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<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" article-type="review-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.7" xml:lang="en">
  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">ijcs</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>International Journal of Cardiovascular Sciences</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Int. J. Cardiovasc. Sci.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">2359-4802</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">2359-5647</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">8nGNrPGskVkNWGJSdTbHWzb</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S2359-56472018000400422</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="previous-pid">S2359-56472018005002102</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/2359-4802.20180025</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>REVIEW ARTICLE</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Vitamin D Deficiency and Cardiovascular Diseases</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Jorge</surname>
            <given-names>Antonio Jos&#233; Lagoeiro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Cordeiro</surname>
            <given-names>Jamerson Reis</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rosa</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Luiza Garcia</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Bianchi</surname>
            <given-names>Diego Braga Campos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <city>Niter&#243;i</city>
            <state>RJ</state>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niter&#243;i, RJ - Brazil</institution>
          <institution content-type="normalized">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Antonio Jos&#233; Lagoeiro Jorge</bold> Rua Marques de Paran&#225;, 303 - 6&#186; andar; Postal Code: 24033-900, Centro, Niter&#243;i, RJ - Brazil. E-mail: <email>lagoeiro@cardiol.br</email>, <email>lagoeiro@globo.com</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research: Jorge AJL, Cordeiro JR. Acquisition of data: Cordeiro JR. Writing of the manuscript: Jorge AJL, Cordeiro JR, Bianchi DBC. Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Jorge AJL, Rosa MLG.Supervision / as the major investigador: Jorge AJL.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub">
        <day>21</day>
        <month>05</month>
        <year>2018</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date pub-type="collection">
        <season>Jul-Aug</season>
        <year>2018</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>31</volume>
      <issue>4</issue>
      <fpage>422</fpage>
      <lpage>432</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>27</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2017</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>21</day>
          <month>08</month>
          <year>2017</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>25</day>
          <month>09</month>
          <year>2017</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <p>Vitamin D is considered a steroid hormone with a broad spectrum of action in the human body. Its action arises from the binding of its active metabolite (1&#945;,25-dihydroxyvitamin D) to its receptor (VDR), which is present throughout the body, including vascular smooth muscle cells and cardiomyocytes. Initially, vitamin D deficiency was related only to changes in the musculoskeletal system, but in recent years, researchers have demonstrated its relationship with several pathologies related to other systems, such as cardiovascular diseases. The objective of this study is to review vitamin D&#8217;s pathophysiology, describe its relationship with cardiovascular diseases based on the most recent publications, and highlight the results of vitamin supplementation in the prevention of such pathologies.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords:</title>
        <kwd>Vitamin D Deficiency/physiopathology</kwd>
        <kwd>Cardiovascular Diseases</kwd>
        <kwd>Solar Radiation</kwd>
        <kwd>Calcium</kwd>
        <kwd>Phosphorus</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>Vitamin D, the fourth vitamin to be described, was initially characterized as a factor capable of curing rickets, a disease characterized by bone demineralization and skeletal deformities.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Currently, vitamin D comprises a group of secosteroid molecules derived from 7-dehydrocholesterol (7-DHC) that includes the active metabolite (1&#945;,25-dihydroxyvitamin D or calcitriol), its precursors (cholecalciferol or vitamin D3, ergocalciferol or vitamin D2 , and 25-hydroxyvitamin D or calcidiol), as well as its degradation products.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> These molecules, along with their carrier proteins and receptors, comprise an important metabolic axis: the endocrine vitamin D system.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The active vitamin D has a fundamental role in regulating bone and mineral physiology, in particular, calcium and phosphorus metabolism. It is also involved in the homeostasis of several other cellular processes, such as the modulation of autoimmunity and synthesis of inflammatory interleukins,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> blood pressure control,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> and participation in the process of cell multiplication and differentiation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> The spectrum of action of vitamin D is so broad that microarray studies show that 1&#945;,25-dihydroxyvitamin has more than 900 potential gene targets, corresponding to approximately 3% of the human genome.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Epidemiological studies have found that a significant portion of the world population, regardless of age, ethnicity, and geographical location, has low serum levels of vitamin D,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> as illustrated in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>. Some countries even present rates of vitamin D deficiency above 50%, as observed in Brazil, Denmark, and Germany.</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f1">
          <label>Figure 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Global prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in adults.</title>
            <p>Adapted from: Palacios C, Gonzalez L. Is vitamin D deficiency a major global public health problem? J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2014 October; 144PA: 138-145. doi:10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.11.003.</p>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="2359-5647-ijcs-31-04-0422-80025-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Recent studies have associated inadequate serum vitamin D levels with several diseases unrelated to the musculoskeletal system, such as cancer (colon, prostate, and breast), autoimmune and inflammatory diseases (multiple sclerosis, Crohn&#8217;s disease), depression, and cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) such as hypertension, coronary artery disease (CAD), and heart failure (HF).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The objective of this study was to review vitamin D&#8217;s pathophysiology, describe its relationship with CVD based on the most recent publications, and highlight the results of vitamin supplementation in the prevention of such diseases.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Physiology and mechanism of action</title>
        <p>In humans, only 10 to 20% of the vitamin D derives from the diet, and the remaining 80% is synthesized endogenously.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> Few foods have significant amounts of this vitamin, of which the main ones are listed in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Table 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Some food sources of vitamin D. Adapted from the Brazilian Society of Endocrinology and Metabolism<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>
						</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="33%"/>
              <col width="33%"/>
              <col width="33%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Food</th>
                <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Portion</th>
                <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Amount of vitamin D <break/> per portion</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Wild salmon</td>
                <td align="center">100 g</td>
                <td align="center">600 - 1,000 IU of vitamin D<sub>3</sub></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Farmed-raised salmon</td>
                <td align="center">100 g</td>
                <td align="center">100 - 250 IU of vitamin D<sub>3</sub></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Canned sardines</td>
                <td align="center">100 g</td>
                <td align="center">300 IU of vitamin D<sub>3</sub></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Canned mackerel</td>
                <td align="center">100 g</td>
                <td align="center">250 IU of vitamin D<sub>3</sub></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Canned tuna</td>
                <td align="center">100 g</td>
                <td align="center">230 IU of vitamin D<sub>3</sub></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Cod liver oil</td>
                <td align="center">5 mL</td>
                <td align="center">400 - 1,000 IU of vitamin D<sub>3</sub></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Egg yolk</td>
                <td align="center">1 unit</td>
                <td align="center">20 IU of vitamin D<sub>3</sub></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Fresh mushrooms</td>
                <td align="center">100 g</td>
                <td align="center">100 IU of vitamin D<sub>2</sub></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Sun-dried mushrooms</td>
                <td align="center">100 g</td>
                <td align="center">1,600 IU of vitamin D<sub>2</sub></td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>The molecular structure of vitamins D2 and D3 is very similar. Ergocalciferol differs from cholecalciferol by a double bond between carbons 22 and 23 and a methyl group on carbon 24, as shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>. Both vitamins are synthesized from energy derived by photolysis (solar radiation) on their precursors: ergosterol (vitamin D2) and 7-DHC (vitamin D3). Following ingestion by humans, both vitamins follow the same metabolization pathway in the liver and are converted into 25-hydroxyvitamin D.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>
				</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f2">
            <label>Figure 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Vitamin D2 and D3 molecules, showing the difference in methyl group (CH3), which is present in the former and absent in the later (arrows).</title>
              <p>Extracted from: Peixoto PV et al. Hypervitaminosis D in animals [Hipervitaminose D em animais]. Pesq. Vet. Bras. 32(7):573-594, julho 2012.</p>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="2359-5647-ijcs-31-04-0422-80025-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Synthesis of endogenous vitamin D starts in the deep layers of the epidermis, where the precursor 7-DHC is stored in the double lipid layer of the cell membrane. Ultraviolet B (UVB) radiation promotes 7-DHC photolysis, leading to the formation of a secosteroid molecule: previtamin D3. This molecule is thermally unstable and undergoes an isomerization reaction induced by heat, converting it into vitamin D3. Skin melanin competes for the radiation photon, decreasing the availability of photons for 7-DHC photolysis, hence the observation of lower vitamin D levels in blacks.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>
				</p>
        <p>When reaching the liver, vitamins D2 and D3 undergo hydroxylation by cytochrome P450 and originate 25-hydroxyvitamin D, which is the form of the vitamin that predominates in the circulation. In the blood, about 85 to 90% of the 25-hydroxyvitamin D is bound to vitamin D-binding protein (VDBP), 10 to 15% to albumin, and the remaining (less than 1%) circulate in a free form. There are few data in the literature on the bioavailability of vitamin D bound to albumin; therefore, the expression &#8220;vitamin D bioavailability&#8221; is used for the 25- hydroxyvitamin D form not bound to VDBP.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>
				</p>
        <p>When reaching target tissues, 25-hydroxyvitamin D is converted by the enzyme 1&#945;-hydroxylase into 1&#945;,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, which is the metabolically active form of the vitamin.</p>
        <p>The effects of 1&#945;,25-dihydroxyvitamin D are mediated by its receptor, VDR, which belongs to the family of nuclear receptors 1. Both the enzyme 1&#945;-hydroxylase and the VDR receptor are found in almost all human cells, including cardiomyocytes<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> and vascular smooth muscle cells.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> Experimental models with absence of VDR allow the understanding of the tissue-specific activity of the receptor. As an example, the absence of VDR results in increased ventricular mass, increased brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) levels and deregulation of cardiac metalloproteinases and fibroblasts, promoting a fibrotic extracellular matrix and leading to ventricular dilation and electromechanical uncoupling.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> After the binding of vitamin D to the VDR, the complex promotes gene activation or suppression, with the help of coregulator proteins. On the other hand, the VDR also presents prompt nongenomic responses by inducing voltage-dependent calcium channels, leading to increased cell inflow of calcium and activation of other messengers, such as cyclic AMP, protein kinase A, and phospholipase C.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Vitamin D deficiency</title>
        <p>The American guideline for evaluation, prevention, and treatment of vitamin D deficiency<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> establishes that the body pool of the vitamin should be determined by measurement of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D with the following cutoff points: (i) deficiency, when below or equal to 20 ng/mL, (ii) insufficiency, when between 20 and 30 ng/mL, and (iii) sufficiency when greater than 30 ng/mL.</p>
        <p>Some risk factors for vitamin D deficiency have been observed and relate to sun exposure, dietary habits, and intestinal absorption. These include an indoor lifestyle (sun deprivation), use of sunscreens, advanced age, distance from the Equator, black skin, air pollution, smoking, poor food absorption (malabsorption syndromes), drugs (anticonvulsants, glucocorticoids), and kidney and liver disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Despite the increased prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in the adult population and the growing evidence of its association with CVD, both American and Brazilian guidelines recommend that serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels should not be measured routinely in the general population and should only be measured in patients of populations considered at risk for deficiency of this vitamin.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Association of vitamin d deficiency and cardiovascular diseases</title>
        <p>Although numerous studies have confirmed an association between vitamin D and CVD, a cause-effect relationship between both remains unclear.</p>
        <p>In this review, we discuss the association of vitamin D deficiency with the main cardiovascular pathologies and, subsequently, we analyze some outcomes with vitamin replacement.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Hypertension</title>
        <p>The association of vitamin D deficiency and hypertension has its basis on the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS). Renin is synthesized by renal juxtaglomerular cells and stimulates the production of angiotensin II (from angiotensin I) and aldosterone, which increase blood pressure (BP) directly by vasoconstriction and indirectly by fluid and salt retention.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> Inappropriately increased RAAS activation has been reported in studies with VDR and 1&#945;-hydroxylase knockout mice.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> Vitamin D acts by inhibiting renin gene expression, decreasing the synthesis of renin and, thus, preventing hyperstimulation by this system.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> a large population study that analyzed a sample of 12,644 North-Americans, has shown that systolic BP and pulse pressure correlate inversely with levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D. These results have been confirmed by subgroup analyses in which increases in BP associated with age were significantly lower in vitamin D sufficient individuals.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> The prevalence of hypertension was also associated with vitamin D deficiency in other large studies such as the German National Interview and Examination Survey<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> and the British Birth Cohort.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> A study carried out in Brazil with 91 hypertensive elderly patients has shown that the serum concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D is inversely associated with BP and positively associated with the weekly frequency of fish consumption.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Few prospective studies have evaluated the association between vitamin D and changes in BP or emergence of hypertension. In 2015, van Ballegooijen et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> followed up 5,066 individuals without hypertension at the Dutch city of Groningen; the individuals had their serum vitamin D level measured and were followed up for 6.4 years. At the end of follow-up, 1,036 (20.5%) developed hypertension and, as expected, low levels of vitamin D were associated with a greater risk of development of the disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Diabetes mellitus</title>
        <p>Type 1 diabetes occurs due to an autoimmune destruction of pancreatic beta cells leading to complete deficiency of insulin production. As for the development of type 2 diabetes, the major mechanisms involved are beta cell dysfunction, peripheral insulin resistance, and systemic inflammation. According to evidence, vitamin D deficiency is associated with all these processes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Vitamin D may exert effects on beta cell function through a direct connection to VDR receptors and by local expression of the enzyme 1&#945;-hydroxylase. Vitamin D may also increase insulin sensitivity by stimulating VDR expression in peripheral tissues and activating peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPAR) receptors, a factor that is involved in regulating the metabolism of fatty acids in skeletal muscles and adipose tissue. On the other hand, vitamin D may also act through indirect pathways in insulin secretion and sensitivity by regulating calcium concentration and flux in beta cell membranes and peripheral tissues.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Observational studies have shown that the incidence and prevalence of type 1 diabetes are higher in countries with higher latitude and that the disease is most often diagnosed in the winter months.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> Some studies have related vitamin D deficiency in pregnant women with the incidence of type 1 diabetes in children after birth.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> Other studies have evaluated the protective role of vitamin D supplementation in early childhood against the development of type 1 diabetes, showing a lower incidence of the disease in children who received vitamin supplementation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>
				</p>
        <p>With respect to insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes, the results have been conflicting. Some studies have associated low concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D with insulin resistance and dysfunction of pancreatic beta cells in western populations.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> While studying 1,807 healthy Korean individuals, Ock et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> have recently reported that vitamin D has an inverse association with insulin resistance.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> While analyzing the relationship between vitamin D deficiency, diabetes, and CAD, Nardin et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> evaluated 1,859 patients undergoing elective angiography for evaluation of CAD and concluded that diabetes is not an independent predictor of vitamin D deficiency, but diabetic patients with vitamin D deficiency presented increase CAD prevalence and severity.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> In a recent study, Schafer et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> followed up more than 5,000 elderly women for 8.6 &#177; 4.4 years to investigate a possible relationship between vitamin D levels and the emergence of type 2 diabetes; the authors concluded that the serum levels of vitamin D were not independent predictors of the incidence of type 2 diabetes in this population.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Obesity</title>
        <p>Recent evidence suggests that vitamin D deficiency is associated with obesity and other components of the metabolic syndrome.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Low levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D are common in obese individuals, and many studies have demonstrated an inverse relationship between serum vitamin D levels and body mass index (BMI).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> Vitamin D has also been associated with regional fat distribution, and high levels of the vitamin have been associated with a lower amount of visceral and subcutaneous fat.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> Some of the explanations proposed for this association are: differences in dietary intake between obese and nonobese individuals, decreased sun exposure among obese individuals, lower vitamin D bioavailability in obesity, and altered vitamin D metabolism in obese individuals.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Wortsman et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> proposed the hypothesis of sequestration of vitamin D by fat tissue to explain the prevalence of low levels of this vitamin in obese individuals.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> They demonstrated that obese individuals presented a lower increase in serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D when compared with nonobese individuals under the same conditions of exposure to sunlight and vitamin intake. Since vitamin D is liposoluble, they proposed that the vitamin must accumulate in fatty tissue and not be readily available in the circulation, which would lead to low serum levels of this vitamin.</p>
        <p>On the other hand, Drincic et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> suggested that the difference in serum levels of vitamin D between obese and nonobese individuals is related to the distribution volume of this vitamin, which is greater in obese individuals and would justify its lower serum levels in these individuals.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Smoking and lifestyle habits</title>
        <p>Smoking is a risk factor for CVD and systemic inflammation, and vitamin D has been associated with both these conditions. Lee et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> studied 560 Korean individuals aged 60 years or older to investigate the association between vitamin D and inflammatory markers and evaluate whether this association would change with the smoking profile of the patients.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> The authors observed a significant association between vitamin D deficiency and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP) and a modifying effect of smoking on this association, in which smokers show a stronger association between vitamin D deficiency and hsCRP than nonsmokers.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>
				</p>
        <p>With the aim of relating lifestyle characteristics with vitamin D deficiency, Skaaby et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref> conducted a longitudinal study with 4,185 individuals with a follow-up time of 5 years. In this study, multivariate analyses of repeated serum measurements 25-hydroxyvitamin D were used to evaluate the association of this vitamin deficiency with BMI, practice of physical activity, type of diet (more healthy <italic>versus</italic> less healthy), alcohol consumption, and smoking. As a result, lower serum levels of vitamin D were associated with higher BMI, lower levels of physical activity, consumption of a less healthy diet, increased alcohol consumption, and smoking.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Coronary artery disease</title>
        <p>The occurrence of CAD has been associated with vitamin D deficiency, but the pathophysiological mechanisms of this association have not been well understood yet. The main evidence to suggest such an association is the VDR presence in both the myocardium and vascular cells, and the demonstration by epidemiological studies that the incidence of both CAD and vitamin D deficiency increase in winter months and in countries furthest from the Equator.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Vitamin D deficiency appears to be common in acute myocardial infarction (AMI), and preliminary studies indicate a possible association of vitamin deficiency with AMI prognosis in the short and long term.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref> Moreover, vitamin D deficiency seems to predispose to recurrent adverse cardiac events, due to its association with the number of affected coronary arteries, AMI complications, and cardiac remodeling.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The Health Professionals Follow-up Study followed up 18,225 men during 10 years and observed an association between low vitamin D levels and increased AMI risk, even after adjustment for other risk factors.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref> Prospective studies have also found a high prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in patients hospitalized with AMI. A multicenter study carried out with 239 patients with acute coronary syndrome (ACS) showed that 96% of the individuals had low vitamin D levels at hospital admission.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Some studies show a potential independent association between severe vitamin D deficiency and intrahospital mortality in patients with ACS. Correia et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref> studied 206 patients with ACS and found that individuals with serum vitamin D levels lower than 10 ng/mL had a 24% rate of intrahospital cardiovascular mortality, which was significantly higher than that observed in the remaining patients (4.9%).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Heart failure</title>
        <p>HF has been associated with vitamin D deficiency. Shane et al. demonstrated a high prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in patients with HF, as well as an inverse correlation between serum levels of vitamin D with left ventricular function and disease severity.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Vitamin D deficiency has been associated with severe adverse events, such as hospitalization due to HF and mortality. Liu et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref> reported in a study with 548 patients that low levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D were associated with higher BNP levels, as well as a higher rate of hospitalization due to HF and increased mortality rate from all causes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref> In the LURIC study, a prospective cohort study with 3,299 patients undergoing coronary angiography, the levels of N-terminal (NT)-proBNP related inversely to the levels of vitamin D.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>
				</p>
        <p>In regards to HF with normal ejection fraction (HFNEF), studies have shown conflicting results in terms of its association with vitamin D deficiency. In 2013, Lagoeiro et al. studied 85 outpatients with suspected HFNEF, of whom 32 had confirmed HFNEF, and observed a negative correlation between vitamin D deficiency and E/E&#8217; ratio.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref> On the other hand, Pandit et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>, in 2014, conducted a retrospective study with 1,011 patients and found no significant association between vitamin D levels and left ventricular diastolic performance.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Despite evidence demonstrating an association between vitamin D and HF, the exact mechanism by which this vitamin&#8217;s deficiency leads to worse clinical outcomes in patients with HF has not been clearly established yet. A potential mechanism could be through the occurrence of cardiorenal syndrome or worsening of renal function.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref> It is well known that the cardiovascular and renal systems are interrelated and that a decline in one of them could influence the other. Progression of cardiorenal syndrome involves hyperactivation of RAAS and sympathetic nervous system, as well as systemic inflammation, which may lead to electrolyte disturbances and disorders in fluid regulation, causing endothelial dysfunction, potentially leading to left ventricular remodeling and myocardial fibrosis. These changes generate a vicious cycle in which a decline in a system&#8217;s function contributes to its further deterioration.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Evidence supports vitamin D as an important regulator in the progression of cardiorenal syndrome. Deregulations in vitamin D metabolism due to reduced activity of the enzyme 1&#945;-hydroxylase and depletion of VDBPs due to proteinuria are responsible for vitamin D deficiency in chronic renal patients; given the high prevalence of chronic renal insufficiency in patients with HF, such changes can be prevalent in these patients.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Other evidence supporting the role of vitamin D deficiency in the pathogenesis of cardiorenal syndrome relates to the involvement of RAAS and inflammatory cytokines. Vitamin D deficiency leads to RAAS hyperactivation, contributing to left ventricular remodeling and emergence or worsening of HF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref> Vitamin D deficiency can lead to increased production and release of inflammatory cytokines, which may have a direct or indirect negative effect in the myocardium, contributing to cell apoptosis, hypertrophy, fibrosis, ventricular remodeling, and negative inotropic effects, in addition to increased renal fibrosis and renal insufficiency.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Vitamin D deficiency and myalgia induced by statins</title>
        <p>Statins are very effective agents in primary and secondary cardiovascular prevention in high-risk patients.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref> However, the side effects most frequently observed in the musculoskeletal system, such as myalgia, have been commonly observed in patients treated with statins, and these effects directly affect the adherence to treatment using these medications.</p>
        <p>Observational studies show that myalgia may occur in approximately 15 to 20% of the individuals treated with statins.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref> However, evidence from daily clinical practice shows that this prevalence is even greater. VDRs are present in muscle cells, and low vitamin D levels are associated with hypotonia, proximal muscle weakness, and nonspecific musculoskeletal pain.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref> Recent studies have reported that vitamin D deficiency is associated with a higher prevalence of myalgia induced by statins.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>
				</p>
        <p>In 2014, Shantha et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref> performed a retrospective study with 5,526 patients followed by a prospective analysis in which the patients were followed up for 7 years. The patients with measured serum vitamin D levels who started treatment with statins were considered as the exposure group. The aim was to analyze the association between statin-induced myalgia and vitamin D levels, as well as to establish a cutoff level for vitamin D that would demonstrate a high accuracy for the emergence of myalgia. The authors concluded that low levels of vitamin D were associated with myalgia and that a cutoff level of 15 ng/mL for vitamin D showed a high accuracy in predicting the emergence of myalgia induced by statins.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref>
				</p>
        <p>In 2015, Morioka et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref> performed a study with 5,907 patients to analyze if the level of vitamin D would modify the association between the use of statin and the emergence of musculoskeletal pain. The authors concluded that the group with vitamin D level below 15 ng/mL and using statins presented an approximately two-fold greater chance of developing musculoskeletal pain than patients who also had vitamin D levels below 15 ng/mL but were not treated with statins.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Prospective and randomized studies are needed to confirm the actual association between vitamin D deficiency and the emergence of myalgia induced by statins. In addition, the pathophysiological mechanism that could explain this association still needs to be elucidated.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Genetic factors of vitamin D and its implications in cardiovascular disease</title>
        <p>The increased worldwide prevalence of vitamin D deficiency, or at least of its measurable circulating form, 25-hydroxyvitamin D, can be explained in part by genetic determinants. In 2010, an important multicenter study carried out by Wang et al. pointed out that serum vitamin D levels may be influenced by genetic variations involving its synthesis (7-DHC), hydroxylation (CYP2R1, CYP24A1), and transport protein (VDBP).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Most studies analyzing the association between vitamin D deficiency and CVD are epidemiological, which prevents discrimination between association and causality. In this context, Mendelian randomization (MR) is an alternative approach to estimate the causal relationship between modifiable biological exposures and clinical outcomes of interest using genetic variants (single nucleotide polymorphisms, SNPs) as instrumental variables. Thus, MR using summarized data allows the combination of results already published in previous studies, becoming a relevant alternative to investigating causality.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Some studies have used MR to investigate a possible causal relationship between vitamin D deficiency and CVD. With respect to hypertension, Vimaleswaran et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref> found that increased vitamin D levels could reduce the risk of development of CVD, showing a causal relationship.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref> On the other hand, the results of MR studies have not demonstrated a causal relationship for diabetes mellitus<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref> and CAD,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref> in which vitamin D deficiency appears to be a confounding factor.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Vitamin D replacement</title>
        <p>Based on growing evidence of an association between vitamin D deficiency and CVD, many authors have investigated the role of vitamin D supplementation in the prevention and treatment of these pathologies.</p>
        <p>A randomized study conducted by Hsia et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref> with 36,282 postmenopausal women evaluated the supplementation of vitamin D 200 IU plus calcium carbonate twice a day or placebo during a follow-up of 7 years and found that supplementation of vitamin D was unable to reduce cardiovascular risk.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref> This was one of the few randomized studies that evaluated the impact of vitamin D in reducing hard outcomes, namely, incidence of AMI, stroke, and CAD-related death.</p>
        <p>With regard to hypertension, studies with vitamin D replacement have shown conflicting results. An important systematic review and meta-analysis published by Wu et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref> comprising 36,806 patients showed no significant effect of calcium plus vitamin D supplementation in variations in systolic and diastolic BP when compared with lack of supplementation of both.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref>
				</p>
        <p>In diabetes mellitus, studies involving vitamin D supplementation have proved disappointing. A study involving 70 children with type 1 diabetes of recent onset, supplementation with calcitriol had a modest effect on the residual function of pancreatic beta cells, but the reduction of glycated hemoglobin after 1 year of treatment was not statistically significant.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref> With respect to type 2 diabetes, study results are conflicting, perhaps due to lack of standardization of the supplemented vitamin D dose or the use of small samples in these studies. A meta-analysis involving 35 controlled studies evaluated the impact of vitamin D supplementation in healthy patients and individuals with vitamin D deficiency, obesity, prediabetes, and diabetes. Compared with placebo, vitamin D had no effect on insulin resistance, insulin secretion, or glycated hemoglobin.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref>
				</p>
        <p>In regards to obesity, several studies have evaluated the effect of vitamin D supplementation with and without the addition of calcium on weight and body composition. Most of these studies showed no significant effect of vitamin D on BMI or body composition.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Additionally, CAD does not seem to be significantly influenced by vitamin D supplementation. An important study named RECORD<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref> involving 5,292 individuals compared the effects of vitamin D, calcium, vitamin D <italic>plus</italic> calcium, or placebo on cardiovascular events. The results showed that although vitamin D can exert a protective role on HF, it does not seem to protect against AMI and stroke. A meta-analysis of 51 controlled studies found that supplementation of vitamin D has no significant impact on AMI.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Vitamin D supplementation seems to have some benefits on HF, although the mechanisms of action have not been well established. Recent studies have reported that in individuals with established HF and vitamin D deficiency, vitamin supplementation is associated with improved survival.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclusions</title>
      <p>CVDs remain the main cause of mortality in several countries worldwide. An understanding of the pathophysiological mechanisms involved, as well as their risk factors, is essential for planning of prevention and treatment strategies.</p>
      <p>In recent years, many studies have shown a relationship between vitamin D deficiency and CVDs, with a direct influence on prognosis. Based on the understanding of this association, the focus of researchers has been in the correction of vitamin deficiency with the aim of preventing diseases and improving the prognosis of established diseases. However, there are still no consistent data to recommend vitamin D replacement in the context of cardiac diseases.</p>
      <p>One point that deserves attention is the broad worldwide variation in the prevalence of vitamin D deficiency. Since endogenous vitamin D synthesis is dependent on solar exposure, which in turn varies according to latitude, perhaps the reference level for serum vitamin D also differs among countries depending on sunlight exposure.</p>
      <p>It is unclear whether the disappointment of the results of studies with vitamin D supplementation is due to an inability of the vitamin in exerting effects on established disease, or use of inappropriate supplementation doses. It is important to understand the doses required to maintain the serum levels of vitamin D above the desired level, as well as serial measurements of 25-hydroxyvitamin D with the aim of maintaining adequate levels of this vitamin during the entire follow-up duration.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This article is part of the thesis of master submitted by Jamerson Reis Cordeiro, from Universidade Federal Fluminense.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Ethics approval and consent to participate</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>ARTIGO DE REVIS&#195;O</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Defici&#234;ncia da Vitamina D e Doen&#231;as Cardiovasculares</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Jorge</surname>
            <given-names>Antonio Jos&#233; Lagoeiro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Cordeiro</surname>
            <given-names>Jamerson Reis</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rosa</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Luiza Garcia</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Bianchi</surname>
            <given-names>Diego Braga Campos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff2">
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niter&#243;i, RJ - Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Antonio Jos&#233; Lagoeiro Jorge</bold> Rua Marques de Paran&#225;, 303 - 6&#186; andar; CEP: 24033-900, Centro, Niter&#243;i, RJ - Brasil. E-mail: <email>lagoeiro@cardiol.br</email>, <email>lagoeiro@globo.com</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: Jorge AJL, Cordeiro JR. Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados: Cordeiro JR. Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Jorge AJL, Cordeiro JR, Bianchi DBC. Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Jorge AJL, Rosa MLG. Supervis&#227;o / como investigador principal: Jorge AJL.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p>A vitamina D &#233; considerada um horm&#244;nio esteroide com amplo espectro de atua&#231;&#227;o no organismo humano. Sua a&#231;&#227;o ocorre a partir da liga&#231;&#227;o do seu metab&#243;lito ativo (1&#945;,25-di-hidroxivitamina D) com seu receptor (VDR) que se encontra presente em todo o organismo, inclusive nas c&#233;lulas musculares lisas vasculares e nos cardiomi&#243;citos. Inicialmente, a defici&#234;ncia de vitamina D havia sido relacionada apenas com altera&#231;&#245;es no sistema musculoesquel&#233;tico. Por&#233;m, nos &#250;ltimos anos, pesquisadores t&#234;m demonstrado sua rela&#231;&#227;o com diversas patologias pertencentes a outros sistemas, tais como as doen&#231;as cardiovasculares. O objetivo deste trabalho foi revisar a fisiopatologia da vitamina D, descrever sua rela&#231;&#227;o com as doen&#231;as cardiovasculares com base nas publica&#231;&#245;es mais recentes e destacar os resultados da suplementa&#231;&#227;o vitam&#237;nica na preven&#231;&#227;o de tais patologias.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave:</title>
        <kwd>Defici&#234;ncia de Vitamina D/fisiopatologia</kwd>
        <kwd>Doen&#231;as Cardiovasculares</kwd>
        <kwd>Radia&#231;&#227;o Solar</kwd>
        <kwd>C&#225;lcio</kwd>
        <kwd>F&#243;sforo</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>A vitamina D, quarta vitamina a ser descrita, foi inicialmente caracterizada como um fator capaz de curar o raquitismo, doen&#231;a caracterizada por desmineraliza&#231;&#227;o &#243;ssea e deformidades esquel&#233;ticas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Atualmente, a vitamina D engloba um grupo de mol&#233;culas secosteroides derivadas do 7-deidrocolesterol (7-DHC), onde h&#225; o metab&#243;lito ativo (1&#945;,25-di-hidroxivitamina D ou calcitriol), seus precursores (colecalciferol ou vitamina D3, ergocalciferol ou vitamina D2 e a 25-hidroxivitamina D ou calcidiol), bem como seus produtos de degrada&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> Essas mol&#233;culas, em conjunto com suas prote&#237;nas carreadoras e receptores, formam um importante eixo metab&#243;lico: o sistema endocrinol&#243;gico da vitamina D.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A vitamina D ativa apresenta um papel fundamental na regula&#231;&#227;o da fisiologia osteomineral, em especial no metabolismo do c&#225;lcio e do f&#243;sforo. Ela est&#225; tamb&#233;m envolvida na homeostase de v&#225;rios outros processos celulares, tais como a modula&#231;&#227;o da autoimunidade e s&#237;ntese de interleucinas inflamat&#243;rias,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> controle da press&#227;o arterial<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> e participa&#231;&#227;o nos processos de multiplica&#231;&#227;o e diferencia&#231;&#227;o celular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> O espectro de a&#231;&#227;o da vitamina D &#233; t&#227;o amplo que estudos com microarranjos mostram que a 1&#945;,25-di-hidroxivitamina D tem mais do que 900 genes-alvos potenciais, correspondendo a cerca de 3% do genoma humano.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Estudos epidemiol&#243;gicos t&#234;m constatado que uma parcela significativa da popula&#231;&#227;o mundial, independente de idade, etnia e localiza&#231;&#227;o geogr&#225;fica, apresenta baixos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de vitamina D,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> como ilustra a <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 1</xref>. Alguns pa&#237;ses chegam a apresentar taxas de defici&#234;ncia de vitamina D superiores a 50%, como observado no Brasil, Dinamarca e Alemanha.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f3">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Preval&#234;ncia mundial da defici&#234;ncia de vitamina D em adultos.</title>
              <p>Adaptado de: Palacios C, Gonzalez L. Isvitamin D deficiency a major global public health problem? J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2014 October; 144PA: 138-145. doi:10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.11.003.</p>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="2359-5647-ijcs-31-04-0422-80025-gf01-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Pesquisas recentes t&#234;m associado n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos inadequados de vitamina D com diversas doen&#231;as n&#227;o relacionadas com o sistema musculoesquel&#233;tico, tais como c&#226;ncer (c&#243;lon, pr&#243;stata e mama), doen&#231;as autoimunes e inflamat&#243;rias (esclerose m&#250;ltipla, doen&#231;a de Crohn), depress&#227;o e doen&#231;as cardiovasculares (DCVs), como hipertens&#227;o arterial (HAS), doen&#231;a arterial coronariana (DAC) e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>
				</p>
        <p>O objetivo deste trabalho foi revisar a fisiopatologia da vitamina D, descrever sua rela&#231;&#227;o com as DCVs com base nas publica&#231;&#245;es mais recentes e destacar os resultados da suplementa&#231;&#227;o vitam&#237;nica na preven&#231;&#227;o de tais patologias.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Fisiologia e mecanismo de a&#231;&#227;o</title>
          <p>Nos seres humanos, apenas 10% a 20% da vitamina D prov&#233;m da dieta, sendo os 80% restantes sintetizados endogenamente.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> Poucos s&#227;o os alimentos que apresentam quantidades significativas dessa vitamina, dos quais os principais est&#227;o listados na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 1</xref>.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t2">
            <label>Tabela 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Algumas fontes alimentares de vitamina D. Adaptado da Sociedade Brasileira de Endocrinologia e Metabologia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>
							</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col width="33%"/>
                <col width="33%"/>
                <col width="33%"/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Alimento</th>
                  <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Por&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Quantidade de vitamina D por por&#231;&#227;o</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Salm&#227;o selvagem</td>
                  <td align="center">100 g</td>
                  <td align="center">600 - 1.000 UI de vitamina D<sub>3</sub></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Salm&#227;o de cria&#231;&#227;o</td>
                  <td align="center">100 g</td>
                  <td align="center">100 - 250 UI de vitamina D<sub>3</sub></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Sardinha em conserva</td>
                  <td align="center">100 g</td>
                  <td align="center">300 UI de vitamina D<sub>3</sub></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Cavala em conserva</td>
                  <td align="center">100 g</td>
                  <td align="center">250 UI de vitamina D<sub>3</sub></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Atum em conserva</td>
                  <td align="center">100 g</td>
                  <td align="center">230 UI de vitamina D<sub>3</sub></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">&#211;leo de f&#237;gado de bacalhau</td>
                  <td align="center">5 mL</td>
                  <td align="center">400 - 1.000 UI de vitamina D<sub>3</sub></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Gema de ovo</td>
                  <td align="center">1 unidade</td>
                  <td align="center">20 UI de vitamina D<sub>3</sub></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Cogumelos frescos</td>
                  <td align="center">100 g</td>
                  <td align="center">100 UI de vitamina D<sub>2</sub></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Cogumelos secos ao sol</td>
                  <td align="center">100 g</td>
                  <td align="center">1.600 UI de vitamina D<sub>2</sub></td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>A estrutura molecular das vitaminas D2 e D3 &#233; muito semelhante. O ergocalciferol difere do colecalciferol por possuir uma dupla liga&#231;&#227;o entre os carbonos 22 e 23 e um grupo metil no carbono 24, como mostra a <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 2</xref>. Ambos s&#227;o sintetizados por interm&#233;dio da energia proveniente da fot&#243;lise (radia&#231;&#227;o solar) sobre os seus precursores: ergosterol (vitamina D2) e 7-DHC (vitamina D3). Ap&#243;s a ingest&#227;o pelo homem, ambas seguem a mesma via de metaboliza&#231;&#227;o no f&#237;gado para dar origem &#224; 25-hidroxivitamina D.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>
					</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f4">
              <label>Figura 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Mol&#233;culas de vitamina D2 e D3, com a diferen&#231;a do grupo metil (CH3) presente na primeira e ausente na segunda (setas).</title>
                <p>Extra&#237;do de: Peixoto PV et al. Hipervitaminose D em animais. Pesq. Vet. Bras. 32(7):573-594, julho 2012.</p>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="2359-5647-ijcs-31-04-0422-80025-gf02-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>A s&#237;ntese end&#243;gena da vitamina D inicia-se nas camadas profundas da epiderme, onde o precursor 7-DHC est&#225; armazenado na camada bilip&#237;dica das membranas celulares. A radia&#231;&#227;o ultravioleta B (UVB) promove a fot&#243;lise do 7-DHC levando &#224; forma&#231;&#227;o de uma mol&#233;cula secosteroide, a pr&#233;-vitamina D3. Esta &#233; termoinst&#225;vel e sofre rea&#231;&#227;o de isomeriza&#231;&#227;o induzida pelo calor, convertendo-se na vitamina D3. A melanina da pele compete pelo f&#243;ton de radia&#231;&#227;o, diminuindo a disponibilidade de f&#243;tons para fot&#243;lise do 7-DHC, da&#237; a observa&#231;&#227;o de n&#237;veis mais baixos de vitamina D em negros.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Ao atingir o f&#237;gado, as vitaminas D2 e D3 sofrem hidroxila&#231;&#227;o pelo citocromo P450 e d&#227;o origem &#224; 25-hidroxivitamina D, que &#233; a forma predominante na circula&#231;&#227;o. No sangue, cerca de 85 a 90% da 25-hidroxivitamina D se encontra ligada &#224; prote&#237;na ligadora de vitamina D (VDBP), 10 a 15% se encontra ligada &#224; albumina e o restante, menos de 1%, circula na forma livre. Na literatura, h&#225; poucos dados sobre a biodisponibilidade da vitamina D ligada &#224; albumina, portanto, a express&#227;o &#8220;biodisponibilidade da vitamina D&#8221; &#233; utilizada para a forma da 25-hidroxivitamina D que n&#227;o est&#225; ligada &#224; VDBP.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Ao atingir os tecidos-alvos, a 25-hidroxivitamina D &#233; convertida pela enzima 1&#945;-hidroxilase em 1&#945;,25-di-hidroxivitamina D, que &#233; a forma metabolicamente ativa da vitamina.</p>
          <p>Os efeitos da 1&#945;,25-di-hidroxivitamina D s&#227;o mediados pelo seu receptor VDR, que pertence &#224; fam&#237;lia de receptores nucleares 1. Tanto a enzima 1&#945;-hidroxilase quanto o receptor VDR s&#227;o encontrados em quase todas as c&#233;lulas humanas, inclusive nos cardiomi&#243;citos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> e nas c&#233;lulas musculares lisas vasculares.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> Modelos experimentais com aus&#234;ncia de VDR possibilitam o entendimento da atividade tissular espec&#237;fica do receptor. Como exemplo, a aus&#234;ncia de VDR resulta em aumento da massa ventricular, aumento dos n&#237;veis de pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico tipo B (brain natriuretic peptide, BNP) e desregula&#231;&#227;o das metaloproteinases card&#237;acas e dos fibroblastos, promovendo uma matriz extracelular fibr&#243;tica e levando &#224; dilata&#231;&#227;o ventricular e desacoplamento eletromec&#226;nico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> Ap&#243;s liga&#231;&#227;o da vitamina D ao VDR, o complexo formado promove a ativa&#231;&#227;o ou a supress&#227;o g&#234;nica, com o aux&#237;lio de prote&#237;nas corregulat&#243;rias. Por outro lado, o VDR tamb&#233;m apresenta respostas r&#225;pidas n&#227;o gen&#244;micas pela indu&#231;&#227;o de canais de c&#225;lcio voltagem-dependentes, levando a um aumento do influxo celular de c&#225;lcio e ativa&#231;&#227;o de outros mensageiros, como o AMP c&#237;clico, a prote&#237;na quinase A e a fosfolipase C.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Defici&#234;ncia de vitamina D</title>
          <p>A diretriz americana para avalia&#231;&#227;o, preven&#231;&#227;o e tratamento da defici&#234;ncia de vitamina D<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> estabelece que o estoque corporal dessa vitamina seja mensurado atrav&#233;s da dosagem s&#233;rica da 25-hidroxivitamina D com os seguintes pontos de corte: (i) defici&#234;ncia, quando menor ou igual a 20 ng/mL, (ii) insufici&#234;ncia, quando entre 20 e 30 ng/mL e (iii) sufici&#234;ncia, quando maior que 30 ng/mL.</p>
          <p>Alguns fatores de risco para a hipovitaminose D v&#234;m sendo observados e est&#227;o relacionados com a exposi&#231;&#227;o solar, h&#225;bitos alimentares e absor&#231;&#227;o intestinal. Assim, destacam-se: estilo de vida <italic>indoor</italic> (priva&#231;&#227;o de sol), uso de protetores solares, idade avan&#231;ada, dist&#226;ncia do Equador, pele negra, polui&#231;&#227;o do ar, tabagismo, m&#225;-absor&#231;&#227;o alimentar (s&#237;ndromes disabsortivas), medicamentos (anticonvulsivantes, glicocorticoides) e doen&#231;a renal e hep&#225;tica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Apesar da elevada preval&#234;ncia da defici&#234;ncia de vitamina D na popula&#231;&#227;o adulta e das crescentes evid&#234;ncias de sua associa&#231;&#227;o com as DCVs, as diretrizes americana e brasileira recomendam que n&#227;o seja realizada mensura&#231;&#227;o rotineira dos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de 25-hidroxivitamina D na popula&#231;&#227;o geral, apenas nos pacientes pertencentes a popula&#231;&#245;es consideradas de risco para esta hipovitaminose.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Associa&#231;&#227;o da defici&#234;ncia de vitamina D com doen&#231;as cardiovasculares</title>
          <p>Embora in&#250;meros trabalhos tenham confirmado uma associa&#231;&#227;o entre vitamina D e DCV, uma rela&#231;&#227;o de causa-efeito entre ambas permanece sem esclarecimento.</p>
          <p>Nesta revis&#227;o, abordaremos a associa&#231;&#227;o da defici&#234;ncia da vitamina D com as principais patologias cardiovasculares e, posteriormente, analisaremos alguns resultados com a reposi&#231;&#227;o vitam&#237;nica.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Hipertens&#227;o arterial</title>
          <p>A associa&#231;&#227;o da defici&#234;ncia de vitamina D com a HAS tem sua base no sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona (SRAA). A renina &#233; sintetizada pelas c&#233;lulas justaglomerulares renais e estimula a produ&#231;&#227;o de angiotensina II (a partir da angiotensina I) e aldosterona, que aumentam a press&#227;o arterial (PA) diretamente por vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o e indiretamente por reten&#231;&#227;o hidrossalina.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> Uma ativa&#231;&#227;o aumentada inapropriada do SRAA tem sido reportada em estudos com camundongos <italic>knockout</italic> em VDR e 1&#945;-hidroxilase.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> A vitamina D atua inibindo a express&#227;o g&#234;nica da renina, diminuindo sua s&#237;ntese e, com isso, impedindo a hiperestimula&#231;&#227;o desse sistema.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>
					</p>
          <p>O <italic>Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey</italic> (NHANES-III),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> um amplo estudo populacional que analisou uma amostra de 12.644 americanos, mostrou que a PA sist&#243;lica e a press&#227;o de pulso correlacionam inversamente com n&#237;veis de 25-hidroxivitamina D. Esses resultados foram confirmados por an&#225;lises de subgrupos, nos quais aumentos na PA associados &#224; idade foram significativamente menores em indiv&#237;duos suficientes em vitamina D.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> A preval&#234;ncia de HAS tamb&#233;m foi associada com defici&#234;ncia de vitamina D em outros estudos amplos como o <italic>German National Interview and Examination Survey</italic><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> e o <italic>British Birth Cohort</italic>.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> Um estudo realizado no Brasil com 91 idosos hipertensos mostrou que a concentra&#231;&#227;o s&#233;rica de 25-hidroxivitamina D esteve inversamente associada com a PA e positivamente associada com a frequ&#234;ncia semanal de consumo de peixes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Poucos estudos prospectivos t&#234;m avaliado a associa&#231;&#227;o entre vitamina D e mudan&#231;as na PA ou surgimento de HAS. Em 2015, van Ballegooijen et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> acompanhou 5.066 pessoas sem HAS da cidade holandesa de Groningen que tiveram n&#237;vel s&#233;rico de vitamina D mensurado e que foram seguidas por 6,4 anos. Ao final do seguimento, 1.036 (20,5%) desenvolveram HAS e, como esperado, baixos n&#237;veis de vitamina D foram associados com maior risco de desenvolvimento da doen&#231;a.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Diabetes mellitus</title>
          <p>O diabetes tipo 1 decorre da destrui&#231;&#227;o autoimune das c&#233;lulas beta pancre&#225;ticas levando &#224; defici&#234;ncia completa da produ&#231;&#227;o de insulina. J&#225; para o desenvolvimento de diabetes tipo 2, os principais mecanismos envolvidos s&#227;o disfun&#231;&#227;o das c&#233;lulas beta, resist&#234;ncia perif&#233;rica &#224; insulina e inflama&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica. H&#225; evid&#234;ncias de que a defici&#234;ncia de vitamina D esteja relacionada com todos estes processos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A vitamina D pode atuar na fun&#231;&#227;o das c&#233;lulas beta por liga&#231;&#227;o direta aos receptores VDR e pela express&#227;o local da enzima 1&#945;-hidroxilase. A vitamina D pode aumentar a sensibilidade &#224; insulina por estimula&#231;&#227;o da express&#227;o de VDR nos tecidos perif&#233;ricos e ativa&#231;&#227;o dos receptores PPAR (receptores ativados por proliferadores de peroxissomos), fator este implicado na regula&#231;&#227;o do metabolismo de &#225;cidos graxos nos m&#250;sculos esquel&#233;ticos e no tecido adiposo. Por outro lado, a vitamina D tamb&#233;m pode atuar por vias indiretas na secre&#231;&#227;o e na sensibilidade da insulina atrav&#233;s da regula&#231;&#227;o da concentra&#231;&#227;o e do fluxo de c&#225;lcio nas membranas das c&#233;lulas beta e nos tecidos perif&#233;ricos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Estudos observacionais evidenciaram que a incid&#234;ncia e a preval&#234;ncia de diabetes tipo 1 s&#227;o mais elevadas nos pa&#237;ses de maior latitude e que a doen&#231;a &#233; mais frequentemente diagnosticada nos meses de inverno.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> Alguns estudos t&#234;m relacionado o d&#233;ficit de vitamina D em gestantes com a incid&#234;ncia de diabetes tipo 1 nas crian&#231;as ap&#243;s o nascimento.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> Outros estudos avaliaram o papel protetor da suplementa&#231;&#227;o de vitamina D na inf&#226;ncia precoce contra o desenvolvimento de diabetes tipo 1, evidenciando menor incid&#234;ncia da doen&#231;a naquelas crian&#231;as que fizeram suplementa&#231;&#227;o da vitamina.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Com rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica e ao diabetes tipo 2, os resultados t&#234;m sido conflitantes. Alguns estudos t&#234;m associado baixas concentra&#231;&#245;es de 25-hidroxivitamina D com resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica e disfun&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas beta pancre&#225;ticas em popula&#231;&#245;es ocidentais.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> Ao estudarem 1.807 indiv&#237;duos coreanos saud&#225;veis, Ock et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> relataram recentemente que a vitamina D apresenta uma associa&#231;&#227;o inversa com resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> Avaliando a rela&#231;&#227;o entre hipovitaminose D, diabetes e DAC, Nardin et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> avaliaram 1.859 pacientes submetidos a angiografia eletiva para pesquisa de coronariopatia e conclu&#237;ram que o diabetes n&#227;o &#233; um preditor independente de hipovitaminose D, por&#233;m pacientes diab&#233;ticos com defici&#234;ncia de vitamina D apresentaram maior preval&#234;ncia e severidade de DAC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> Em estudo recente, Schafer et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> seguiram mais de 5.000 mulheres idosas por 8,6 &#177; 4,4 anos com o objetivo de investigar uma poss&#237;vel rela&#231;&#227;o entre os n&#237;veis de vitamina D e surgimento de diabetes tipo 2; os autores conclu&#237;ram que os n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de vitamina D n&#227;o foram preditores independentes de incid&#234;ncia de diabetes tipo 2 nesta popula&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Obesidade</title>
          <p>Evid&#234;ncias recentes apontam que a defici&#234;ncia de vitamina D est&#225; associada com a obesidade e com outros componentes da s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Baixos n&#237;veis de 25-hidroxivitamina D s&#227;o comuns em indiv&#237;duos obesos, e muitos estudos t&#234;m evidenciado uma rela&#231;&#227;o inversa entre os n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de vitamina D e o &#237;ndice de massa corporal (IMC).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> A vitamina D tamb&#233;m tem sido associada com a distribui&#231;&#227;o de gordura regional, e n&#237;veis elevados da vitamina t&#234;m sido associados com menor quantidade de gordura visceral e subcut&#226;nea.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> Algumas explica&#231;&#245;es propostas para essa associa&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o: diferen&#231;as na ingest&#227;o diet&#233;tica entre indiv&#237;duos obesos e n&#227;o obesos, menor exposi&#231;&#227;o solar entre indiv&#237;duos obesos, menor biodisponibilidade da vitamina D na obesidade e metabolismo da vitamina D alterado em indiv&#237;duos obesos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Wortsman et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> propuseram a hip&#243;tese do sequestro de vitamina D no tecido gorduroso para explicar a preval&#234;ncia de baixos n&#237;veis dessa vitamina em indiv&#237;duos obesos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> Eles demonstraram que indiv&#237;duos obesos apresentavam menores incrementos s&#233;ricos de 25-hidroxivitamina D quando comparados a indiv&#237;duos n&#227;o obesos sob as mesmas condi&#231;&#245;es de exposi&#231;&#227;o solar e ingest&#227;o vitam&#237;nica. Como a vitamina D &#233; lipossol&#250;vel, os autores propuseram que a vitamina deveria se acumular no tecido adiposo e n&#227;o estar prontamente dispon&#237;vel na circula&#231;&#227;o, o que levaria a n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos reduzidos da vitamina.</p>
          <p>Por outro lado, Drincic et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> sugeriram que a diferen&#231;a nos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de vitamina D entre obesos e n&#227;o obesos estaria relacionada ao volume de distribui&#231;&#227;o da vitamina, o qual &#233; maior nos indiv&#237;duos obesos e que justificaria os n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos mais baixos nestes indiv&#237;duos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Tabagismo e estilo de vida</title>
          <p>O tabagismo &#233; um fator de risco para DCV e inflama&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica, e a vitamina D tem sido associada com ambas estas condi&#231;&#245;es. Lee et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> estudaram 560 indiv&#237;duos coreanos com 60 anos ou mais, com o objetivo de investigar a associa&#231;&#227;o entre vitamina D e marcadores inflamat&#243;rios e avaliar se essa associa&#231;&#227;o muda de acordo com o perfil tab&#225;gico desses pacientes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> Os autores observaram que h&#225; uma associa&#231;&#227;o significativa entre defici&#234;ncia de vitamina D e prote&#237;na C reativa de alta sensibilidade (PCR-US) e que o tabagismo exerce um efeito modificador nessa associa&#231;&#227;o, onde indiv&#237;duos fumantes t&#234;m uma associa&#231;&#227;o mais forte entre defici&#234;ncia de vitamina D e PCR-US que indiv&#237;duos n&#227;o fumantes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Com o objetivo de relacionar caracter&#237;sticas de estilo de vida com a defici&#234;ncia de vitamina D, Skaaby et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref> realizaram um estudo longitudinal com 4.185 indiv&#237;duos com um tempo de seguimento de 5 anos. Neste estudo, an&#225;lises multivariadas de mensura&#231;&#245;es s&#233;ricas repetidas de 25-hidroxivitamina D foram utilizadas para avaliar a associa&#231;&#227;o da defici&#234;ncia vitam&#237;nica com IMC, pr&#225;tica de atividade f&#237;sica, tipo de dieta (mais saud&#225;vel <italic>versus</italic> menos saud&#225;vel), consumo de &#225;lcool e tabagismo. Como resultados, n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos mais baixos de vitamina D foram associados com maior IMC, menor n&#237;vel de atividade f&#237;sica, consumo de dieta menos saud&#225;vel, maior consumo de &#225;lcool e tabagismo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Doen&#231;a arterial coronariana</title>
          <p>A DAC tem sido associada &#224; defici&#234;ncia de vitamina D, por&#233;m os mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos dessa associa&#231;&#227;o ainda n&#227;o est&#227;o bem compreendidos. As principais evid&#234;ncias que sugerem tal associa&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o o fato do VDR estar presente tanto no mioc&#225;rdio quanto nas c&#233;lulas vasculares e a demonstra&#231;&#227;o por estudos epidemiol&#243;gicos de que a incid&#234;ncia tanto da DAC quanto da hipovitaminose D aumenta nos meses de inverno e nos pa&#237;ses mais distantes do Equador.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A defici&#234;ncia de vitamina D parece ser comum no infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio (IAM) e estudos preliminares indicam uma poss&#237;vel associa&#231;&#227;o entre essa defici&#234;ncia vitam&#237;nica com progn&#243;stico do IAM a curto e longo prazo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref> Al&#233;m disso, a hipovitaminose D parece predispor a eventos card&#237;acos adversos recorrentes, devido &#224; sua associa&#231;&#227;o com o n&#250;mero de art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias acometidas, com as complica&#231;&#245;es do IAM e com o remodelamento card&#237;aco.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>
					</p>
          <p>O <italic>Health Professionals Follow-up Study</italic> acompanhou 18.225 homens durante 10 anos e observou uma associa&#231;&#227;o entre baixos n&#237;veis de vitamina D e maior risco de IAM, mesmo ap&#243;s controle de outros fatores de risco.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref> Estudos prospectivos tamb&#233;m t&#234;m encontrado uma alta preval&#234;ncia de defici&#234;ncia de vitamina D em pacientes hospitalizados com IAM. Um estudo multic&#234;ntrico realizado com 239 pacientes com s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda (SCA) mostrou que 96% dos indiv&#237;duos apresentavam baixos n&#237;veis de vitamina D &#224; admiss&#227;o hospitalar.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Alguns estudos evidenciam uma potencial associa&#231;&#227;o independente entre defici&#234;ncia severa de vitamina D e mortalidade intra-hospitalar em pacientes com SCA. Correia et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref> estudaram 206 pacientes com SCA e encontraram que os indiv&#237;duos que apresentavam n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de vitamina D mais baixos que 10 ng/mL apresentaram uma taxa de mortalidade cardiovascular intra-hospitalar de 24%, significativamente maior que a observada nos demais pacientes (4,9%).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca</title>
          <p>A IC tem sido associada com defici&#234;ncia de vitamina D. Shane et al. demonstraram uma alta preval&#234;ncia de defici&#234;ncia de vitamina D em pacientes com IC, assim como uma correla&#231;&#227;o inversa entre n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de vitamina D com fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda e severidade da doen&#231;a.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A defici&#234;ncia de vitamina D tem sido associada com eventos adversos graves, tais como hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por IC e mortalidade. Liu et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref> reportaram em um estudo com 548 pacientes que baixos n&#237;veis de 25-hidroxivitamina D estavam associados com n&#237;veis mais elevados de BNP, assim como maior taxa de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por IC e maior taxa de mortalidade por todas as causas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref> No estudo LURIC, um estudo de coorte prospectivo com 3.299 pacientes submetidos a coronariografia, os n&#237;veis de N-terminal (NT)-proBNP estiveram relacionados de maneira inversa com os n&#237;veis de vitamina D.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>
					</p>
          <p>J&#225; em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; IC com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o normal (ICFEN), estudos t&#234;m evidenciado resultados divergentes em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; sua associa&#231;&#227;o com a defici&#234;ncia de vitamina D. Em 2013, Lagoeiro et al. estudaram 85 pacientes ambulatoriais com suspeita de ICFEN, dos quais 32 apresentavam ICFEN confirmada, e observaram uma correla&#231;&#227;o negativa entre a defici&#234;ncia de vitamina D e a rela&#231;&#227;o E/E&#8217;.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref> Por outro lado, Pandit et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref> realizaram em 2014 um estudo retrospectivo com 1.011 pacientes e n&#227;o constataram uma associa&#231;&#227;o significativa entre os n&#237;veis de vitamina D e a performance diast&#243;lica do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Apesar de evid&#234;ncias demonstrando uma associa&#231;&#227;o entre a vitamina D e a IC, o mecanismo exato pelo qual a defici&#234;ncia desta vitamina leva a piores desfechos cl&#237;nicos em pacientes com IC ainda n&#227;o est&#225; claramente estabelecido. Um mecanismo potencial poderia ser atrav&#233;s da s&#237;ndrome cardiorrenal ou piora da fun&#231;&#227;o renal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref> Sabe-se que os sistemas cardiovascular e renal s&#227;o inter-relacionados e que a piora de um pode influenciar o outro. A progress&#227;o da s&#237;ndrome cardiorrenal envolve a hiperativa&#231;&#227;o do SRAA e do sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico, assim como a inflama&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica, que podem levar a dist&#250;rbios eletrol&#237;ticos e dist&#250;rbios na regula&#231;&#227;o de fluidos, causando disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, podendo levar ao remodelamento ventricular esquerdo e fibrose mioc&#225;rdica. Essas mudan&#231;as geram um ciclo vicioso no qual a piora na fun&#231;&#227;o destes sistemas contribui para mais deteriora&#231;&#227;o dos mesmos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref>
					</p>
          <p>H&#225; evid&#234;ncias que suportam que a vitamina D seja um importante regulador da progress&#227;o da s&#237;ndrome cardiorrenal. A desregula&#231;&#227;o no metabolismo da vitamina D devido a uma atividade reduzida da enzima 1&#945;-hidroxilase e &#224; deple&#231;&#227;o de VDBPs devido &#224; protein&#250;ria s&#227;o respons&#225;veis pela defici&#234;ncia de vitamina D nos pacientes renais cr&#244;nicos e, dada a elevada preval&#234;ncia de insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica nos pacientes com IC, essas mudan&#231;as podem ser prevalentes nesses pacientes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Outras evid&#234;ncias que suportam o papel da defici&#234;ncia de vitamina D na patog&#234;nese da s&#237;ndrome cardiorrenal relacionam-se com o envolvimento do SRAA e de citocinas inflamat&#243;rias. A defici&#234;ncia de vitamina D leva &#224; hiperativa&#231;&#227;o do SRAA, contribuindo para o remodelamento ventricular esquerdo e surgimento e ou agravamento da IC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref> A defici&#234;ncia de vitamina D pode levar a um aumento na produ&#231;&#227;o e libera&#231;&#227;o de citocinas inflamat&#243;rias que podem ter efeito negativo direto ou indireto no mioc&#225;rdio, contribuindo para apoptose celular, hipertrofia, fibrose, remodelamento ventricular e efeitos inotr&#243;picos negativos, al&#233;m de aumento na fibrose renal e insufici&#234;ncia renal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Defici&#234;ncia de vitamina D e mialgia induzida por estatinas</title>
          <p>As estatinas s&#227;o agentes muito efetivos na preven&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular prim&#225;ria e secund&#225;ria em pacientes de alto risco.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref> Entretanto, os efeitos colaterais mais frequentemente observados no sistema musculoesquel&#233;tico, como a mialgia, t&#234;m sido comumente observados em pacientes tratados com estatinas e estes efeitos afetam diretamente a ader&#234;ncia ao tratamento com estes medicamentos.</p>
          <p>Estudos observacionais mostram que a mialgia pode ocorrer em cerca de 15 a 20% dos indiv&#237;duos tratados com estatinas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref> Por&#233;m, na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica di&#225;ria, h&#225; evid&#234;ncias de que essa preval&#234;ncia seja ainda maior. Os VDR est&#227;o presentes nas c&#233;lulas musculares e baixos n&#237;veis de vitamina D est&#227;o associados com hipotonia, fraqueza muscular proximal e dor musculoesquel&#233;tica inespec&#237;fica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref> Recentemente, estudos t&#234;m reportado que a defici&#234;ncia de vitamina D est&#225; associada a uma maior preval&#234;ncia de mialgia induzida por estatinas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Em 2014, Shantha et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref> realizaram um estudo retrospectivo com 5.526 pacientes com posterior an&#225;lise prospectiva na qual os pacientes foram acompanhados por 7 anos. Os pacientes que tiveram n&#237;vel s&#233;rico mensurado de vitamina D e iniciaram tratamento com estatina foram considerados como grupo de exposi&#231;&#227;o. O objetivo era analisar a associa&#231;&#227;o entre mialgia induzida por estatina e o n&#237;vel de vitamina D, bem como estabelecer um ponto de corte no n&#237;vel de vitamina D que demonstrasse elevada acur&#225;cia para o surgimento de mialgia. Os autores conclu&#237;ram que n&#237;veis baixos de vitamina D estavam associados com mialgia e que um ponto de corte de 15 ng/mL para a vitamina D apresentava uma elevada acur&#225;cia para predizer o surgimento de mialgia induzida por estatina.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Em 2015, Morioka et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref> realizaram estudo com 5.907 pacientes com o objetivo de analisar se o n&#237;vel de vitamina D modificaria a associa&#231;&#227;o entre o uso de estatina e o surgimento de dor musculoesquel&#233;tica. Os autores conclu&#237;ram que o grupo com n&#237;vel de vitamina D abaixo de 15 ng/mL e em uso de estatina apresentou uma chance aproximadamente duas vezes maior de desenvolver dor musculoesquel&#233;tica do que os pacientes tamb&#233;m com n&#237;vel de vitamina D abaixo de 15 ng/mL mas sem tratamento com estatina.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Trabalhos prospectivos e randomizados s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para comprovar a real associa&#231;&#227;o entre a defici&#234;ncia de vitamina D e o surgimento de mialgia induzida por estatinas. Al&#233;m disso, o mecanismo fisiopatol&#243;gico que poderia explicar essa associa&#231;&#227;o ainda precisa ser elucidado.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Fatores gen&#233;ticos da vitamina D e suas implica&#231;&#245;es nas doen&#231;as cardiovasculares</title>
          <p>A elevada preval&#234;ncia mundial de defici&#234;ncia de vitamina D, ou pelo menos da sua forma mensur&#225;vel no sangue, a 25-hidroxivitamina D, em parte pode ser explicada por determinantes gen&#233;ticos. Em 2010, um importante estudo multic&#234;ntrico realizado por Wang et al. destacou que os n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de vitamina D podem ser influenciados por varia&#231;&#245;es gen&#233;ticas envolvendo sua s&#237;ntese (7-DHC), hidroxila&#231;&#227;o (CYP2R1, CYP24A1) e a sua prote&#237;na de transporte (VDBP).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A maior parte dos estudos que analisam a associa&#231;&#227;o entre defici&#234;ncia de vitamina D e DCV s&#227;o epidemiol&#243;gicos, o que torna dif&#237;cil a distin&#231;&#227;o entre associa&#231;&#227;o e causalidade. Neste contexto, a randomiza&#231;&#227;o mendeliana (RM) &#233; uma abordagem alternativa para estimar a rela&#231;&#227;o causal entre exposi&#231;&#245;es biol&#243;gicas modific&#225;veis e um desfecho cl&#237;nico de interesse, utilizando-se de variantes gen&#233;ticas (<italic>single nucleotide polymorphisms</italic> - SNPs) como vari&#225;veis instrumentais. Assim, a RM utilizando dados sumarizados permite combinar resultados j&#225; publicados em estudos anteriores, tornando-se uma alternativa relevante para investiga&#231;&#227;o de causalidade.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Alguns estudos utilizaram a RM para investigar uma poss&#237;vel rela&#231;&#227;o de causalidade entre defici&#234;ncia de vitamina D e DCV. Com rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; HAS, Vimaleswaran et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref> encontraram que n&#237;veis aumentados de vitamina D poderiam reduzir o risco de desenvolvimento de DCV, evidenciando uma rela&#231;&#227;o de causalidade.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref> Por outro lado, para diabetes mellitus<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref> e DAC,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref> os resultados de estudos com RM n&#227;o t&#234;m apontado uma rela&#231;&#227;o de causalidade, onde a defici&#234;ncia de vitamina D parece ser um fator confundidor.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Reposi&#231;&#227;o de vitamina D</title>
          <p>A partir das crescentes evid&#234;ncias de associa&#231;&#227;o entre defici&#234;ncia de vitamina D e DCV, muitos autores t&#234;m pesquisado o papel da suplementa&#231;&#227;o de vitamina D na preven&#231;&#227;o e no tratamento dessas patologias.</p>
          <p>Um estudo randomizado realizado por Hsia et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref> com 36.282 mulheres na p&#243;s-menopausa avaliou a suplementa&#231;&#227;o de vitamina D 200 UI mais carbonato de c&#225;lcio duas vezes ao dia ou placebo, durante um tempo de seguimento de 7 anos, e encontrou que a suplementa&#231;&#227;o de vitamina D n&#227;o reduziu o risco cardiovascular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref> Este foi um dos poucos estudos randomizados que avaliou o impacto da vitamina D na redu&#231;&#227;o de desfechos duros, considerados como incid&#234;ncia de IAM, acidente vascular encef&#225;lico (AVE) e morte relacionada &#224; DAC.</p>
          <p>Com rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; HAS, os trabalhos com reposi&#231;&#227;o de vitamina D apontam resultados divergentes. Uma importante revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica e metan&#225;lise publicada por Wu et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref> compreendendo 36.806 pacientes n&#227;o observou um efeito significativo da suplementa&#231;&#227;o de c&#225;lcio com vitamina D nas varia&#231;&#245;es de PA sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica em compara&#231;&#227;o &#224; n&#227;o suplementa&#231;&#227;o dos mesmos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref>
					</p>
          <p>No diabetes mellitus, os trabalhos envolvendo suplementa&#231;&#227;o de vitamina D t&#234;m se mostrado desapontadores. Um estudo envolvendo 70 crian&#231;as com diabetes tipo 1 de in&#237;cio recente, a suplementa&#231;&#227;o com calcitriol teve um efeito modesto na fun&#231;&#227;o pancre&#225;tica residual das c&#233;lulas beta, por&#233;m a redu&#231;&#227;o da hemoglobina glicosilada ap&#243;s 1 ano de tratamento n&#227;o foi estatisticamente significativa.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref> Com rela&#231;&#227;o ao diabetes tipo 2, os resultados dos estudos s&#227;o muito divergentes, talvez pela n&#227;o padroniza&#231;&#227;o da dose de suplementa&#231;&#227;o de vitamina D ou da utiliza&#231;&#227;o de pequenas amostras nestes estudos. Uma metan&#225;lise envolvendo 35 estudos controlados avaliou o impacto da suplementa&#231;&#227;o de vitamina D em pacientes saud&#225;veis e indiv&#237;duos com defici&#234;ncia de vitamina D, obesidade, pr&#233;-diabetes e diabetes. Em compara&#231;&#227;o com placebo, a vitamina D n&#227;o exerceu efeito sobre a resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina, secre&#231;&#227;o de insulina e hemoglobina glicosilada.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; obesidade, muitos estudos t&#234;m avaliado o efeito da suplementa&#231;&#227;o de vitamina D com e sem adi&#231;&#227;o de c&#225;lcio no peso e composi&#231;&#227;o corporal. Na maioria destes estudos, n&#227;o houve efeito significativo da vitamina D sobre o IMC ou sobre a composi&#231;&#227;o corporal. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A DAC tamb&#233;m parece n&#227;o sofrer influ&#234;ncia significativa com suplementa&#231;&#227;o de vitamina D. Um importante estudo denominado RECORD<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref> envolvendo 5.292 indiv&#237;duos comparou os efeitos da administra&#231;&#227;o de vitamina D, c&#225;lcio, vitamina D com c&#225;lcio ou placebo nos eventos cardiovasculares. Foi observado que embora a vitamina D possa exercer um papel protetor na IC, n&#227;o parece proteger contra IAM e AVE. Uma metan&#225;lise de 51 estudos controlados encontrou que a suplementa&#231;&#227;o de vitamina D n&#227;o tem impacto significativo no IAM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Na IC, parece haver algum benef&#237;cio com a suplementa&#231;&#227;o de vitamina D, apesar dos mecanismos de atua&#231;&#227;o ainda n&#227;o serem bem estabelecidos. Estudos recentes reportaram que em indiv&#237;duos com IC j&#225; estabelecida e com defici&#234;ncia de vitamina D, a suplementa&#231;&#227;o vitam&#237;nica est&#225; associada com melhora na sobrevida.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclus&#245;es</title>
        <p>As DCV permanecem como a principal causa de mortalidade em diversos pa&#237;ses do mundo. Entender os mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos envolvidos, bem como seus fatores de risco, &#233; fundamental para o planejamento de estrat&#233;gias de preven&#231;&#227;o e tratamento.</p>
        <p>Nos &#250;ltimos anos, muitos trabalhos t&#234;m relacionado a defici&#234;ncia de vitamina D &#224;s DCVs, com uma influ&#234;ncia direta sobre o progn&#243;stico. A partir do entendimento dessa associa&#231;&#227;o, o foco dos pesquisadores tem sido na corre&#231;&#227;o da defici&#234;ncia vitam&#237;nica com o intuito de prevenir doen&#231;as e melhorar o progn&#243;stico de doen&#231;as j&#225; estabelecidas. Por&#233;m, at&#233; o momento, faltam dados consistentes para indicar a reposi&#231;&#227;o da vitamina D no contexto de doen&#231;as card&#237;acas.</p>
        <p>Um ponto que merece destaque &#233; a ampla varia&#231;&#227;o na preval&#234;ncia da defici&#234;ncia de vitamina D no cen&#225;rio mundial. Como a s&#237;ntese end&#243;gena da vitamina D &#233; dependente da exposi&#231;&#227;o solar e esta varia de acordo com a latitude, talvez o n&#237;vel s&#233;rico de refer&#234;ncia para a vitamina D seja tamb&#233;m diferente entre os pa&#237;ses de acordo com a exposi&#231;&#227;o solar.</p>
        <p>N&#227;o se sabe ao certo se os resultados dos estudos com suplementa&#231;&#227;o de vitamina D t&#234;m sido desapontadores devido &#224; incapacidade de atua&#231;&#227;o da vitamina na doen&#231;a j&#225; estabelecida ou se os estudos t&#234;m utilizado dosagens inadequadas na suplementa&#231;&#227;o. Torna-se importante entender quais seriam as doses necess&#225;rias para manter os n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de vitamina D acima do desejado, bem como a realiza&#231;&#227;o de dosagens seriadas da 25-hidroxivitamina D com o intuito de manter os n&#237;veis dessa vitamina adequados durante todo o tempo de seguimento.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de disserta&#231;&#227;o de Mestrado de Jamerson Reis Cordeiro pela Universidade Federal Fluminense.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Este artigo n&#227;o cont&#233;m estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
