragm muscle due to cachexia associated with cancer in animal models and observed that muscle weakness was attributed to muscle atrophy and contractile dysfunction.</p>
        <p>Lee et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> evaluated the difference in physical performance between women and men with and without lymphoma, with the application of the 6-minute walk test (6MWT) and the Brief Fatigue Inventory. The results obtained showed a higher fatigue score in patients who presented worse functional physical capacity.</p>
        <p>The multifactorial nature of fatigue associated with cancer hinders the identification of underlying mechanisms involved in the disease. Bower et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> have confirmed the relationship between increased inflammatory cytokines with worse fatigue in patients with breast and prostate cancer during treatment. Dower et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> demonstrated that women with breast cancer and fatigue had reduced levels of cortisol in the morning, suggesting possible abnormalities in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Fink et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> found that low levels of hemoglobin, depression, and physical limitation may be considered predisposing factors of fatigue.</p>
        <p>The diagnosis of fatigue related to cancer is established with the exclusion of reversible causes that can be treated and investigated. Among cited reversible causes are the types of fatigue, hypothyroidism, anemia, sleep disorder, pain, emotional stress, menopause, electrolyte abnormalities, adverse effects of medications, cardiac dysfunction, renal and hepatic failure, myopathy, and pulmonary fibrosis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> The diagnosis of fatigue can be complemented with information from the patient&#8217;s clinical history, physical exam, and laboratory tests, with the application by a multidisciplinary team of instruments for the assessment of fatigue.</p>
        <p>The classification of cancer-related fatigue follows the Common Terminology Criteria for Adverse Events (CTCAE, version 4.0) of the National Cancer Institute of the United States and is widely used by Brazilian oncologists (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">figure 1</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>
				</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f1">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Conceptual map of fatigue related to cancer</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="2359-5647-ijcs-31-04-0433-80027-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Dimeo et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> concluded that exercises are the only factors with strong evidence in the control of fatigue during and after treatment of tumors of the breast, prostate, and several other solid tumors. Schwartz et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> pointed out the effectiveness of therapeutic exercises in improving the patients&#8217; fatigue and quality of life, with a reduction of the adverse effects of therapies against cancer. Aerobic training performed during 4 months by women with hypertension, cardiovascular disease, and breast cancer undergoing treatment resulted in a reduction of systolic and diastolic blood pressure and resting heart rate. A systematic review involving 4,826 participants with cancer, in turn, showed improved quality of life and functional capacity during and after a training program with exercises (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">tables 1</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">2</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>
				</p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Table 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Potential benefits of exercises before and after cancer treatment<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>
						</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="50%"/>
              <col width="50%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Before treatment</th>
                <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">After treatment</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Improved cardiorespiratory and cardiovascular function </td>
                <td align="center">Improved self-esteem, mood, and self-image</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Effects on body composition (preservation or increase in muscle mass, loss of fat mass)</td>
                <td align="center">Reduced duration of hospitalization</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Improved muscle strength and flexibility</td>
                <td align="center">Reduced stress, depression, and anxiety</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Improved immune system</td>
                <td align="center">Reduced of serious adverse effectsk including nausea, fatigue and pain</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <attrib>Source: Adapted from Mishra SI et al, 2012<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>
						</attrib>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <table-wrap id="t2">
          <label>Table 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Differences between oncologic fatigue and fatigue related to heart failure</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="50%"/>
              <col width="50%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Fatigue associated with cancer</th>
                <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Fatigue related to heart failure</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Generalized muscle weakness</td>
                <td align="center">Weakness of the peripheral and respiratory muscles</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">No improvement with rest or sleep</td>
                <td align="center">Improves with rest and sleep</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Worsens with chemotherapy and radiotherapy</td>
                <td align="center">Worsens with corticosteroids and anti-inflammatory drugs</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">There is no association direct with dyspnea</td>
                <td align="center">Associated with dyspnea on exertion</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Dysfunction of the central and peripheral nervous system</td>
                <td align="center">Dysfunction of the peripheral nervous system</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Disuse of muscle fibers and contractile alteration</td>
                <td align="center">Atrophy of Type I aerobic muscle fibers</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Triggered by low levels of hemoglobin, cortisol, TSH, and free T4</td>
                <td align="center">Triggered by an increase in inflammatory mediators</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Related with worsening nutritional status</td>
                <td align="center">Associated with cardiac cachexia with disease progression</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Associated with mild, moderate, or severe pain</td>
                <td align="center">
								</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <attrib>Source: Author, 2017</attrib>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Risks of cardiotoxicity</title>
        <p>The signs and symptoms of HF may be similar to those observed in oncological patients. Fatigue is a common clinical manifestation in both pathologies. In cancer, it can deteriorate due to oncological treatment, which increases the risk of injury to the myocardium, which in turn triggers cardiovascular complications.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The substantial decline in cardiopulmonary capacity is a consequence of immobility, chronic fatigue, loss of muscle mass, anemia, increased inflammatory activity, changes in coagulation, and adverse events from chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy. All these changes consequently lead to worse quality of life among cancer patients.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Cardiotoxicity induced by chemotherapy has been a major concern among oncologists and cardiologists in search of early identification of cardiac dysfunction and monitoring of cardiovascular function during treatment. Cardiac toxicity is one of the most important complications of cancer therapy and is responsible for considerable morbidity and mortality.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Several drugs used in cancer treatment have been associated with left ventricular dysfunction, in particular, drugs in the anthracyclines group, like doxorubicin. Anthracycline-induced cardiotoxicity manifests early (&lt; 3 months after treatment) or late (3 to 12 months after treatment), but can also occur 1 year after treatment. According to Suter &amp; Ewer,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> medications can be classified according to the injury that they cause to the myocardium as leading to reversible (type 1) and irreversible (type 2) injury. One of the effects of cardiac toxicity by anthracyclines involves oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation of the cardiomyocytes. Swain et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref> identified 149 cardiac events and reduced left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) in 50% of 630 cancer patients treated with doxorubicin.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref> A noninvasive hemodynamic evaluation of patients with HF showed an increase of the following variables: cardiac output, stroke volume, heart rate, and blood pressure.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The harmful events of chemotherapeutic agents/drugs on the cardiovascular system include HF, hypertension, thromboembolic disease, and myocardial diseases (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">table 3</xref>). The main risk factors for cardiotoxicity associated with chemotherapeutic agents are hypertension, age above 60 years, prior left ventricular dysfunction, and prior thoracic irradiation. According to its clinical presentation, cardiotoxicity may have an acute, subacute, or late presentation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>
				</p>
        <table-wrap id="t3">
          <label>Table 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Pathophysiological triggers of coronary artery disease in cancer treatment</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="33%"/>
              <col width="33%"/>
              <col width="33%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Agent</th>
                <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Pathophysiological mechanism</th>
                <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Potential coronary events</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">5- fluorouracil, capecitabine, gemcitabine</td>
                <td align="center">Endothelial lesion and vasospasm</td>
                <td align="center">Up to 18% of myocardial ischemia and 10% of silent ischemia</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Platinum components - cisplatin</td>
                <td align="center">Arterial thrombosis and procoagulant</td>
                <td align="center">20 years of absolute risk above 8% after testicular cancer</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) inhibitors: bevacizumab, sorafenib, sunitinib</td>
                <td align="center">Procoagulant, arterial thrombosis<break/>Endothelial injury</td>
                <td align="center">Risk of arterial thrombosis: bevacizumab 3.8%, sorafenib 1.7%, and sunitinib 1.4%</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Radiotherapy</td>
                <td align="center">Endothelial lesion, platelet rupture, and thrombosis</td>
                <td align="center">A 2- to 7-fold increase in the relative risk of myocardial infarction10% of coronary events in survivors of Hodgkin lymphoma<break/>The risk is proportional to the radiation dose </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <attrib>Source: Adapted from the Guideline of the European Society of Cardiology<sup>64</sup></attrib>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>The diagnosis of cardiotoxicity is established using biomarkers (including brain natriuretic peptide [BNP] and troponins) and echocardiographic resources. Approximately one-third of the patients have elevated levels of troponins, which are sensitive and specific markers of myocardial injury with the ability to signal the development of ventricular dysfunction in patients receiving elevated doses of chemotherapeutics.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The European Society of Cardiology currently proposes a discussion about the relevance of the biomarkers and serial evaluations of LVEF in clinical practice and research. The simultaneous use of blood samples for measurement of biomarkers levels and characterization of genetic and epigenetic factors may be useful in identifying patients with cancer susceptible or resistant to cardiotoxicity. With this approach, it is possible to compare the clinically relevant results before and during cancer treatment, allowing the planning of strategies based on evidence through oncocardiology.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Evaluation of oncological fatigue</title>
        <p>Standardized questionnaires have been incorporated into the assessment of fatigue. Several instruments for assessment of fatigue are available, seven of which have been validated in Brazil for the evaluation of the impact of fatigue on quality of life of oncological patients.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The Fatigue Pictogram, prepared for the evaluation of the intensity and impact of fatigue in patients with cancer, is a useful tool in clinical practice and research (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>). It is described as a method that is fast, simple, valid, reliable, and applicable to patients with cancer and low educational level, although it requires adjustments for application to healthy individuals. This instrument was developed and validated in 2007 in four oncology outpatient clinics in the city of S&#227;o Paulo, with the participation of 584 patients with different types and stages of cancer receiving or not treatment with radiotherapy.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>
				</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f2">
            <label>Figure 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>The Fatigue Pictogram (Mota, Pimenta, Fitch. 2009)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>
							</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="2359-5647-ijcs-31-04-0433-80027-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Fatigue may also be assessed with the Piper Fatigue Scale. Revised and validated in Brazil in 2009, this scale covers all dimensions of fatigue and can be applied to cancer patients at all stages of the disease. This scale establishes a cutoff point from which the individual should be regarded as fatigued.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref> Another widely used questionnaire is the Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy-Fatigue (FACT-F), which was validated and applied in a study carried out at the Instituto Nacional de C&#226;ncer Jos&#233; Alencar Gomes da Silva (INCA) in 2008 and showed a negative impact of fatigue on the quality of life of patients with breast cancer undergoing chemotherapy.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclusion</title>
      <p>Although fatigue is a common symptom in patients with cancer, it receives little attention in daily clinical practice. In recent decades, fatigue has been progressively recognized by its impact on the patients&#8217; quality of life and survival. Fatigue is also one of the cardinal symptoms of HF. Cardiac surveillance and oncocardiology are concepts that are being incorporated by multidisciplinary teams caring for patients with cancer. Therefore, the identification of fatigue and its pathophysiological mechanisms, as well as its correct stratification and therapeutic approach, are fundamental steps to be met by healthcare professionals involved in the care of patients with cancer.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This article is part of the thesis of master submitted by Jacqueline Aparecida Borges, from <italic>Universidade Federal Fluminense</italic> and INCA - RJ.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Ethics approval and consent to participate</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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      </ref>
      <ref id="B55">
        <label>55</label>
        <mixed-citation>55 Ishikawa NM, Thuler LC, Giglio AG, Baldotto CS, de Andrade CJ, Derchain SF, et al. Validation of the Portuguese version of Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy-Fatigue (FACT-F) in Brazilian cancer patients. Support Care Cancer. 2010;18(4):481-90.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Ishikawa</surname>
              <given-names>NM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Thuler</surname>
              <given-names>LC</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Giglio</surname>
              <given-names>AG</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Baldotto</surname>
              <given-names>CS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>de Andrade</surname>
              <given-names>CJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Derchain</surname>
              <given-names>SF</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Validation of the Portuguese version of Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy-Fatigue (FACT-F) in Brazilian cancer patients</article-title>
          <source>Support Care Cancer</source>
          <year>2010</year>
          <volume>18</volume>
          <issue>4</issue>
          <fpage>481</fpage>
          <lpage>490</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
    </ref-list>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigos de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Fadiga: Um Sintoma Complexo e seu Impacto no C&#226;ncer e na Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Borges</surname>
            <given-names>Jacqueline Aparecida</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Quint&#227;o</surname>
            <given-names>M&#244;nica Maria Pena</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Chermont</surname>
            <given-names>Sergio S. M.C.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Filho</surname>
            <given-names>Hugo Tannus Furtado de Mendon&#231;a</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mesquita</surname>
            <given-names>Evandro Tinoco</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff2">
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Niter&#243;i, RJ - Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Jacqueline Aparecida Borges</bold> Rua Martins Ferreira, 81/704. CEP: 22271-010, Botafogo, Rio de Janeiro, RJ - Brasil. E-mail: <email>jackborges@yahoo.com</email>; <email>jborges@inca.gov.br</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: Borges JA, Quint&#227;o MMP, Chermont SSMC, Mendon&#231;a Filho HTF, Mesquita ET. Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados: Borges JA, Quint&#227;o MMP, Chermont SSMC, Mendon&#231;a Filho HTF, Mesquita ET. An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados: Borges JA, Quint&#227;o MMP, Chermont SSMC, Mendon&#231;a Filho HTF, Mesquita ET. An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica: Borges JA. Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Borges JA, Quint&#227;o MMP, Chermont SSMC, Mendon&#231;a Filho HTF, Mesquita ET. Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Borges JA, Quint&#227;o MMP, Chermont SSMC, Mendon&#231;a Filho HTF, Mesquita ET.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p>Nas doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas, como c&#226;ncer e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC), a fadiga &#233; um sintoma comum e complexo do ponto de vista etiol&#243;gico e fisiopatol&#243;gico, portanto, um tema de relev&#226;ncia na recente &#225;rea da cardio-oncologia. A fadiga &#233; prevalente em 80-90% dos pacientes oncol&#243;gicos tratados com quimioterapia e/ou radioterapia e acomete cerca de 50-96% dos indiv&#237;duos com IC. A toxicidade atribu&#237;da aos quimioter&#225;picos pode determinar o grau de fadiga do paciente e at&#233; predizer sua sobrevida. Nas &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas, o avan&#231;o das terapias antineopl&#225;sicas impactaram substancialmente a sobrevida dos pacientes com c&#226;ncer, e os riscos dos efeitos lesivos destas terapias ao sistema cardiovascular t&#234;m sido cada vez mais descritos. Portanto, a coopera&#231;&#227;o entre oncologistas e cardiologistas levou ao surgimento da cardio-oncologia e do novo conceito de cardiovigil&#226;ncia. A cardiotoxicidade &#233; uma das complica&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas no tratamento do c&#226;ncer, apresentando como manifesta&#231;&#227;o t&#237;pica a disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica ventricular esquerda. Novas estrat&#233;gias diagn&#243;sticas e terap&#234;uticas t&#234;m sido empregadas na cardiovigil&#226;ncia em pacientes com c&#226;ncer. A fadiga nestes pacientes vem sendo estudada criteriosamente com um olhar multidisciplinar e com o desenvolvimento de escalas visuais para melhor quantificar e correlacionar o seu real impacto na qualidade de vida e sobrevida destes indiv&#237;duos. O Pictograma de Fadiga e Escala de Fadiga de Piper s&#227;o ferramentas cada vez mais utilizadas na pesquisa e na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica. Os mecanismos envolvidos na fadiga, do ponto de vista conceitual, podem ser de origem central (sistema nervoso central) ou perif&#233;rica (musculoesquel&#233;tica), ambos os quais podem estar presentes no paciente com c&#226;ncer. A presente revis&#227;o objetiva discutir os novos conceitos na avalia&#231;&#227;o da fadiga em pacientes oncol&#243;gicos. Esses conceitos s&#227;o fundamentais aos profissionais que atuam na emergente &#225;rea da cardio-oncologia.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave:</title>
        <kwd>Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca / fisiopatologia</kwd>
        <kwd>Neoplasias / fisiopatologia</kwd>
        <kwd>Cardiotoxicidade / complica&#231;&#245;es</kwd>
        <kwd>Disfun&#231;&#227;o Ventricular Esquerda</kwd>
        <kwd>Neoplasias / quimioterapia</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>A taxa de sobrevida de pacientes com c&#226;ncer melhorou substancialmente nas &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas com o surgimento de novos quimioter&#225;picos e avan&#231;o da radioterapia. No entanto, os pacientes oncol&#243;gicos est&#227;o mais suscet&#237;veis aos efeitos cardiot&#243;xicos desenvolvidos durante o tratamento, o que pode aumentar a morbimortalidade desta popula&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> Diante deste novo cen&#225;rio, foi criada a cardio-oncologia, uma nova &#225;rea de especializa&#231;&#227;o baseada em uma abordagem integrativa multidisciplinar. A cardio-oncologia busca melhorar a qualidade do cuidado cardiol&#243;gico oferecido aos pacientes com c&#226;ncer e estudar as diferentes dimens&#245;es da cardiotoxicidade.</p>
        <p>Dentre os sintomas cardiovasculares, a fadiga &#233; uma manifesta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica comum e muito prevalente no paciente com c&#226;ncer, e a sua caracteriza&#231;&#227;o e seus mecanismos ainda desafiam os profissionais de sa&#250;de. A fadiga associada ao c&#226;ncer &#233; uma experi&#234;ncia subjetiva caracterizada pelo cansa&#231;o que n&#227;o alivia com o sono ou repouso e &#233; considerada um preditor de diminui&#231;&#227;o da satisfa&#231;&#227;o pessoal e qualidade de vida.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> O sintoma fadiga varia em dura&#231;&#227;o e intensidade, reduz em diferentes graus a habilidade do paciente em desenvolver atividades di&#225;rias e diminui a capacidade funcional de pacientes com c&#226;ncer.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> A fadiga pode afetar 80-99% dos pacientes com c&#226;ncer tratados com quimioterapia e/ou radioterapia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> e persistir por meses a anos. Cella et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> relataram que um ter&#231;o dos pacientes curados de c&#226;ncer apresentaram fadiga por 5 anos ap&#243;s o final da quimioterapia.</p>
        <p>A natureza multifatorial da fadiga relacionada ao c&#226;ncer &#233; um ponto crucial a ser considerado pelos profissionais que lidam com o paciente oncol&#243;gico. As principais causas da fadiga est&#227;o associadas aos efeitos do c&#226;ncer e do seu tratamento sobre o sistema nervoso central. Outras causas incluem depress&#227;o e ansiedade, anemia, altera&#231;&#245;es end&#243;crinas (como hipotireoidismo e diabetes), ativa&#231;&#227;o do sistema imune, mediadores inflamat&#243;rios, estresse emocional, dist&#250;rbios eletrol&#237;ticos, miopatias, fibrose pulmonar e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A IC &#233; uma s&#237;ndrome complexa e multissist&#234;mica encontrada em pacientes idosos que apresentam a tr&#237;ade cl&#237;nica fadiga, dispneia e edema. Os mecanismos associados &#224; fadiga na IC s&#227;o desencadeados pela inadequada perfus&#227;o sangu&#237;nea que afeta os m&#250;sculos respirat&#243;rios e perif&#233;ricos levando &#224; diminui&#231;&#227;o da capacidade oxidativa.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> A fadiga afeta 50-96% dos pacientes com IC e est&#225; associada a uma redu&#231;&#227;o na qualidade de vida, restri&#231;&#227;o de atividade f&#237;sica e piora no progn&#243;stico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>
				</p>
        <p>O tratamento bem-sucedido da IC depende de uma avalia&#231;&#227;o abrangente dos sintomas e do conhecimento das abordagens dispon&#237;veis para aliviar n&#227;o somente os aspectos f&#237;sicos mas tamb&#233;m os emocionais e espirituais do sofrimento do paciente. A estrat&#233;gia do &#8220;cuidado centrado na pessoa&#8221;, incluindo a parceria entre os profissionais de sa&#250;de e os pacientes com IC, propicia uma diminui&#231;&#227;o no tempo de interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> As prescri&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o espec&#237;ficas &#224;queles pacientes com IC que cursam com dispneia ao final da vida, com objetivo de al&#237;vio do sintoma, al&#233;m do suporte integral da equipe especializada em cuidados paliativos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Os profissionais de sa&#250;de ligados &#224; oncologia e doen&#231;as cardiovasculares deparam-se na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica com pacientes, em particular idosos, que apresentam ambas as condi&#231;&#245;es. Portanto, torna-se fundamental a identifica&#231;&#227;o e a avalia&#231;&#227;o da fadiga pelos profissionais de sa&#250;de com a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de instrumentos validados cientificamente, al&#233;m de uma avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e exames complementares na realiza&#231;&#227;o de um adequado plano terap&#234;utico.</p>
        <p>O objetivo desta revis&#227;o &#233; discutir os novos aspectos da fadiga presentes no paciente oncol&#243;gico e enfatizar a import&#226;ncia da detec&#231;&#227;o precoce da IC e da monitoriza&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca para o manejo mais adequado de pacientes submetidos a quimioterapia e radioterapia.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Definindo a fadiga na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica</title>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; um consenso em rela&#231;&#227;o ao conceito de fadiga. Descrever fadiga &#233; uma tarefa dif&#237;cil diante da vasta sinon&#237;mia associada ao termo. Os profissionais de sa&#250;de atribuem termos diversos &#224; fadiga, como astenia, letargia, exaust&#227;o, sensa&#231;&#227;o de fraqueza, cansa&#231;o extremo e falta de motiva&#231;&#227;o. J&#225; os pacientes com c&#226;ncer se referem &#224; fadiga empregando diferentes termos, como fraqueza, exaust&#227;o, cansa&#231;o, esgotamento, lentid&#227;o ou peso.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A literatura cient&#237;fica, por sua vez, define a fadiga como &#8220;uma sensa&#231;&#227;o subjetiva de cansa&#231;o f&#237;sico ou exaust&#227;o desproporcional ao n&#237;vel de atividade&#8221;. Ainda, &#8220;a fadiga pode se manifestar como dificuldade ou incapacidade de iniciar uma atividade (percep&#231;&#227;o de fraqueza generalizada); redu&#231;&#227;o da capacidade em manter uma atividade (cansa&#231;o f&#225;cil); e dificuldade de concentra&#231;&#227;o, problemas de mem&#243;ria e estabilidade emocional (fadiga mental)&#8221;.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>
					</p>
          <p>J&#225; a fadiga muscular &#233; conceituada por diversos autores como &#8220;a incapacidade de manter um n&#237;vel de pot&#234;ncia ou de for&#231;a durante repetidas contra&#231;&#245;es musculares&#8221;,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> &#8220;diminui&#231;&#227;o da for&#231;a na contra&#231;&#227;o m&#225;xima sustentada&#8221;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> e &#8220;diminui&#231;&#227;o da disponibilidade de substratos energ&#233;ticos para o m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico durante o exerc&#237;cio&#8221;.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Mecanismos de fadiga</title>
          <p>A fadiga se origina no c&#243;rtex cerebral e pode se estender at&#233; as pontes cruzadas dos m&#250;sculos, induzida pela redu&#231;&#227;o no n&#250;mero de unidades motoras funcionais envolvidas na atividade ou na frequ&#234;ncia de disparo. Os mecanismos respons&#225;veis pela fadiga podem ser centrais ou perif&#233;ricos e s&#227;o investigados atrav&#233;s de sensa&#231;&#245;es cinest&#233;sicas (esfor&#231;o e for&#231;a) e por eletromiografia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Os sinais eletromiogr&#225;ficos permitem identificar a manifesta&#231;&#227;o da fadiga de um determinado m&#250;sculo atrav&#233;s de uma redu&#231;&#227;o na amplitude do impulso el&#233;trico registrado, indicativo da perda de recrutamento ou ativa&#231;&#227;o sin&#233;rgica de m&#250;ltiplos m&#250;sculos. Outro m&#233;todo de estudo da fisiologia da fadiga &#233; a adi&#231;&#227;o de uma for&#231;a por estimula&#231;&#227;o el&#233;trica supram&#225;xima durante uma contra&#231;&#227;o volunt&#225;ria m&#225;xima, que se traduz em um comprometimento da ativa&#231;&#227;o muscular (n&#237;vel proximal &#224; jun&#231;&#227;o neuromuscular).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>
					</p>
          <p>O mecanismo central da fadiga decorre de altera&#231;&#245;es no <italic>input</italic> neural que chega aos m&#250;sculos, ou seja, o recrutamento de unidades motoras permanece abaixo do ideal para gerar uma for&#231;a muscular adequada durante o exerc&#237;cio.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A fadiga perif&#233;rica se origina de altera&#231;&#245;es na homeostase do pr&#243;prio m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico e de um decr&#233;scimo da for&#231;a contr&#225;til. Durante o exerc&#237;cio, um dos mecanismos indutores de fadiga muscular que influencia a produ&#231;&#227;o de for&#231;a &#233; o da deple&#231;&#227;o de substratos energ&#233;ticos necess&#225;rios para s&#237;ntese de ATP e varia&#231;&#227;o da concentra&#231;&#227;o intracelular de Ca++, H+, lactato, fosfato e ADP. A falha do m&#250;sculo em manter a homeostase (em fun&#231;&#227;o, por exemplo, da varia&#231;&#227;o nos n&#237;veis de Ca++ e H+) compromete a produ&#231;&#227;o de for&#231;a a n&#237;vel da ponte cruzada e acarreta o desenvolvimento da fadiga. O outro mecanismo que contribui para a fadiga muscular &#233; a produ&#231;&#227;o de radicais livres. Evid&#234;ncias atuais sugerem que os radicais livres podem lesionar as prote&#237;nas contr&#225;teis miosina e troponina e diminuir o n&#250;mero de pontes cruzadas, comprometendo a for&#231;a muscular. A elevada produ&#231;&#227;o de radicais livres pode tamb&#233;m comprometer o funcionamento da bomba de s&#243;dio/pot&#225;ssio no m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico e causar fadiga muscular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A contra&#231;&#227;o muscular esquel&#233;tica &#233; um processo complexo que envolve um certo n&#250;mero de prote&#237;nas celulares e o sistema de produ&#231;&#227;o de energia, com intera&#231;&#227;o das prote&#237;nas contr&#225;teis actina e miosina na presen&#231;a de ATP e Ca++ intracelulares. O processo de contra&#231;&#227;o muscular inicia com a chegada de um impulso nervoso na jun&#231;&#227;o neuromuscular. O potencial de a&#231;&#227;o oriundo do motoneur&#244;nio causa libera&#231;&#227;o de acetilcolina na fenda sin&#225;ptica, que por sua vez leva &#224; despolariza&#231;&#227;o da c&#233;lula muscular. Ao atingir o ret&#237;culo sarcoplasm&#225;tico, o potencial de a&#231;&#227;o promove libera&#231;&#227;o de Ca++, que se liga &#224; troponina e causa uma mudan&#231;a na posi&#231;&#227;o da tropomiosina. Os s&#237;tios ativos existentes na actina s&#227;o ent&#227;o expostos, permitindo a liga&#231;&#227;o de uma ponte cruzada de miosina &#8220;energizada&#8221; na mol&#233;cula de actina. Quando a atividade neural cessa ao n&#237;vel da jun&#231;&#227;o neuromuscular, o Ca++ &#233; removido do sarcoplasma e bombeado ativamente para o ret&#237;culo sarcoplasm&#225;tico pela bomba de Ca++, quebrando o ciclo de contra&#231;&#227;o muscular. O termo &#8220;acoplamento excita&#231;&#227;o-contra&#231;&#227;o&#8221; &#233; definido como a sequ&#234;ncia de eventos nos quais o impulso nervoso atinge a membrana muscular e causa encurtamento do m&#250;sculo via atividade de ponte cruzada.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Fadiga nas doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas</title>
          <p>A fadiga cl&#237;nica &#233; encontrada frequentemente nas doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas como a IC e o c&#226;ncer. Diversas adapta&#231;&#245;es metab&#243;licas, neurol&#243;gicas e miofibrilares est&#227;o envolvidas nessas condi&#231;&#245;es e implicadas no aparecimento da fadiga.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> Ewans &amp; Lambert<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> apontaram que a caquexia e o descondicionamento est&#227;o provavelmente implicados na persist&#234;ncia da fadiga ao t&#233;rmino do tratamento e ap&#243;s a resolu&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Fadiga na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca</title>
          <p>A fadiga e a dispneia s&#227;o sintomas cardinais da IC. A fadiga &#233; desencadeada por uma inadequada perfus&#227;o sangu&#237;nea que afeta os m&#250;sculos respirat&#243;rios e perif&#233;ricos e acarreta diminui&#231;&#227;o da capacidade oxidativa. J&#225; a sensa&#231;&#227;o de dispneia &#233; causada pela demanda excessiva de ventila&#231;&#227;o ou por dist&#250;rbio ventilat&#243;rio oriundo de sistemas sensoriais envolvidos com a respira&#231;&#227;o. O sintoma fadiga pode ser causado pela caquexia card&#237;aca e m&#225;-nutri&#231;&#227;o que acompanham o est&#225;gio metab&#243;lico severo da doen&#231;a.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> Os pacientes com IC avan&#231;ada podem desenvolver sarcopenia associada ao envelhecimento e &#224; inatividade f&#237;sica, acarretando piora da fadiga. O sintoma fadiga ligado &#224; IC est&#225; relacionado tamb&#233;m &#224; anemia, apneia do sono, dist&#250;rbio eletrol&#237;tico, uso de betabloqueadores e diur&#233;ticos, al&#233;m de depress&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A intoler&#226;ncia ao exerc&#237;cio, presente na IC, pode estar envolvida com limita&#231;&#227;o central (resposta cronotr&#243;pica e fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o reduzidas) ou perif&#233;rica (disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial com menor libera&#231;&#227;o de &#243;xido n&#237;trico, aumento da resist&#234;ncia perif&#233;rica total e menor resposta vasodilatadora). J&#225; a fraqueza da musculatura ventilat&#243;ria, encontrada na IC, &#233; tamb&#233;m uma limita&#231;&#227;o que pode refletir um maior aumento no trabalho do diafragma, desencadeando uma sensa&#231;&#227;o de dispneia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Outra adapta&#231;&#227;o encontrada na IC que pode contribuir para agravar a fadiga &#233; a diminui&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o contr&#225;til. A miopatia na IC reflete claramente a redu&#231;&#227;o da fosforila&#231;&#227;o oxidativa com o aumento das fibras tipo IIb e diminui&#231;&#227;o das fibras tipo I, consideradas determinantes na redu&#231;&#227;o da capacidade funcional. O uso de medicamentos empregados na IC, tais como a losartana e o enalapril, melhoram a toler&#226;ncia ao exerc&#237;cio com a normaliza&#231;&#227;o da composi&#231;&#227;o das fibras musculares (ou seja, redu&#231;&#227;o das fibras glicol&#237;ticas [tipo IIb] e aumento das fibras aer&#243;bicas [tipo I]), al&#233;m de melhorar o gasto energ&#233;tico m&#225;ximo (VO<sub>2</sub>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> Resultados semelhantes foram obtidos com treinamento f&#237;sico em pacientes com IC, o que resultou na melhora da endurance, atividade f&#237;sica e fosforila&#231;&#227;o oxidativa da musculatura esquel&#233;tica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A eventual fraqueza muscular dos pacientes com IC pode ser atribu&#237;da a altera&#231;&#245;es na fun&#231;&#227;o e quantidade de prote&#237;nas dos miofilamentos e n&#227;o apenas &#224; atrofia muscular. Essas altera&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o provavelmente secund&#225;rias e aparentes em rela&#231;&#227;o ao descondicionamento e/ou desuso provenientes da doen&#231;a e permitem a defini&#231;&#227;o do fen&#243;tipo muscular dos pacientes com IC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Avalia&#231;&#227;o da fadiga na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca</title>
          <p>H&#225; v&#225;rias escalas validadas para mensura&#231;&#227;o dos sintomas na assist&#234;ncia a pacientes com IC, o que permite um cuidado diferenciado a cada paciente a partir dos escores apresentados. Para melhor compreens&#227;o dos sintomas, s&#227;o utilizadas escalas num&#233;ricas com intuito de avaliar aspectos f&#237;sicos, emocionais e cognitivos do paciente em rela&#231;&#227;o aos aspectos observados por outros profissionais, tais como o Sistema de Avalia&#231;&#227;o de Sintomas de Edmonton (ESAS). As informa&#231;&#245;es coletadas pelo ESAS auxiliam na mensura&#231;&#227;o de sintomas da IC n&#227;o tradicionalmente avaliados.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>
					</p>
          <p>O ESAS &#233; um instrumento simples e f&#225;cil de ser aplicado, podendo ser preenchido pelo pr&#243;prio paciente (autoavalia&#231;&#227;o) ou por familiar ou profissional. Esta escala &#233; composta por 10 sintomas comuns encontrados em pacientes com c&#226;ncer recebendo cuidados paliativos, incluindo falta de apetite, fadiga, n&#225;usea, depress&#227;o, sonol&#234;ncia, ansiedade, dor, dispneia, mal-estar e outros sintomas. A escala possui uma gradua&#231;&#227;o que varia de 0 a 10, onde 0 representa a aus&#234;ncia do sintoma pesquisado e 10 a presen&#231;a do sintoma pesquisado em sua mais forte intensidade.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Um estudo prospectivo conduzido no Canad&#225; avaliou a aplicabilidade de diferentes question&#225;rios de cuidados paliativos em pacientes com IC. O estudo correlacionou a classe funcional do <italic>New York Heart Association</italic> (NYHA) e o <italic>Kansas City Cardiomyopathy Questionnaire</italic> (KCCQ) com as escalas de cuidados paliativos ESAS e Escala de Desempenho Paliativo (PPS). O estudo encontrou uma correla&#231;&#227;o positiva entre a PPS e o ESAS com a NYHA (R2 = 0,57, p = 0,001); entretanto, o question&#225;rio KCCQ apresentou uma correla&#231;&#227;o negativa com o ESAS (R2 = -0,72, p = 0,001). Em fun&#231;&#227;o da dificuldade da identifica&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com IC eleg&#237;veis para cuidados paliativos, estas ferramentas podem ser &#250;teis na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>A fadiga relacionada ao c&#226;ncer</title>
          <p>O sintoma fadiga est&#225; diretamente ligado ao pr&#243;prio c&#226;ncer e aos efeitos colaterais do seu tratamento, dentre eles, a toxicidade &#224; quimioterapia. Os pacientes com c&#226;ncer que apresentam fadiga severa durante o tratamento permanecem com fadiga ap&#243;s o t&#233;rmino da terapia ou da resolu&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a. A cronicidade da fadiga est&#225; implicada em poss&#237;veis adapta&#231;&#245;es metab&#243;licas e fisiol&#243;gicas, tais como o descondicionamento e a caquexia. O aumento da atividade f&#237;sica &#233; uma estrat&#233;gia adotada para diminuir a perda de musculatura esquel&#233;tica durante a quimioterapia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A caquexia no c&#226;ncer &#233; caracterizada por uma perda cont&#237;nua de massa muscular esquel&#233;tica, podendo causar fraqueza generalizada e fadiga. Roberts et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> investigaram a fraqueza muscular do diafragma decorrente da caquexia ligada ao c&#226;ncer em modelos animais e observaram que a fraqueza muscular era atribu&#237;da &#224; atrofia muscular e &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o contr&#225;til muscular.</p>
          <p>Lee et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> avaliaram a diferen&#231;a do desempenho f&#237;sico entre mulheres e homens portadores ou n&#227;o de linfoma, com aplica&#231;&#227;o do teste da caminhada de 6 minutos (TC6M) e do Invent&#225;rio Breve de Fadiga. Os resultados obtidos mostraram um escore maior de fadiga nos pacientes com piora da capacidade f&#237;sica funcional.</p>
          <p>A natureza multifatorial da fadiga ligada ao c&#226;ncer dificulta a identifica&#231;&#227;o dos mecanismos subjacentes envolvidos nesta doen&#231;a. Bower et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> confirmaram a rela&#231;&#227;o entre o aumento de citocinas inflamat&#243;rias com o agravamento da fadiga em pacientes com c&#226;ncer de mama e pr&#243;stata durante o tratamento. Dower et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> demonstraram que mulheres com c&#226;ncer de mama e fadigadas apresentavam n&#237;veis reduzidos de cortisol pela manh&#227;, sugerindo poss&#237;veis altera&#231;&#245;es no eixo hipotal&#226;mico-hipofis&#225;rio-adrenal. Fink et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> constataram que n&#237;veis baixos de hemoglobina, depress&#227;o e limita&#231;&#227;o f&#237;sica podem ser considerados fatores predisponentes de fadiga.</p>
          <p>O diagn&#243;stico da fadiga relacionada ao c&#226;ncer &#233; realizado com exclus&#227;o de causas revers&#237;veis que podem ser tratadas e investigadas. Dentre as causas revers&#237;veis citadas est&#227;o o tipo de fadiga, hipotireoidismo, anemia, dist&#250;rbio de sono, dor, estresse emocional, climat&#233;rio, dist&#250;rbios eletrol&#237;ticos, efeitos adversos de medicamentos, disfun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, renal e hep&#225;tica, miopatias e fibrose pulmonar.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> O diagn&#243;stico da fadiga pode ser complementado com informa&#231;&#245;es da hist&#243;ria cl&#237;nica, exames f&#237;sico e laboratoriais do paciente e aplica&#231;&#227;o de instrumentos para avalia&#231;&#227;o de fadiga por uma equipe multidisciplinar.</p>
          <p>O <italic>Common Terminology Criteria for Adverse Events</italic> (CTCAE, vers&#227;o 4.0) do National Cancer Institute dos Estados Unidos estabelece uma gradua&#231;&#227;o da fadiga oncol&#243;gica que &#233; bastante utilizada pelos oncologistas brasileiros (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">figura 1</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>
					</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f3">
              <label>Figura 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Mapa conceitual da fadiga relacionada ao c&#226;ncer.</title>
              </caption>
              <attrib>Fonte: Autor, 2017.</attrib>
              <graphic xlink:href="2359-5647-ijcs-31-04-0433-80027-gf01-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Dimeo et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> conclu&#237;ram que os exerc&#237;cios s&#227;o os &#250;nicos fatores com fortes evid&#234;ncias no controle da fadiga durante e ap&#243;s o tratamento de tumores de mama, pr&#243;stata e diversos outros tumores s&#243;lidos. Schwartz et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> apontaram a efic&#225;cia de exerc&#237;cios terap&#234;uticos na melhora da fadiga e da qualidade de vida dos pacientes, com diminui&#231;&#227;o dos efeitos adversos das terapias contra o c&#226;ncer. Um treinamento aer&#243;bico realizado durante 4 meses por mulheres com hipertens&#227;o, doen&#231;a cardiovascular e c&#226;ncer de mama em tratamento resultou na redu&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica e da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca de repouso. J&#225; uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica envolvendo 4.826 participantes com c&#226;ncer mostrou uma melhora na qualidade de vida e na capacidade funcional durante e ap&#243;s um programa de treinamento com exerc&#237;cios (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">tabelas 1</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">2</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>
					</p>
          <table-wrap id="t4">
            <label>Tabela 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Efeitos dos exerc&#237;cios antes e ap&#243;s o tratamento oncol&#243;gico</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col width="50%"/>
                <col width="50%"/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Antes do tratamento</th>
                  <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Ap&#243;s o tratamento</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Melhora da fun&#231;&#227;o cardiorrespirat&#243;ria e cardiovascular</td>
                  <td align="center">Melhora da autoestima, humor e autoimagem</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Efeitos sobre a composi&#231;&#227;o corporal (preserva&#231;&#227;o ou ganho de massa muscular e perda de massa gorda)</td>
                  <td align="center">Redu&#231;&#227;o da dura&#231;&#227;o da hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Melhora no fortalecimento e flexibilidade muscular</td>
                  <td align="center">Redu&#231;&#227;o do estresse, depress&#227;o e ansiedade</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Melhora do sistema imune</td>
                  <td align="center">Redu&#231;&#227;o dos efeitos adversos s&#233;rios, incluindo n&#225;useas, fadiga e dor</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <attrib>Fonte: Adaptado de Mishra SI et al, 2012<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>
							</attrib>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <table-wrap id="t5">
            <label>Tabela 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Diferen&#231;as entre fadiga oncol&#243;gica e fadiga ligada &#224; IC</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col width="50%"/>
                <col width="50%"/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Fadiga oncol&#243;gica</th>
                  <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Fadiga ligada &#224; IC</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Fraqueza muscular generalizada</td>
                  <td align="center">Fraqueza muscular respirat&#243;ria e perif&#233;rica</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">N&#227;o melhora com o repouso ou sono</td>
                  <td align="center">Melhora com per&#237;odo de repouso e sono</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Agrava com quimioterapia e/ou radioterapia</td>
                  <td align="center">Piora com uso de corticoidese anti-inflamat&#243;rios</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">N&#227;o tem associa&#231;&#227;o direta com a dispneia</td>
                  <td align="center">Associada a dispneia aos esfor&#231;os</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Disfun&#231;&#227;o do sistema nervoso central e perif&#233;rico</td>
                  <td align="center">Disfun&#231;&#227;o sistema nervoso perif&#233;rico</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Desuso das fibras musculares e altera&#231;&#227;o contr&#225;til</td>
                  <td align="center">Atrofia das fibras musculares Tipo I aer&#243;bicas</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Desencadeada por baixos n&#237;veis de hemoglobina, cortisol, TSH e T4 livre</td>
                  <td align="center">Desencadeada pelo aumento de mediadores inflamat&#243;rios</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Associada a piora do estado nutricional </td>
                  <td align="center">Associada &#224; caquexia card&#237;aca com o avan&#231;o da doen&#231;a</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <attrib>Fonte: Autor, 2017</attrib>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Riscos da cardiotoxicidade</title>
          <p>Os sinais e sintomas da IC podem ser semelhantes aos observados em pacientes oncol&#243;gicos. A fadiga &#233; uma manifesta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica comum em ambas as patologias. No c&#226;ncer, pode se agravar em decorr&#234;ncia do tratamento oncol&#243;gico, que aumenta o risco de agress&#227;o ao mioc&#225;rdio, podendo ent&#227;o desencadear complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>
					</p>
          <p>O decl&#237;nio substancial da capacidade cardiopulmonar &#233; decorrente da imobilidade, cronicidade da fadiga, perda de massa muscular, anemia, aumento da atividade inflamat&#243;ria, altera&#231;&#245;es na coagula&#231;&#227;o e eventos adversos da quimioterapia e/ou radioterapia. Todas essas altera&#231;&#245;es levam consequentemente a uma piora na qualidade de vida do paciente oncol&#243;gico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A cardiotoxicidade induzida pela quimioterapia tem sido a grande preocupa&#231;&#227;o de oncologistas e cardiologistas na busca de uma identifica&#231;&#227;o precoce da disfun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca e na monitoriza&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular durante o tratamento. A toxicidade card&#237;aca &#233; uma das complica&#231;&#245;es mais importantes da terap&#234;utica oncol&#243;gica e &#233; respons&#225;vel por consider&#225;vel morbimortalidade.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Diversos medicamentos oncol&#243;gicos t&#234;m sido relacionados &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, especialmente medicamentos do grupo das antraciclinas, como a doxorrubicina. A cardiotoxicidade induzida pelas antraciclinas manifesta-se de forma aguda (&lt; 3 meses ap&#243;s o tratamento) ou tardia (3 a 12 meses ap&#243;s o tratamento), mas pode tamb&#233;m ocorrer ap&#243;s 1 ano do tratamento. De acordo com Suter &amp; Ewer,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> os medicamentos podem ser classificados pelo dano que provocam ao mioc&#225;rdio como causadores de les&#227;o revers&#237;vel (tipo 1) e les&#227;o irrevers&#237;vel (tipo 2). Um dos efeitos da toxicidade card&#237;aca pelas antraciclinas envolve o estresse oxidativo e peroxida&#231;&#227;o lip&#237;dica nos cardiomi&#243;citos. Swain et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref> identificaram 149 eventos card&#237;acos e redu&#231;&#227;o da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (FEVE) em 50% de 630 pacientes oncol&#243;gicos tratados com doxorrubicina.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref> Uma avalia&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica n&#227;o invasiva dos pacientes com IC mostrou aumento das seguintes vari&#225;veis: d&#233;bito card&#237;aco, volume sist&#243;lico, frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e press&#227;o arterial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Entre os eventos lesivos dos agentes/f&#225;rmacos quimioter&#225;picos no sistema cardiovascular destacam-se a IC, hipertens&#227;o arterial, doen&#231;a tromboemb&#243;lica e doen&#231;as do mioc&#225;rdio (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">Tabela 3</xref>). Os principais fatores de risco para a cardiotoxicidade com quimioter&#225;picos s&#227;o a hipertens&#227;o, idade acima de 60 anos, disfun&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;via do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo e irradia&#231;&#227;o tor&#225;cica pr&#233;via. A cardiotoxicidade pode aparecer de forma aguda, subaguda e tardia, conforme a sua apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>
					</p>
          <table-wrap id="t6">
            <label>Tabela 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>"Gatilhos" fisiopatol&#243;gicos da doen&#231;a arterial coronariana no tratamento do c&#227;ncer</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col width="33%"/>
                <col width="33%"/>
                <col width="33%"/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">F&#225;rmaco quimioter&#225;pico</th>
                  <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Mecanismo fisiopatol&#243;gico</th>
                  <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Potencial chance de eventos coronarianos</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">5-fluorouracil, capecitabina, gencitabina</td>
                  <td align="center">Les&#227;o endotelial e vasoespasmo </td>
                  <td align="center">Acima de 18% de aumento no risco de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica e de 10% no risco de isquemia silenciosa</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Componentes platina - cisplatina</td>
                  <td align="center">Trombose arterial e pr&#243;-coagulante</td>
                  <td align="center">20 anos de risco absoluto acima de 8% ap&#243;s c&#226;ncer testicular</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Inibidores do fator de crescimento endotelial vascular (VEGF): bevacizumabe, sorafenibe, sunitinibe</td>
                  <td align="center">Pr&#243;-coagulante, trombose arterial<break/>Les&#227;o endotelial</td>
                  <td align="center">Risco de trombose arterial: bevacizumabe 3,8%, sorafenibe 1,7% e sunitinibe 1,4%</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Radioterapia</td>
                  <td align="center">Les&#227;o endotelial, ruptura de plaqueta e trombose</td>
                  <td align="center">Aumento de 2 a 7 vezes no risco relativo de infarto mioc&#225;rdio10% de eventos coronarianos em sobreviventes de linfoma de Hodgkin<break/>O risco &#233; proporcional &#224; dose de radia&#231;&#227;o</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <attrib>Fonte: Adaptado European Society of Cardiology (ESC)</attrib>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>O diagn&#243;stico da cardiotoxicidade &#233; estabelecido atrav&#233;s de biomarcadores (entre eles o pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico cerebral [BNP] e as troponinas) e recursos ecocardiogr&#225;ficos. Cerca de um ter&#231;o dos pacientes apresentam eleva&#231;&#227;o nos n&#237;veis de troponinas, que s&#227;o um marcador sens&#237;vel e espec&#237;fico de les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica com capacidade de sinalizar o desenvolvimento de disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular em pacientes que receberam doses elevadas de quimioter&#225;picos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A <italic>European Society of Cardiology</italic> prop&#245;e atualmente uma discuss&#227;o sobre a relev&#226;ncia dos biomarcadores e das avalia&#231;&#245;es seriadas de FEVE na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica e na pesquisa. O emprego concomitante de amostras de sangue na dosagem dos n&#237;veis de biomarcadores e caracteriza&#231;&#227;o de fatores gen&#233;ticos e epigen&#233;ticos podem ser &#250;teis na identifica&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com c&#226;ncer suscet&#237;veis ou resistentes &#224; cardiotoxicidade. Desta forma, &#233; poss&#237;vel uma compara&#231;&#227;o de resultados clinicamente relevantes antes e durante o tratamento do c&#226;ncer, permitindo o planejamento de estrat&#233;gias baseadas em evid&#234;ncias pela cardio-oncologia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Avalia&#231;&#227;o da fadiga oncol&#243;gica</title>
          <p>Question&#225;rios padronizados t&#234;m sido incorporados na avalia&#231;&#227;o da fadiga. H&#225; diversos instrumentos de avalia&#231;&#227;o de fadiga, dos quais sete foram validados no Brasil para avalia&#231;&#227;o do impacto da fadiga na qualidade de vida do paciente oncol&#243;gico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>
					</p>
          <p>O Pictograma de Fadiga, elaborado para avalia&#231;&#227;o da intensidade e impacto da fadiga em pacientes com c&#226;ncer, &#233; um instrumento &#250;til na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica e na pesquisa (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 2</xref>). &#201; descrito como sendo um m&#233;todo r&#225;pido, simples, v&#225;lido, confi&#225;vel e aplic&#225;vel em pacientes com c&#226;ncer e com baixa escolaridade, apesar de necessitar ajustes para aplica&#231;&#227;o em pessoas saud&#225;veis. Este instrumento foi validado no Brasil em 2007 em 584 pacientes com diferentes tipos e est&#225;gios de c&#226;ncer em tratamento ou n&#227;o com radioterapia atendidos em quatro ambulat&#243;rios de oncologia do munic&#237;pio de S&#227;o Paulo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>
					</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f4">
              <label>Figura 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Pictograma de Fadiga (Mota, Pimenta, Fitch. 2009)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>
								</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="2359-5647-ijcs-31-04-0433-80027-gf02-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Outra forma de avalia&#231;&#227;o &#233; a Escala de Fadiga de Piper. Revisada e validada no Brasil em 2009, essa escala abrange todas as dimens&#245;es da fadiga e pode ser aplicada a pacientes oncol&#243;gicos em todos os est&#225;gios da doen&#231;a. Essa escala estabelece um ponto de corte a partir do qual o indiv&#237;duo deve ser considerado como fadigado.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref> Outro question&#225;rio bastante utilizado &#233; o <italic>Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy-Fatigue</italic> (FACT-F), que foi validado e aplicado em um estudo desenvolvido no Instituto Nacional de C&#226;ncer Jos&#233; Alencar Gomes da Silva (INCA) em 2008 e demonstrou um impacto negativo da fadiga na qualidade de vida de pacientes com c&#226;ncer de mama submetidas a quimioterapia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
        <p>Embora a fadiga seja um sintoma comum em pacientes com c&#226;ncer, &#233; pouco valorizada na cl&#237;nica di&#225;ria. Nas &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas, a fadiga tem tido um reconhecimento cada vez maior pelo seu impacto na qualidade de vida e sobrevida do paciente. A fadiga tamb&#233;m &#233; um dos sintomas cardinais da IC. A cardiovigil&#226;ncia e a cardio-oncologia s&#227;o conceitos que v&#234;m sendo incorporados pelas equipes multidisciplinares que atuam junto ao paciente com c&#226;ncer. Dessa forma, a identifica&#231;&#227;o da fadiga e de seus mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos, a sua correta estratifica&#231;&#227;o e a sua abordagem terap&#234;utica s&#227;o etapas fundamentais a serem cumpridas pelos profissionais de sa&#250;de envolvidos no cuidado do paciente com c&#226;ncer.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de disserta&#231;&#227;o de Mestrado de Jacqueline Aparecida Borges pela Universidade Federal Fluminense e INCA - RJ.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Este artigo n&#227;o cont&#233;m estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
