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<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.7" xml:lang="en">
  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">ijcs</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>International Journal of Cardiovascular Sciences</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Int. J. Cardiovasc. Sci.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">2359-4802</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">2359-5647</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">NLpmkbyPNPztMrL4RFxNKgr</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S2359-56472018000200114</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/2359-4802.20180002</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Articles</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Decrease in the Inflammatory Marker TNF-&#945; after Consumption of Flaxseed by Hypercholesterolemic Rabbits</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Martins</surname>
            <given-names>Maynara Leonardi Schuh</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lima</surname>
            <given-names>Aniely Bacelar Rocco de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Champoski</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Flavia</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pereira</surname>
            <given-names>Pamela Cristiani</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Martins</surname>
            <given-names>Fernando</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Tanizawa</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pr&#233;coma</surname>
            <given-names>Leonardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Campelo</surname>
            <given-names>Patr&#237;cia</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Guarita-Souza</surname>
            <given-names>Luiz C&#233;sar</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pr&#233;coma</surname>
            <given-names>Dalton Bertolim</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica do Paran&#225;</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Paran&#225;</city>
          <state>PR</state>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica do Paran&#225; (PUC-PR), Paran&#225;, PR, Brazil</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica do Paran&#225;</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <city>Mato Grosso do Sul</city>
          <state>MS</state>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados (UFGD), Mato Grosso do Sul, MS &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Maynara Leonardi Schuh Martins</bold>, Rua Prof. Sebasti&#227;o Paran&#225; 762. Vila Izabel. Curitiba. Postal Code 80320-070, Novo Mundo, Curitiba, Paran&#225;, PR &#8211; Brazil. E-mail: <email>may.schuh@hotmail.com</email>; <email>fernando.ecoatividade@hotmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research: Martins MLS, Lima ABR, Champoski AF, Pr&#233;coma L, Precoma DB. Acquisition of data: Martins MLS, Lima ABR, Tanizawa C. Analysis and interpretation of the data: Martins MLS, Champoski AF, Pereira PC, Martins F, Precoma DB. Statistical analysis: Martins MLS, Campelo P. Obtaining financing: Martins MLS, Lima ABR, Pereira PC. Writing of the manuscript: Martins MLS, Martins F. Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Martins MLS, Lima ABR, Martins F, Campelo P, Souza LCG. Supervision / as the major investigador: Precoma DB.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub-ppub">
        <season>Mar-Apr</season>
        <year>2018</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>31</volume>
      <issue>2</issue>
      <fpage>114</fpage>
      <lpage>122</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>27</day>
          <month>2</month>
          <year>2017</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>22</day>
          <month>6</month>
          <year>2017</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>7</day>
          <month>7</month>
          <year>2017</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background:</title>
          <p>Functional foods such as flaxseed have been commonly consumed to prevent atherosclerosis.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objectives:</title>
          <p>To assess the effects of flaxseed in atherogenesis in rabbits consuming a high-cholesterol diet.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods:</title>
          <p>Thirty male albino rabbits were randomized to three groups based on a 12-week dietary treatment: control group (G1), standard diet; high-cholesterol diet (G2), standard diet plus 0.25% cholesterol from lyophilized eggs; and high-cholesterol plus flaxseed (G3), similar diet as G2 plus flaxseed. Biochemical (total cholesterol [TC], high-density lipoprotein [HDL-C], low-density lipoprotein cholesterol [LDL-C], and triglycerides) and immunohistochemical (intercellular adhesion molecule 1 [ICAM-1] and tumor necrosis factor alpha [TNF-&#945;]) analyses were performed in all groups. P values &lt; 0.05 indicated statistical significance.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results:</title>
          <p>At 12 weeks, serum TC levels increased significantly in G2 and G3 compared with G1. Serum LDL-C levels were higher in group G2, and the increase in group G3 was approximately six times lower than that in G2. HDL-C levels increased in all groups, with the highest increase observed in G2. Triglycerides levels in G3 decreased by ~70% and differed significantly in G1 and G3 (p = 0.034) and G2 and G3 (p = 0.015). ICAM-1 levels increased only in aortic segment 4 in G3. TNF-&#945; levels in G3 were similar to those in the control group, while the levels in G2 were greater than twice as those in the control group (p &lt; 0.05).</p>
          <p>Conclusions: The group fed with a functional diet (flaxseed) showed decreased development of atherosclerosis, reduced serum triglycerides levels, and lower TNF-&#945; levels on immunohistochemistry.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords:</title>
        <kwd>Rabbits</kwd>
        <kwd>Flax / seeds</kwd>
        <kwd>Atherosclerosis / prevention &amp; control</kwd>
        <kwd>Diet, Atherogenic</kwd>
        <kwd>Cholesterol, Diet</kwd>
        <kwd>Obesity, Sedentary Lifestyle</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease marked by endothelial dysfunction affecting the intimal layer of medium- and large-caliber arteries.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> This process occurs slowly over the course of decades and has the potential of evolving into more advanced lesions, which may rupture and trigger thrombus formation, potentially leading to acute myocardial infarction and death.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Several factors are implicated in the etiology of atherosclerosis, including persistent elevation of atherogenic serum lipoproteins (such as low-density lipoprotein cholesterol [LDL-C]), which are associated with lifestyle factors such as poor eating habits, sedentary lifestyle, and obesity, as well as deposition of these lipoproteins in the inner tunica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Many food products with functional/nutraceutical properties have been studied with the aim of preventing the development of atherosclerotic plaques and promote positive cardiovascular effects. These products contain dietary fibers, phytosterols, omega-3 fatty acids, antioxidants, and polyphenols,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> which can significantly decrease the effect of atherosclerotic factors. One such product is flaxseed (<italic>Linum usitatissimum</italic> L.).</p>
      <p>The nutritional composition of flaxseed comprises fats (41%), dietary fibers (28%), proteins (21%), moisture (7.7%), ashes (3.5%), and soluble sugars (1 &#8211; 2%),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> and their lipid content includes 51 &#8211; 55% of alpha-linolenic acid.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> Additionally, flaxseed is the richest source of lignan secoisolariciresinol-diglucoside (SDG), which has potent antioxidant and antiatherogenic properties.</p>
      <p>Based on these considerations, the study of the functional properties of flaxseed becomes essential for the scientific community and the general population. The aim of the present study was to assess the potential effects of flaxseed on atherogenesis in rabbits subjected to a high-cholesterol diet (containing 0.25% cholesterol) of lyophilized eggs. For this purpose, we analyzed the lipid levels and performed immunohistochemical analysis of inflammatory markers in the aortic segments of the rabbits.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>Methods</title>
      <p>The present study was approved by the Animal Research Ethics Committee of PUC-PR under the protocol number 720/2012 and was conducted in the Laboratory of Experimental Surgery at Hospital Angelina Caron (HAC), the Experimental Pathology Laboratory at PUC-PR, and the Central Animal Facility at PUC-PR.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Animals</title>
        <p>Thirty male New Zealand white rabbits (<italic>Oryctolagus cuniculus</italic>) weighing approximately 3 kg and with a mean age of 4 months were selected for the experiment. Calculation of the sample size was based on the study by Prim et al., (2008).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> The rabbits were kept in the animal facility at PUC-PR in a macroenvironment with light/dark cycles of 12/12 hours, fresh air changes, and temperature controlled between 19&#176;C and 23&#176;C. The animals were identified on an individual basis and maintained in individual cages cleaned daily.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Experimental period and group distribution</title>
        <p>The study was conducted over 12 weeks (84 days). The animals were maintained in individual cages and randomized to three groups according to dietary treatment. The control group (G1, n = 10) received a standard diet for rabbits (Nuvital&#174; Nutrientes S.A. Colombo, PR, Brazil). The high-cholesterol diet group (G2, n = 10) received a standard diet for rabbits (Nuvital&#174;) plus 0.25% cholesterol from lyophilized eggs. The high-cholesterol plus flaxseed diet group (G3, n = 9) received a standard diet for rabbits (Nuvital&#174;), 0.25% cholesterol from lyophilized eggs, and 8 g of ground flaxseed per kg of body weight.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Preparation of supplementary feed</title>
        <p>The high-cholesterol diet offered to groups G2 and G3 throughout the experimental period contained 0.25% cholesterol, which was added to induce atherosclerotic lesions in the aorta. In order to achieve that, 5 kg of standard feed (Nuvital&#174;), weighed and ground for each animal group, was added to 1,800 g of egg powder diluted in 2,000 mL of water.</p>
        <p>The flaxseed concentration was 8 g per kg of body weight. The seeds were ground in a food processor and stored under refrigeration before added to the feed.</p>
        <p>The feed given to groups G2 and G3 was supplemented with lyophilized eggs. This mixture was processed using an industrial meat grinder (Poli<sup>&#174;</sup>, model PCP-22LR-N, feeder #10, Siemsen, Brusque, SC, Brazil). For group G3, the mixture was supplemented with ground flaxseed. After grinding the mixture, the feed was pelleted, and the pellets were heated in an electric oven for 10 min at a temperature of 180&#176;C.</p>
        <p>The prepared feed was stored under refrigeration until use.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Animal preparation and sample collection</title>
        <p>The animals were anesthetized, and blood was collected according to the method described by Pr&#233;coma et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> and Alessi et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> Xylazine (Coopazine&#226;; Schering-Plough-Coopers, Cotia, SP, Brazil) at 5 mg/kg mixed with ketamine (Vetanarcol&#226;, K&#246;nig, Mairinque, SP, Brazil) at 30 mg/kg was administered intramuscularly into the rabbits&#8217; thigh area. Biochemical analyses performed on days 1 and 84 included total cholesterol (TC), LDL-C, high-density lipoprotein (HDL-C), and triglycerides (TG), which were assessed using an automated equipment (ADVIA 1200, Siemens Healthcare Diagnostics, Inc. Newark, DE, USA) and commercial kits.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Histological analysis</title>
        <p>The thoracic aorta was removed at the level of the aortoiliac bifurcation following a midline thoracotomy and laparotomy, and cross sections with a thickness of 2 to 3 mm were cut from different aortic segments. Each segment was labeled, placed in a microtome (Leica<sup>&#174;</sup> RM2145, Leica Microsystems Nussloch GmbH, Germany) for overnight processing, and dehydrated with a graded ethanol series (70%, 80%, and 90%). The tissue samples were subsequently diaphanized for 12 hours in xylol containing serial concentrations of paraffin. Paraffin blocks were obtained by embedding the samples in hot paraffin using a tissue embedding console system (Leica<sup>&#174;</sup> EG1160, Leica Microsystems Nussloch GmbH, Germany), according to the standard procedure.</p>
        <p>The paraffin blocks were cut into 5 &#181;m sections using the microtome (Leica<sup>&#174;</sup> RM 2145). Each section was stained with hematoxylin and eosin (HE) and orcein (elastic tissue staining) according to conventional techniques and mounted on permanent slides.</p>
        <p>Blocks with four aortic segments were prepared by selecting one proximal segment near the aortic arch (point 1), one segment located in the thoracic aorta (point 2), one proximal segment in the abdominal aorta (point 3), and one distal segment in the abdominal aorta (point 4). These segments were selected according to the histological findings in HE staining.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Immunohistochemical analysis</title>
        <p>The tissue microarray (TMA) technique was used for immunohistochemical analysis. The samples were incubated with intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) monoclonal antibodies at a dilution of 1:50, and mixed with tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-&#945;) monoclonal antibody for 1 hour. The antibodies were detected by incubating the slides with the substrate 3,3'-diaminobenzidine-tetrahydrochloride-dihydrate (DAB; DakoCytomation A/S, Glostrup, Denmark). Counterstaining was performed with Mayer&#8217;s hematoxylin, followed by sample dehydration with different concentrations of 100% ethanol and deparaffinization with xylol. The slides were mounted with Canada balsam. The protocol described above was standardized at our department. Positive and negative controls were used for each reaction.</p>
        <p>The histological sections were digitized with a scanner (Axio Scan Z1, Zeiss, Jena, Germany) and the images were analyzed using Image-Pro Plus<sup>&#174;</sup> software, version 4.5. The color morphometry method was applied, staining the areas with positive antibody imaging in pink and those with negative imaging in brown. The data were transferred to an Excel spreadsheet and subjected to statistical analysis.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Statistical analysis</title>
        <p>The results are expressed as mean, median, minimum and maximum, and standard deviation values. The assumption of normality of the variables was assessed using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. The variables not meeting the normality assumption were analyzed using the Kruskal-Wallis nonparametric test. P values below 0.05 were considered statistically significant. The data were analyzed using the IBM SPSS Statistics software, version 20.0.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Results</title>
      <p>One death occurred in group G3 at experimental week 12, resulting in a total of 29 rabbits in the final study sample.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Lipid profile</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Total cholesterol</title>
          <p>Serum TC levels increased significantly in groups G2 and G3 compared with G1. This result demonstrates that the diet was effective in increasing cholesterol levels in the rabbits (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>).</p>
          <table-wrap id="t1">
            <label>Table 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Mean, median, minimum and maximum, standard deviation, and p values for total cholesterol in all groups</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col width="11%"/>
                <col width="11%"/>
                <col width="11%"/>
                <col width="11%"/>
                <col width="11%"/>
                <col width="11%"/>
                <col width="11%"/>
                <col width="11%"/>
                <col width="11%"/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Variable</th>
                  <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Group</th>
                  <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">n</th>
                  <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Mean</th>
                  <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Median</th>
                  <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Minimum</th>
                  <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Maximum</th>
                  <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Standard deviation</th>
                  <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">p value<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN1">*</xref>
									</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" rowspan="3">Total cholesterol (baseline)</td>
                  <td align="center">Control (G1)</td>
                  <td align="center">10</td>
                  <td align="center">35.60</td>
                  <td align="center">34.00</td>
                  <td align="center">14.00</td>
                  <td align="center">69.00</td>
                  <td align="center">15.13</td>
                  <td align="center">
									</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Cholesterol (G2)</td>
                  <td align="center">10</td>
                  <td align="center">24.60</td>
                  <td align="center">24.50</td>
                  <td align="center">12.00</td>
                  <td align="center">43.00</td>
                  <td align="center">9.51</td>
                  <td align="center">
									</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Flaxseed (G3)</td>
                  <td align="center">9</td>
                  <td align="center">28.33</td>
                  <td align="center">24.00</td>
                  <td align="center">15.00</td>
                  <td align="center">54.00</td>
                  <td align="center">13.51</td>
                  <td align="center">0.174</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" rowspan="3">Total cholesterol (end of the study)</td>
                  <td align="center">Control (G1)</td>
                  <td align="center">10</td>
                  <td align="center">23.64</td>
                  <td align="center">21.50</td>
                  <td align="center">8.90</td>
                  <td align="center">57.00</td>
                  <td align="center">15.72</td>
                  <td align="center">
									</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Cholesterol (G2)</td>
                  <td align="center">10</td>
                  <td align="center">62.09</td>
                  <td align="center">24.54</td>
                  <td align="center">12.90</td>
                  <td align="center">336.00</td>
                  <td align="center">100.23</td>
                  <td align="center">
									</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Flaxseed (G3)</td>
                  <td align="center">8</td>
                  <td align="center">36.21</td>
                  <td align="center">34.20</td>
                  <td align="center">16.40</td>
                  <td align="center">72.00</td>
                  <td align="center">17.32</td>
                  <td align="center">0.204</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" rowspan="3">Difference (end of the study - baseline)</td>
                  <td align="center">Control (G1)</td>
                  <td align="center">10</td>
                  <td align="center">-11.96</td>
                  <td align="center">-13.50</td>
                  <td align="center">-31.00</td>
                  <td align="center">6.00</td>
                  <td align="center">12.50</td>
                  <td align="center">
									</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Cholesterol (G2)</td>
                  <td align="center">10</td>
                  <td align="center">37.49</td>
                  <td align="center">2.55</td>
                  <td align="center">-28.00</td>
                  <td align="center">305.00</td>
                  <td align="center">97.79</td>
                  <td align="center">
									</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Flaxseed (G3)</td>
                  <td align="center">9</td>
                  <td align="center">3.86</td>
                  <td align="center">3.00</td>
                  <td align="center">-19.00</td>
                  <td align="center">18.00</td>
                  <td align="center">10.83</td>
                  <td align="center">0.029</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN1">
                <label>*</label>
                <p>Nonparametric Kruskal-Wallis test, p &lt; 0.05.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>LDL-C and HDL-Cl</title>
          <p>There were no significant differences in the levels of LDL-C and HDL-C among the groups (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tables 2</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">3</xref>). However, serum LDL-C levels in the biochemical analysis were higher in group G2 at the end of the experiment. The increase in LDL-C in group G3 was approximately six times lower than that in G2. HDL-C levels increased in groups G1 (12.93 mg/dL), G2 (82.26 mg/dL), and G3 (12.03 mg/dL), with the highest increase observed in G2.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t2">
            <label>Table 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Mean, median, minimum and maximum, standard deviation, and p values for LDL C in all groups</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col width="11%"/>
                <col width="11%"/>
                <col width="11%"/>
                <col width="11%"/>
                <col width="11%"/>
                <col width="11%"/>
                <col width="11%"/>
                <col width="11%"/>
                <col width="11%"/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Variable</th>
                  <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Group</th>
                  <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">n</th>
                  <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Mean</th>
                  <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Median</th>
                  <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Minimum</th>
                  <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Maximum</th>
                  <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Standard deviation</th>
                  <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">p value<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">*</xref>
									</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" rowspan="3">LDL-C (baseline)</td>
                  <td align="center">Control (G1)</td>
                  <td align="center">10</td>
                  <td align="center">8.64</td>
                  <td align="center">8.45</td>
                  <td align="center">2.90</td>
                  <td align="center">18.10</td>
                  <td align="center">5.61</td>
                  <td align="center">
									</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Cholesterol (G2)</td>
                  <td align="center">10</td>
                  <td align="center">7.83</td>
                  <td align="center">6.30</td>
                  <td align="center">1.20</td>
                  <td align="center">27.10</td>
                  <td align="center">7.60</td>
                  <td align="center">
									</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Flaxseed (G3)</td>
                  <td align="center">9</td>
                  <td align="center">11.92</td>
                  <td align="center">7.40</td>
                  <td align="center">4.50</td>
                  <td align="center">27.30</td>
                  <td align="center">7.94</td>
                  <td align="center">0.305</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" rowspan="3">LDL- C (end of the study)</td>
                  <td align="center">Control (G1)</td>
                  <td align="center">10</td>
                  <td align="center">21.57</td>
                  <td align="center">16.45</td>
                  <td align="center">3.90</td>
                  <td align="center">81.00</td>
                  <td align="center">21.49</td>
                  <td align="center">
									</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Cholesterol (G2)</td>
                  <td align="center">10</td>
                  <td align="center">90.09</td>
                  <td align="center">32.00</td>
                  <td align="center">7.50</td>
                  <td align="center">348.00</td>
                  <td align="center">123.47</td>
                  <td align="center">
									</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Flaxseed (G3)</td>
                  <td align="center">8</td>
                  <td align="center">26.95</td>
                  <td align="center">22.00</td>
                  <td align="center">2.40</td>
                  <td align="center">93.00</td>
                  <td align="center">29.82</td>
                  <td align="center">0.145</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" rowspan="3">Difference (end of the study - baseline)</td>
                  <td align="center">Control (G1)</td>
                  <td align="center">10</td>
                  <td align="center">12.93</td>
                  <td align="center">11.65</td>
                  <td align="center">-5.70</td>
                  <td align="center">63.50</td>
                  <td align="center">19.71</td>
                  <td align="center">
									</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Cholesterol (G2)</td>
                  <td align="center">10</td>
                  <td align="center">82.26</td>
                  <td align="center">21.95</td>
                  <td align="center">4.90</td>
                  <td align="center">341.80</td>
                  <td align="center">124.45</td>
                  <td align="center">
									</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Flaxseed (G3)</td>
                  <td align="center">9</td>
                  <td align="center">12.03</td>
                  <td align="center">0.50</td>
                  <td align="center">-27.30</td>
                  <td align="center">79.40</td>
                  <td align="center">30.61</td>
                  <td align="center">0.085</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN2">
                <label>*</label>
                <p>Nonparametric Kruskal-Wallis test, p &lt; 0.05.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <table-wrap id="t3">
            <label>Table 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Mean, median, minimum and maximum, standard deviation, and p values for HDL C in all groups</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col width="11%"/>
                <col width="11%"/>
                <col width="11%"/>
                <col width="11%"/>
                <col width="11%"/>
                <col width="11%"/>
                <col width="11%"/>
                <col width="11%"/>
                <col width="11%"/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Variable</th>
                  <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Group</th>
                  <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">n</th>
                  <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Mean</th>
                  <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Median</th>
                  <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Minimum</th>
                  <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Maximum</th>
                  <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Standard deviation</th>
                  <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">p value<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">*</xref>
									</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" rowspan="3">HDL-C (baseline)</td>
                  <td align="center">Control (G1)</td>
                  <td align="center">10</td>
                  <td align="center">19.29</td>
                  <td align="center">16.45</td>
                  <td align="center">10.30</td>
                  <td align="center">37.30</td>
                  <td align="center">8.60</td>
                  <td align="center">
									</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Cholesterol (G2)</td>
                  <td align="center">10</td>
                  <td align="center">17.15</td>
                  <td align="center">17.70</td>
                  <td align="center">9.80</td>
                  <td align="center">25.40</td>
                  <td align="center">5.78</td>
                  <td align="center">
									</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Flaxseed (G3)</td>
                  <td align="center">9</td>
                  <td align="center">15.79</td>
                  <td align="center">13.40</td>
                  <td align="center">7.70</td>
                  <td align="center">33.50</td>
                  <td align="center">8.35</td>
                  <td align="center">0.475</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" rowspan="3">HDL-C (end of the study)</td>
                  <td align="center">Control (G1)</td>
                  <td align="center">10</td>
                  <td align="center">21.55</td>
                  <td align="center">22.50</td>
                  <td align="center">1.00</td>
                  <td align="center">41.90</td>
                  <td align="center">12.80</td>
                  <td align="center">
									</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Cholesterol (G2)</td>
                  <td align="center">10</td>
                  <td align="center">48.76</td>
                  <td align="center">25.65</td>
                  <td align="center">4.30</td>
                  <td align="center">290.70</td>
                  <td align="center">85.99</td>
                  <td align="center">
									</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Flaxseed (G3)</td>
                  <td align="center">8</td>
                  <td align="center">28.16</td>
                  <td align="center">26.25</td>
                  <td align="center">4.20</td>
                  <td align="center">60.00</td>
                  <td align="center">17.71</td>
                  <td align="center">0.780</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" rowspan="3">Difference (end of the study - baseline)</td>
                  <td align="center">Control (G1)</td>
                  <td align="center">10</td>
                  <td align="center">2.26</td>
                  <td align="center">-2.15</td>
                  <td align="center">-13.30</td>
                  <td align="center">14.90</td>
                  <td align="center">10.39</td>
                  <td align="center">
									</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Cholesterol (G2)</td>
                  <td align="center">10</td>
                  <td align="center">31.61</td>
                  <td align="center">9.00</td>
                  <td align="center">-15.30</td>
                  <td align="center">278.70</td>
                  <td align="center">87.50</td>
                  <td align="center">
									</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Flaxseed (G3)</td>
                  <td align="center">9</td>
                  <td align="center">9.24</td>
                  <td align="center">8.00</td>
                  <td align="center">-16.50</td>
                  <td align="center">46.60</td>
                  <td align="center">17.48</td>
                  <td align="center">0.570</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN3">
                <label>*</label>
                <p>Nonparametric Kruskal-Wallis test, p &lt; 0.05.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Triglycerides</title>
          <p>The diet did not increase the TG levels in the study groups. In addition, TG levels in G3 decreased by approximately 70% (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 4</xref>). At the end of the experiment, the results indicated significant differences in TG levels between G1 and G3 (p = 0.034), and between G2 and G3 (p = 0.015).</p>
          <table-wrap id="t4">
            <label>Table 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Mean, median, minimum and maximum, standard deviation, and p values for triglycerides in all groups</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col width="11%"/>
                <col width="11%"/>
                <col width="11%"/>
                <col width="11%"/>
                <col width="11%"/>
                <col width="11%"/>
                <col width="11%"/>
                <col width="11%"/>
                <col width="11%"/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Variable</th>
                  <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Group</th>
                  <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">n</th>
                  <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Mean</th>
                  <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Median</th>
                  <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Minimum</th>
                  <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Maximum</th>
                  <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Standard deviation</th>
                  <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">p value<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN4">*</xref>
									</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" rowspan="3">Triglycerides (baseline)</td>
                  <td align="center">Control (G1)</td>
                  <td align="center">10</td>
                  <td align="center">65.30</td>
                  <td align="center">50.00</td>
                  <td align="center">36.00</td>
                  <td align="center">206.00</td>
                  <td align="center">50.87</td>
                  <td align="center">
									</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Cholesterol (G2)</td>
                  <td align="center">10</td>
                  <td align="center">59.50</td>
                  <td align="center">56.50</td>
                  <td align="center">25.00</td>
                  <td align="center">146.00</td>
                  <td align="center">32.74</td>
                  <td align="center">
									</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Flaxseed (G3)</td>
                  <td align="center">9</td>
                  <td align="center">79.44</td>
                  <td align="center">78.00</td>
                  <td align="center">32.00</td>
                  <td align="center">149.00</td>
                  <td align="center">38.20</td>
                  <td align="center">0.308</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" rowspan="3">Triglycerides - (end of the study)</td>
                  <td align="center">Control (G1)</td>
                  <td align="center">10</td>
                  <td align="center">67.50</td>
                  <td align="center">65.00</td>
                  <td align="center">7.00</td>
                  <td align="center">228.00</td>
                  <td align="center">63.27</td>
                  <td align="center">
									</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Cholesterol (G2)</td>
                  <td align="center">10</td>
                  <td align="center">64.60</td>
                  <td align="center">44.50</td>
                  <td align="center">20.00</td>
                  <td align="center">204.00</td>
                  <td align="center">53.31</td>
                  <td align="center">
									</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Flaxseed (G3)</td>
                  <td align="center">8</td>
                  <td align="center">22.50</td>
                  <td align="center">14.00</td>
                  <td align="center">11.00</td>
                  <td align="center">53.00</td>
                  <td align="center">15.26</td>
                  <td align="center">0.042</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" rowspan="3">Difference (end of the study - baseline)</td>
                  <td align="center">Control (G1)</td>
                  <td align="center">10</td>
                  <td align="center">2.20</td>
                  <td align="center">13.50</td>
                  <td align="center">-56.00</td>
                  <td align="center">47.00</td>
                  <td align="center">33.98</td>
                  <td align="center">
									</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Cholesterol (G2)</td>
                  <td align="center">10</td>
                  <td align="center">5.10</td>
                  <td align="center">-17.50</td>
                  <td align="center">-98.00</td>
                  <td align="center">148.00</td>
                  <td align="center">66.92</td>
                  <td align="center">
									</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Flaxseed (G3)</td>
                  <td align="center">9</td>
                  <td align="center">-59.44</td>
                  <td align="center">-63.00</td>
                  <td align="center">-149.00</td>
                  <td align="center">16.00</td>
                  <td align="center">48.12</td>
                  <td align="center">0.022</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN4">
                <label>*</label>
                <p>Nonparametric Kruskal-Wallis test, p &lt; 0.05.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Immunohistochemical analysis</title>
          <p>Immunohistochemistry was used to investigate the presence of ICAM-1 and TNF-&#945; in all four aortic segments.</p>
          <p>The results indicated that ICAM-1 levels increased only in aortic segment 4 in group G3; however, there was no significant difference in relation to median levels (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f1">
              <label>Figure 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Mean intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) values at the animals&#8217; aortic segment 4 in each group.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="2359-5647-ijcs-31-02-0114-80002-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>A similar result was found for TNF-&#945;, that is, the level of this marker was significantly increased in the aortic segment 4 (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>). TNF-&#945; levels in group G3 were similar to those in the control group, while the levels in group G2 were greater than twice as those in the control group (p &lt; 0.05).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f2">
              <label>Figure 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Mean tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-&#945;) values at the animals&#8217; aortic segment 4 in each group.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="2359-5647-ijcs-31-02-0114-80002-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discussion</title>
      <p>Atherosclerosis is a major cardiovascular disease, and the understanding of its development is required for its prevention and treatment. This knowledge can be acquired using experimental models. In this respect, several animal studies have shown that a high-fat diet leads to obesity, hypercholesterolemia, and other complications such as endothelial lesions.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> The experimental protocol in the present study was an early model of atherosclerosis and involved the addition of 0.25% cholesterol from lyophilized eggs to the diet of rabbits aiming at causing atherosclerotic lesions.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> The use of rabbits as an experimental model suits the objectives of this study because these animals develop aortic lesions fast.</p>
      <p>This study assessed the biochemical and immunochemical changes caused by a high-cholesterol diet with and without flaxseed, which is considered a functional food.</p>
      <p>The increase in TC found in the biochemical analysis in groups G2 and G3 was not expected in the group treated with flaxseed. A similar result was obtained by Dupasquier et al., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> who observed no changes in TC in animals receiving a diet with 10% of flaxseed. This unexpected result may be explained by several factors, including the concentration of flaxseed used, the form of flaxseed administration (ground seeds), feed heating for the incorporation of components, and the duration of seed intake. Previous results have indicated that alpha-linolenic and linoleic acids are sensitive to light, heating, and oxygen, and undergo oxidation when exposed to temperatures between 120&#176;C and 270&#176;C.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> Therefore, the process of production of feed containing flaxseed in the present study may have caused a decrease in the level of these acids, thereby compromising their nutraceutical function.</p>
      <p>LDL-C levels increased in the groups treated with high cholesterol; however, the levels remained similar between these groups. Similar results were obtained in a study in humans involving the consumption of flaxseed, in which the levels of TC and LDL-C remained unchanged,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> even though the experimental period of 4 weeks may not have been sufficient to cause this reduction. Zheng et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> conducted a randomized clinical trial in individuals diagnosed with hypercholesterolemia and used a lignan extract from flaxseed during an 8-week period. The LDL-C levels in the group that received 600 mg of the extract decreased between weeks 6 and 8. These authors concluded that the lignan extract decreased the concentration of cholesterol in a dose-dependent manner. One study investigated the effect of phytosterol intake and indicated that blood cholesterol levels decreased after 4 weeks.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> In addition, cholesterol levels remained unchanged between weeks 8 and 12,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> which suggested that seasonal factors may have affected the results.</p>
      <p>In the present study, TC increased in all tested groups. Studies have shown that lignans present in flaxseed reduce serum cholesterol. This effect is probably related to their antioxidant properties, provided by secoisolariciresinol lignan (SDG), enterolactone, and enterodiol, which inhibit the peroxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids in vitro and favor the decrease in cholesterol levels.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> One hypothesis to explain the discrepancy between the results of this study from others in the literature is the high concentration of ingested cholesterol. Another hypothesis is the duration of the functional diet (8 weeks), which may have been too short to induce a significant reduction in LDL-C and TC.</p>
      <p>In the present study, no differences in HDL-C levels were observed among the three groups. Higher levels of HDL-C increase the protection against the development of atherosclerotic plaques in the heart. Studies have shown that flaxseed intake at a dose of 15% was strongly associated with protection from inflammation, estrogens, and genotoxicity.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The results that we found most fascinating were those of TG levels. There was a significant decrease (by approximately 70%) in this biochemical parameter in group <bold>G</bold>3, which demonstrates that the administration of feed containing flaxseed (a functional food that contains primarily omega-3 fatty acids, fibers, and lignans) was effective in decreasing TG levels. This result is in line with those from previous studies and suggests that dietary supplementation with omega-3 via the consumption of flaxseed helps decrease TG levels, possibly via the decrease of remaining chylomicron particles and the inhibition of the synthesis and secretion of very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL-C) by the liver.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Cintra et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> tested the effect of the consumption of a high-fat flaxseed-based diet in Wistar rats and observed a reduction in TC and TG levels, higher fecal excretion of lipids, and lower deposition of cholesterol in the liver. This result was similar to that obtained by Bhathena (2003).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Immunohistochemistry was used to investigate the presence of two markers involved in inflammation, a cellular adhesion molecule (ICAM-1) and a proinflammatory cytokine (TNF-&#945;). Several studies have used ICAM-1 as a marker of inflammation. In a study with 60 rabbits (10 in the control group and 50 in the atherosclerotic group), animals fed a high-fat diet exhibited higher levels of ICAM-1 in the aorta compared with those in the control group (p &lt; 0.01), which indicates a role for ICAM-1 as a predictor of cardiovascular disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The importance of the present study lies in the analysis of ICAM-1 in four aortic segments. The results indicated an increase in ICAM-1 levels in all animal groups and all tissue sections; however, the results were not statistically significant. A similar result was obtained in an animal study conducted by Prim et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> and in human studies, which also showed nonsignificant reductions in the levels of ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 markers.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>
			</p>
      <p>We should emphasize that no antiinflammatory activity was observed in the group that received flaxseed (G3), suggesting that the findings of the antiinflammatory effect of omega-3 fatty acids are contradictory. In addition, the results of ICAM-1 suggest that this activity is dependent on the duration of consumption of omega-3 fatty acids.</p>
      <p>The results of the TNF-&#945; analysis indicated a significant difference among the groups. TNF-&#945; levels were higher in G1 than G3. This result demonstrated an effect of flaxseed, but was not statistically significant. Moreover, the levels of TNF-&#945; increased in G2, which indicates that this marker is associated with stress and inflammation. A similar result was observed in a previous study,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> in which the elevated levels of TNF-&#945; were associated with recurrent coronary events after myocardial infarction.</p>
      <p>Levels of the inflammatory marker TNF-&#945; decreased significantly in group G3 (flaxseed group), which favors the hypothesis that flaxseed components can reduce antiinflammatory and antiatherogenic activity. A previous study has observed a decrease in TNF-&#945; levels after the consumption of omega-3 fatty acids by most patients.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>
			</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclusion</title>
      <p>The results of this study are aligned with others in the literature and showed a decreased development of atherosclerosis in the group fed a functional diet.</p>
      <p>The results obtained in the flaxseed group showed significant changes in serum TG and decreased TNF-&#945; levels on immunohistochemical analysis. These findings corroborate observations from previous studies that have shown flaxseed as having a strong tendency to act effectively in reducing TNF-&#945; levels, thus preventing injury and development of atherosclerotic plaques in the intima of coronary arteries.</p>
      <p>However, several differences may arise when changes are made to the experiment or study protocol, so it we suggest that a larger number of studies should be conducted directly comparing these functional seeds.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This article is part of the thesis of master submitted by Maynara Leonardi Schuh Martins, from Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica do Paran&#225;.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Ethics approval and consent to participate</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica do Paran&#225; under the protocol number 720-2012. All the procedures in this study were in accordance with the 1975 Helsinki Declaration, updated in 2013. Informed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <ack>
      <title>Acknowledgments</title>
      <p>We are thankful to Jasmine Alimentos Ltda. (Curitiba, PR, Brazil) for donating the flaxseed used in the study. We are also grateful for the medical students (Pontifical Catholic University of Paran&#225;) Carlos Humberto Guilman Tanizawa, Bruno Carnevalli, Alexandre da Silva Phaco Jr. and Eduardo Hubbe Buss for their assistance in feeding the animals.</p>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigos Originais</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Redu&#231;&#227;o do Marcador Inflamat&#243;rio TNF-&#945; ap&#243;s Consumo de Semente de Linha&#231;a por Coelhos Hipercolesterol&#234;micos</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Martins</surname>
            <given-names>Maynara Leonardi Schuh</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lima</surname>
            <given-names>Aniely Bacelar Rocco de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Champoski</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Flavia</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pereira</surname>
            <given-names>Pamela Cristiani</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Martins</surname>
            <given-names>Fernando</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Tanizawa</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pr&#233;coma</surname>
            <given-names>Leonardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Campelo</surname>
            <given-names>Patr&#237;cia</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Guarita-Souza</surname>
            <given-names>Luiz C&#233;sar</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pr&#233;coma</surname>
            <given-names>Dalton Bertolim</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">1</xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica do Paran&#225; (PUC-PR), Paran&#225;, PR</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados (UFGD), Mato Grosso do Sul, MS &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Autor Correspondente: Maynara Leonardi Schuh Martins</bold>, Rua Prof. Sebasti&#227;o Paran&#225; 762. Vila Izabel. Curitiba. CEP 80320-070, Novo Mundo, Curitiba, Paran&#225;, PR &#8211; Brasil. E-mail: <email>may.schuh@hotmail.com</email>; <email>fernando.ecoatividade@hotmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: Martins MLS, Lima ABR, Champoski AF, Pr&#233;coma L, Precoma DB. Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados: Martins MLS, Lima ABR, Tanizawa C. An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados: Martins MLS, Champoski AF, Pereira PC, Martins F, Precoma DB. An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica: Martins MLS, Campelo P. Obten&#231;&#227;o de financiamento: Martins MLS, Lima ABR, Pereira PC. Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Martins MLS, Martins F. Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Martins MLS, Lima ABR, Martins F, Campelo P, Souza LCG. Supervis&#227;o / como investigador principal: Precoma DB.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamentos:</title>
          <p> Alimentos funcionais, como a linha&#231;a, t&#234;m sido consumidos com frequ&#234;ncia para preven&#231;&#227;o da aterosclerose.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivos:</title>
          <p> Avaliar os efeitos da linha&#231;a sobre a aterog&#234;nese em coelhos submetidos a uma dieta rica em colesterol.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos: </title>
          <p>Trinta coelhos albinos machos foram randomizados em tr&#234;s grupos com base em um tratamento diet&#233;tico por 12 semanas: grupo controle (G1), dieta padr&#227;o; dieta rica em colesterol (G2), dieta padr&#227;o mais 0,25% de colesterol proveniente de ovos liofilizados; e dieta rica em colesterol mais linha&#231;a (G3), dieta semelhante &#224; do G2 adicionada de linha&#231;a. An&#225;lise bioqu&#237;mica (colesterol total [CT], lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade [HDL-colesterol], lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade [LDL-colesterol] e triglic&#233;rides) e imunohistoqu&#237;mica (mol&#233;cula de ades&#227;o intercelular 1 [ICAM-1] e fator de necrose tumoral alfa [TNF-&#945;]) foram realizadas em todos os grupos. Valores de p &lt; 0,05 indicaram signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados:</title>
          <p> &#192;s 12 semanas, os n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de CT aumentaram significativamente nos grupos G2 e G3 em compara&#231;&#227;o com o G1. Os n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de LDL-colesterol foram mais altos no grupo G2, e o aumento no grupo G3 foi cerca de seis vezes menor do que no G2. Os n&#237;veis de HDL-colesterol aumentaram em todos os grupos, com o maior aumento observado no G2. Os n&#237;veis de triglic&#233;rides no G3 reduziram em ~70% e diferiram significativamente entre o G1 e G3 (p = 0,034) e G2 e G3 (p = 0,015). N&#237;veis de ICAM-1 aumentaram apenas no segmento a&#243;rtico 4 no G3. Os n&#237;veis de TNF-&#945; no grupo G3 foram semelhantes aos do grupo controle, enquanto os n&#237;veis no G2 foram maiores do que o dobro em rela&#231;&#227;o aos do grupo controle (p &lt; 0,05).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#245;es:</title>
          <p>O grupo alimentado com uma dieta funcional (linha&#231;a) mostrou redu&#231;&#227;o no desenvolvimento de aterosclerose, n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos mais baixos de triglic&#233;rides e n&#237;veis mais baixos de TNF-&#945; &#224; imunohistoqu&#237;mica. (Int J Cardiovasc Sci. 2018;31(2)114-122)</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave:</title>
        <kwd>Coelhos</kwd>
        <kwd>Linho / sementes</kwd>
        <kwd>Aterosclerose / preven&#231;&#227;o e controle</kwd>
        <kwd>Dieta Aterog&#234;nica</kwd>
        <kwd>Colesterol na Dieta</kwd>
        <kwd>Obesidade</kwd>
        <kwd>Estilo de Vida Sedent&#225;rio</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>A aterosclerose &#233; uma doen&#231;a inflamat&#243;ria cr&#244;nica marcada por disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial que afeta a camada &#237;ntima das art&#233;rias de m&#233;dio e grande calibre.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> Este processo ocorre lentamente ao longo de d&#233;cadas e tem o potencial de evoluir para les&#245;es mais avan&#231;adas que podem romper e desencadear a forma&#231;&#227;o de trombo, potencialmente levando ao infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio e morte.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>
				</p>
        <p>V&#225;rios fatores est&#227;o implicados na etiologia da aterosclerose, incluindo eleva&#231;&#227;o persistente de lipoprote&#237;nas s&#233;ricas aterog&#234;nicas (como a lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade [LDL-C]), que est&#227;o associadas com fatores de estilo de vida como h&#225;bitos alimentares inadequados, sedentarismo e obesidade, al&#233;m de deposi&#231;&#227;o dessas lipoprote&#237;nas na t&#250;nica m&#233;dia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Muitos produtos alimentares com propriedades funcionais/nutrac&#234;uticas t&#234;m sido estudados com o objetivo de impedir o desenvolvimento de placas ateroscler&#243;ticas e promover efeitos cardiovasculares positivos. Esses produtos cont&#234;m fibras alimentares, fitoester&#243;is, &#225;cidos graxos &#244;mega 3, antioxidantes e polifen&#243;is,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> o que pode diminuir significativamente o efeito de fatores ateroscler&#243;ticos. Um destes produtos &#233; a linha&#231;a (<italic>Linum usitatissimum L.</italic>).</p>
        <p>A composi&#231;&#227;o nutricional da linha&#231;a compreende gorduras (41%), fibras alimentares (28%), prote&#237;nas (21%), umidade (7,7%), cinzas (3,5%) e a&#231;&#250;cares sol&#250;veis (1 &#8211; 2%)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> e seu conte&#250;do lip&#237;dico inclui 51 &#8211; 55% de &#225;cido alfa-linoleico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> Al&#233;m disto, a linha&#231;a &#233; a fonte mais rica da lignana secoisolariciresinol-diglicos&#237;deo (SDG), que tem propriedades antioxidantes e antiaterog&#234;nicas potentes.</p>
        <p>Com base nestas considera&#231;&#245;es, o estudo das propriedades funcionais da linha&#231;a torna-se essencial para a comunidade cient&#237;fica e a popula&#231;&#227;o em geral. O objetivo do presente estudo foi avaliar os efeitos potenciais da linha&#231;a na aterog&#234;nese em coelhos submetidos a uma dieta rica em colesterol (contendo 0,25% de colesterol) com uso de ovos liofilizados. Para este fim, foi realizada an&#225;lise do perfil lip&#237;dico e an&#225;lise imunohistoqu&#237;mica de marcadores inflamat&#243;rios em segmentos a&#243;rticos de coelhos.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>M&#233;todos</title>
        <p>O presente estudo foi aprovado pelo Comit&#234; de &#201;tica em Pesquisa Animal da PUC-PR sob o protocolo de n&#250;mero 720/2012 e foi conduzido no Laborat&#243;rio de Cirurgia Experimental do Hospital Angelina Caron (HAC), no Laborat&#243;rio de Patologia Experimental da PUC-PR e no Biot&#233;rio da PUC-PR.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Animais</title>
          <p>Trinta coelhos New Zealand (<italic>Oryctolagus cuniculus</italic>) machos, brancos, com peso aproximado de 3 kg e idade m&#233;dia de 4 meses foram selecionados para o experimento. O c&#225;lculo do tamanho da amostra foi baseado no estudo de Prim et al., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> Os coelhos foram mantidos no biot&#233;rio da PUC-PR em um macroambiente com ciclos luz/escuro de 12/12 horas, mudan&#231;as de ar fresco e temperatura controlada entre 19&#176;C e 23&#176;C. Os animais foram identificados individualmente e mantidos em gaiolas individuais limpas diariamente.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Per&#237;odo experimental e distribui&#231;&#227;o de grupos</title>
          <p>O estudo foi realizado ao longo de 12 semanas (84 dias). Os animais foram mantidos em gaiolas individuais e randomizados em tr&#234;s grupos de acordo com o tratamento diet&#233;tico. O grupo controle (G1, n = 10) recebeu uma dieta padr&#227;o para coelhos (Nuvital&#174; Nutrientes S.A. Colombo, PR, Brasil). O grupo randomizado para uma dieta rica em colesterol (G2, n = 10) recebeu uma dieta padr&#227;o para coelhos (Nuvital&#174;) mais 0,25% de colesterol a partir de ovos liofilizados. O grupo randomizado para uma dieta rica em colesterol mais linha&#231;a (G3, n = 9) recebeu uma dieta padr&#227;o para coelhos (Nuvital&#174;), 0,25% de colesterol a partir de ovos liofilizados e 8 g de linha&#231;a mo&#237;da por kg de peso corporal.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Prepara&#231;&#227;o da alimenta&#231;&#227;o complementar</title>
          <p>A dieta rica em colesterol oferecida aos grupos G2 e G3 durante todo o per&#237;odo experimental continha 0,25% de colesterol, que foi adicionado com o objetivo de induzir les&#245;es ateroscler&#243;ticas na aorta. Para este efeito, 5 kg de ra&#231;&#227;o padr&#227;o (Nuvital&#174;), pesada e mo&#237;da para cada grupo de animais foi adicionada a 1.800 g de ovo em p&#243; dilu&#237;do em 2.000 mL de &#225;gua.</p>
          <p>A concentra&#231;&#227;o de linha&#231;a foi de 8 g por kg de peso corporal. As sementes foram mo&#237;das em um processador de alimentos e armazenadas sob refrigera&#231;&#227;o antes de serem adicionadas aos alimentos.</p>
          <p>A alimenta&#231;&#227;o para os grupos G2 e G3 foi complementada com ovos liofilizados. Esta mistura foi processada com utiliza&#231;&#227;o de um triturador de carne industrial (Poli<sup>&#174;</sup>, modelo PCP-22LR-N, boca #10, Siemsen, Brusque, SC, Brasil). Para o grupo G3, a mistura foi complementada com a linha&#231;a mo&#237;da. Ap&#243;s a mistura ter sido triturada, foi transformada em pelotas, que foram aquecidas em um forno el&#233;trico por 10 minutos a uma temperatura de 180&#176;C.</p>
          <p>O preparado alimentar foi armazenado sob refrigera&#231;&#227;o at&#233; o uso.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Prepara&#231;&#227;o dos animais e coleta da amostra</title>
          <p>Os animais foram anestesiados e sangue foi coletado de acordo com o m&#233;todo descrito por Pr&#233;coma et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> e Alessi et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> Xilazina (Coopazine&#226;; Schering-Plough-Coopers, Cotia, SP, Brasil) a 5 mg/kg misturada com cetamina (Vetanarcol&#226;, K&#246;nig, Mairinque, SP, Brasil) a 30 mg/kg foi administrada por via intramuscular na regi&#227;o da coxa dos coelhos. An&#225;lises bioqu&#237;micas realizadas nos dias 1 e 84 inclu&#237;ram colesterol total (CT), LDL-C, lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade (HDL-C) e triglic&#233;rides (TG), que foram avaliados com equipamento automatizado (ADVIA 1200, Siemens Healthcare Diagnostics, Inc. Newark, EUA) e <italic>kits</italic> comerciais.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>An&#225;lise histol&#243;gica</title>
          <p>A aorta tor&#225;cica foi removida ao n&#237;vel da bifurca&#231;&#227;o aortoil&#237;aca ap&#243;s toracotomia e laparotomia mediana. Se&#231;&#245;es transversais com 2 a 3 mm de espessura foram cortadas a partir de diferentes segmentos a&#243;rticos. Cada segmento foi identificado, montado em um micr&#243;tomo (Leica<sup>&#174;</sup> RM2145, Leica Microsystems Nussloch GmbH, Alemanha) para processamento durante a noite e desidratado com etanol em concentra&#231;&#245;es seriadas (70%, 80% e 90%). As amostras de tecido foram posteriormente diafanizadas por 12 horas em xilol contendo concentra&#231;&#245;es seriadas de parafina. Blocos de parafina foram obtidos atrav&#233;s da incorpora&#231;&#227;o das amostras em parafina quente com utiliza&#231;&#227;o de um inclusor (Leica<sup>&#174;</sup> EG1160, Leica Microsystems Nussloch GmbH, Alemanha), de acordo com o procedimento padr&#227;o.</p>
          <p>Os blocos de parafina foram cortados em se&#231;&#245;es de 5 &#181;m com utiliza&#231;&#227;o do micr&#243;tomo (Leica<sup>&#174;</sup> RM 2145). Cada se&#231;&#227;o foi corada com hematoxilina e eosina (HE) e orce&#237;na (colora&#231;&#227;o para tecido el&#225;stico) de acordo com t&#233;cnicas convencionais e montada em l&#226;minas permanentes.</p>
          <p>Blocos com quatro segmentos de aorta foram preparados por meio de sele&#231;&#227;o de um segmento proximal perto do arco a&#243;rtico (ponto 1), um segmento localizado na aorta tor&#225;cica (ponto 2), um segmento proximal na aorta abdominal (ponto 3) e um segmento distal da aorta abdominal (ponto 4). Estes segmentos foram selecionados de acordo com os achados histol&#243;gicos na colora&#231;&#227;o com HE.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>An&#225;lise imunohistoqu&#237;mica</title>
          <p>A t&#233;cnica de arranjo em matriz de amostras teciduais (<italic>tissue microarray</italic>; TMA) foi utilizada para a an&#225;lise imunohistoqu&#237;mica. As amostras foram incubadas com anticorpos monoclonais contra a mol&#233;cula de ades&#227;o intercelular 1 (ICAM-1) a uma dilui&#231;&#227;o de 1:50 e misturadas com anticorpo monoclonal contra o fator de necrose tumoral alfa (TNF-&#945;) por 1 hora. Os anticorpos foram detectados por incuba&#231;&#227;o das l&#226;minas com o substrato 3,3-diaminobenzidina (DAB; DakoCytomation A/S, Glostrup, Dinamarca). Contracolora&#231;&#227;o foi realizada com hematoxilina de Mayer, seguida por desidrata&#231;&#227;o da amostra com diferentes concentra&#231;&#245;es de etanol a 100% e desparafinizadas com xilol. As l&#226;minas foram montadas com b&#225;lsamo do Canad&#225;. O protocolo descrito acima foi padronizado em nosso departamento. Controles positivos e negativos foram utilizados para cada rea&#231;&#227;o.</p>
          <p>Os cortes histol&#243;gicos foram digitalizados com um <italic>scanner</italic> (Axio Scan Z1, Zeiss, Jena, Alemanha) e as imagens foram analisadas com o programa Image-Pro Plus<sup>&#174;</sup>, vers&#227;o 4.5. O m&#233;todo de morfometria de cores foi aplicado, colorindo em rosa as &#225;reas com imagens positivas de anticorpos e em marrom aquelas com imagens negativas. Os dados foram transferidos para uma planilha do Excel e submetidos &#224; an&#225;lise estat&#237;stica.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</title>
          <p>Os resultados est&#227;o expressos como m&#233;dia, mediana, valor m&#237;nimo e m&#225;ximo e desvio padr&#227;o. A suposi&#231;&#227;o de normalidade das vari&#225;veis foi avaliada atrav&#233;s do teste de Kolmogorov-Smirnov. As vari&#225;veis que n&#227;o satisfizeram a suposi&#231;&#227;o de normalidade foram analisadas com o teste n&#227;o param&#233;trico de Kruskal-Wallis. Os valores de p abaixo de 0,05 foram considerados estatisticamente significantes. Os dados foram analisados com o programa estat&#237;stico IBM SPSS, vers&#227;o 20.0.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Resultados</title>
        <p>Ocorreu um &#243;bito no grupo G3 na semana experimental 12, resultando em um total de 29 coelhos na amostra final do estudo.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Perfil lip&#237;dico</title>
          <sec>
            <title>Colesterol total</title>
            <p>Os n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de CT foram significativamente mais altos nos grupos G2 e G3 em compara&#231;&#227;o com o G1. Este resultado demonstra que a dieta foi eficaz em aumentar os n&#237;veis de colesterol nos coelhos (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">Tabela 1</xref>).</p>
            <table-wrap id="t5">
              <label>Tabela 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>M&#233;dia, mediana, valor m&#237;nimo e m&#225;ximo, desvio padr&#227;o e valores de p para o colesterol total nos tr&#234;s grupos</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup>
                  <col width="11%"/>
                  <col width="11%"/>
                  <col width="11%"/>
                  <col width="11%"/>
                  <col width="11%"/>
                  <col width="11%"/>
                  <col width="11%"/>
                  <col width="11%"/>
                  <col width="11%"/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Vari&#225;vel</th>
                    <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Grupo</th>
                    <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">n</th>
                    <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">M&#233;dia</th>
                    <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Mediana</th>
                    <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">M&#237;nimo</th>
                    <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">M&#225;ximo</th>
                    <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Desvio padr&#227;o</th>
                    <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Valor de p<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">*</xref>
										</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" rowspan="3">Colesterol total (basal)</td>
                    <td align="center">Controle (G1)</td>
                    <td align="center">10</td>
                    <td align="center">35,60</td>
                    <td align="center">34,00</td>
                    <td align="center">14,00</td>
                    <td align="center">69,00</td>
                    <td align="center">15,13</td>
                    <td align="center">
										</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Colesterol (G2)</td>
                    <td align="center">10</td>
                    <td align="center">24,60</td>
                    <td align="center">24,50</td>
                    <td align="center">12,00</td>
                    <td align="center">43,00</td>
                    <td align="center">9,51</td>
                    <td align="center">
										</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Linha&#231;a (G3)</td>
                    <td align="center">9</td>
                    <td align="center">28,33</td>
                    <td align="center">24,00</td>
                    <td align="center">15,00</td>
                    <td align="center">54,00</td>
                    <td align="center">13,51</td>
                    <td align="center">0,174</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" rowspan="3">Colesterol total (final do estudo)</td>
                    <td align="center">Controle (G1)</td>
                    <td align="center">10</td>
                    <td align="center">23,64</td>
                    <td align="center">21,50</td>
                    <td align="center">8,90</td>
                    <td align="center">57,00</td>
                    <td align="center">15,72</td>
                    <td align="center">
										</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Colesterol (G2)</td>
                    <td align="center">10</td>
                    <td align="center">62,09</td>
                    <td align="center">24,54</td>
                    <td align="center">12,90</td>
                    <td align="center">336,00</td>
                    <td align="center">100,23</td>
                    <td align="center">
										</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Linha&#231;a (G3)</td>
                    <td align="center">8</td>
                    <td align="center">36,21</td>
                    <td align="center">34,20</td>
                    <td align="center">16,40</td>
                    <td align="center">72,00</td>
                    <td align="center">17,32</td>
                    <td align="center">0,204</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" rowspan="3">Diferen&#231;a (final do estudo - linha de base)</td>
                    <td align="center">Controle (G1)</td>
                    <td align="center">10</td>
                    <td align="center">-11,96</td>
                    <td align="center">-13,50</td>
                    <td align="center">-31,00</td>
                    <td align="center">6,00</td>
                    <td align="center">12,50</td>
                    <td align="center">
										</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Colesterol (G2)</td>
                    <td align="center">10</td>
                    <td align="center">37,49</td>
                    <td align="center">2,55</td>
                    <td align="center">-28,00</td>
                    <td align="center">305,00</td>
                    <td align="center">97,79</td>
                    <td align="center">
										</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Linha&#231;a (G3)</td>
                    <td align="center">9</td>
                    <td align="center">3,86</td>
                    <td align="center">3,00</td>
                    <td align="center">-19,00</td>
                    <td align="center">18,00</td>
                    <td align="center">10,83</td>
                    <td align="center">0,029</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN5">
                  <label>*</label>
                  <p>Teste n&#227;o param&#233;trico de Kruskal-Wallis, p &lt; 0,05.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>LDL-colesterol e HDL-colesterol</title>
            <p>N&#227;o houve diferen&#231;as significativas nos n&#237;veis de LDL-colesterol e HDL-colesterol entre os grupos (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">Tabelas 2</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="t7">3</xref>). No entanto, os n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de LDL-colesterol na an&#225;lise bioqu&#237;mica foram mais altos no grupo G2 ao final do experimento. O aumento no LDL-colesterol no grupo G3 foi cerca de seis vezes inferior ao do G2. Os n&#237;veis de HDL-colesterol aumentaram nos grupos G1 (12,93 mg/dL), G2 (82,26 mg/dL) e G3 (12,03 mg/dL), com o maior aumento observado no G2.</p>
            <table-wrap id="t6">
              <label>Tabela 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>M&#233;dia, mediana, valor m&#237;nimo e m&#225;ximo, desvio padr&#227;o e valores de p para o LDL-colesterol nos tr&#234;s grupos</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup>
                  <col width="11%"/>
                  <col width="11%"/>
                  <col width="11%"/>
                  <col width="11%"/>
                  <col width="11%"/>
                  <col width="11%"/>
                  <col width="11%"/>
                  <col width="11%"/>
                  <col width="11%"/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Vari&#225;vel</th>
                    <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Grupo</th>
                    <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">n</th>
                    <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">M&#233;dia</th>
                    <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Mediana</th>
                    <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">M&#237;nimo</th>
                    <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">M&#225;ximo</th>
                    <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Desvio padr&#227;o</th>
                    <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Valor de p<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">*</xref>
										</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" rowspan="3">LDL-colesterol (basal)</td>
                    <td align="center">Controle (G1)</td>
                    <td align="center">10</td>
                    <td align="center">8,64</td>
                    <td align="center">8,45</td>
                    <td align="center">2,90</td>
                    <td align="center">18,10</td>
                    <td align="center">5,61</td>
                    <td align="center">
										</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Colesterol (G2)</td>
                    <td align="center">10</td>
                    <td align="center">7,83</td>
                    <td align="center">6,30</td>
                    <td align="center">1,20</td>
                    <td align="center">27,10</td>
                    <td align="center">7,60</td>
                    <td align="center">
										</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Linha&#231;a (G3)</td>
                    <td align="center">9</td>
                    <td align="center">11,92</td>
                    <td align="center">7,40</td>
                    <td align="center">4,50</td>
                    <td align="center">27,30</td>
                    <td align="center">7,94</td>
                    <td align="center">0,305</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" rowspan="3">LDL-colesterol (final do estudo)</td>
                    <td align="center">Controle (G1)</td>
                    <td align="center">10</td>
                    <td align="center">21,57</td>
                    <td align="center">16,45</td>
                    <td align="center">3,90</td>
                    <td align="center">81,00</td>
                    <td align="center">21,49</td>
                    <td align="center">
										</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Colesterol (G2)</td>
                    <td align="center">10</td>
                    <td align="center">90,09</td>
                    <td align="center">32,00</td>
                    <td align="center">7,50</td>
                    <td align="center">348,00</td>
                    <td align="center">123,47</td>
                    <td align="center">
										</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Linha&#231;a (G3)</td>
                    <td align="center">8</td>
                    <td align="center">26,95</td>
                    <td align="center">22,00</td>
                    <td align="center">2,40</td>
                    <td align="center">93,00</td>
                    <td align="center">29,82</td>
                    <td align="center">0,145</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" rowspan="3">Diferen&#231;a (final do estudo - linha de base)</td>
                    <td align="center">Controle (G1)</td>
                    <td align="center">10</td>
                    <td align="center">12,93</td>
                    <td align="center">11,65</td>
                    <td align="center">-5,70</td>
                    <td align="center">63,50</td>
                    <td align="center">19,71</td>
                    <td align="center">
										</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Colesterol (G2)</td>
                    <td align="center">10</td>
                    <td align="center">82,26</td>
                    <td align="center">21,95</td>
                    <td align="center">4,90</td>
                    <td align="center">341,80</td>
                    <td align="center">124,45</td>
                    <td align="center">
										</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Linha&#231;a (G3)</td>
                    <td align="center">9</td>
                    <td align="center">12,03</td>
                    <td align="center">0,50</td>
                    <td align="center">-27,30</td>
                    <td align="center">79,40</td>
                    <td align="center">30,61</td>
                    <td align="center">0,085</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN6">
                  <label>*</label>
                  <p>Teste n&#227;o param&#233;trico de Kruskal-Wallis, p &lt; 0,05.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
            <table-wrap id="t7">
              <label>Tabela 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>M&#233;dia, mediana, valor m&#237;nimo e m&#225;ximo, desvio padr&#227;o e valores de p para o HDL-colesterol nos tr&#234;s grupos</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup>
                  <col width="11%"/>
                  <col width="11%"/>
                  <col width="11%"/>
                  <col width="11%"/>
                  <col width="11%"/>
                  <col width="11%"/>
                  <col width="11%"/>
                  <col width="11%"/>
                  <col width="11%"/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Vari&#225;vel</th>
                    <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Grupo</th>
                    <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">n</th>
                    <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">M&#233;dia</th>
                    <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Mediana</th>
                    <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">M&#237;nimo</th>
                    <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">M&#225;ximo</th>
                    <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Desvio padr&#227;o</th>
                    <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Valor de p<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN7">*</xref>
										</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" rowspan="3">HDL-colesterol (basal)</td>
                    <td align="center">Controle (G1)</td>
                    <td align="center">10</td>
                    <td align="center">19,29</td>
                    <td align="center">16,45</td>
                    <td align="center">10,30</td>
                    <td align="center">37,30</td>
                    <td align="center">8,60</td>
                    <td align="center">
										</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Colesterol (G2)</td>
                    <td align="center">10</td>
                    <td align="center">17,15</td>
                    <td align="center">17,70</td>
                    <td align="center">9,80</td>
                    <td align="center">25,40</td>
                    <td align="center">5,78</td>
                    <td align="center">
										</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Linha&#231;a (G3)</td>
                    <td align="center">9</td>
                    <td align="center">15,79</td>
                    <td align="center">13,40</td>
                    <td align="center">7,70</td>
                    <td align="center">33,50</td>
                    <td align="center">8,35</td>
                    <td align="center">0,475</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" rowspan="3">HDL-colesterol (final do estudo)</td>
                    <td align="center">Controle (G1)</td>
                    <td align="center">10</td>
                    <td align="center">21,55</td>
                    <td align="center">22,50</td>
                    <td align="center">1,00</td>
                    <td align="center">41,90</td>
                    <td align="center">12,80</td>
                    <td align="center">
										</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Colesterol (G2)</td>
                    <td align="center">10</td>
                    <td align="center">48,76</td>
                    <td align="center">25,65</td>
                    <td align="center">4,30</td>
                    <td align="center">290,70</td>
                    <td align="center">85,99</td>
                    <td align="center">
										</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Linha&#231;a (G3)</td>
                    <td align="center">8</td>
                    <td align="center">28,16</td>
                    <td align="center">26,25</td>
                    <td align="center">4,20</td>
                    <td align="center">60,00</td>
                    <td align="center">17,71</td>
                    <td align="center">0,780</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" rowspan="3">Diferen&#231;a (final do estudo - linha de base)</td>
                    <td align="center">Controle (G1)</td>
                    <td align="center">10</td>
                    <td align="center">2,26</td>
                    <td align="center">-2,15</td>
                    <td align="center">-13,30</td>
                    <td align="center">14,90</td>
                    <td align="center">10,39</td>
                    <td align="center">
										</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Colesterol (G2)</td>
                    <td align="center">10</td>
                    <td align="center">31,61</td>
                    <td align="center">9,00</td>
                    <td align="center">-15,30</td>
                    <td align="center">278,70</td>
                    <td align="center">87,50</td>
                    <td align="center">
										</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Linha&#231;a (G3)</td>
                    <td align="center">9</td>
                    <td align="center">9,24</td>
                    <td align="center">8,00</td>
                    <td align="center">-16,50</td>
                    <td align="center">46,60</td>
                    <td align="center">17,48</td>
                    <td align="center">0,570</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN7">
                  <label>*</label>
                  <p>Teste n&#227;o param&#233;trico de Kruskal-Wallis, p &lt; 0,05.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Triglic&#233;rides</title>
            <p>A dieta n&#227;o aumentou os n&#237;veis de TG nos grupos do estudo. Al&#233;m disso, os n&#237;veis de TG no G3 reduziram cerca de 70% (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t8">Tabela 4</xref>). Ao final do estudo, os resultados indicaram diferen&#231;as significativas nos n&#237;veis de TG entre G1 e G3 (p = 0,034) e entre G2 e G3 (p = 0,015).</p>
            <table-wrap id="t8">
              <label>Tabela 4</label>
              <caption>
                <title>M&#233;dia, mediana, valor m&#237;nimo e m&#225;ximo, desvio padr&#227;o e valores de p para os triglic&#233;rides nos tr&#234;s grupos</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup>
                  <col width="11%"/>
                  <col width="11%"/>
                  <col width="11%"/>
                  <col width="11%"/>
                  <col width="11%"/>
                  <col width="11%"/>
                  <col width="11%"/>
                  <col width="11%"/>
                  <col width="11%"/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Vari&#225;vel</th>
                    <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Grupo</th>
                    <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">n</th>
                    <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">M&#233;dia</th>
                    <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Mediana</th>
                    <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">M&#237;nimo</th>
                    <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">M&#225;ximo</th>
                    <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Desvio padr&#227;o</th>
                    <th align="center" style="background-color:#C5C6C8">Valor de p<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN8">*</xref>
										</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" rowspan="3">Triglic&#233;rides (basal)</td>
                    <td align="center">Controle (G1)</td>
                    <td align="center">10</td>
                    <td align="center">65,30</td>
                    <td align="center">50,00</td>
                    <td align="center">36,00</td>
                    <td align="center">206,00</td>
                    <td align="center">50,87</td>
                    <td align="center">
										</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Colesterol (G2)</td>
                    <td align="center">10</td>
                    <td align="center">59,50</td>
                    <td align="center">56,50</td>
                    <td align="center">25,00</td>
                    <td align="center">146,00</td>
                    <td align="center">32,74</td>
                    <td align="center">
										</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Linha&#231;a (G3)</td>
                    <td align="center">9</td>
                    <td align="center">79,44</td>
                    <td align="center">78,00</td>
                    <td align="center">32,00</td>
                    <td align="center">149,00</td>
                    <td align="center">38,20</td>
                    <td align="center">0,308</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" rowspan="3">Triglic&#233;rides - (final do estudo)</td>
                    <td align="center">Controle (G1)</td>
                    <td align="center">10</td>
                    <td align="center">67,50</td>
                    <td align="center">65,00</td>
                    <td align="center">7,00</td>
                    <td align="center">228,00</td>
                    <td align="center">63,27</td>
                    <td align="center">
										</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Colesterol (G2)</td>
                    <td align="center">10</td>
                    <td align="center">64,60</td>
                    <td align="center">44,50</td>
                    <td align="center">20,00</td>
                    <td align="center">204,00</td>
                    <td align="center">53,31</td>
                    <td align="center">
										</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Linha&#231;a (G3)</td>
                    <td align="center">8</td>
                    <td align="center">22,50</td>
                    <td align="center">14,00</td>
                    <td align="center">11,00</td>
                    <td align="center">53,00</td>
                    <td align="center">15,26</td>
                    <td align="center">0,042</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" rowspan="3">Diferen&#231;a (final do estudo - linha de base)</td>
                    <td align="center">Controle (G1)</td>
                    <td align="center">10</td>
                    <td align="center">2,20</td>
                    <td align="center">13,50</td>
                    <td align="center">-56,00</td>
                    <td align="center">47,00</td>
                    <td align="center">33,98</td>
                    <td align="center">
										</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Colesterol (G2)</td>
                    <td align="center">10</td>
                    <td align="center">5,10</td>
                    <td align="center">-17,50</td>
                    <td align="center">-98,00</td>
                    <td align="center">148,00</td>
                    <td align="center">66,92</td>
                    <td align="center">
										</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Linha&#231;a (G3)</td>
                    <td align="center">9</td>
                    <td align="center">-59,44</td>
                    <td align="center">-63,00</td>
                    <td align="center">-149,00</td>
                    <td align="center">16,00</td>
                    <td align="center">48,12</td>
                    <td align="center">0,022</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN8">
                  <label>*</label>
                  <p>Teste n&#227;o param&#233;trico de Kruskal-Wallis, p &lt; 0,05.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>An&#225;lise imunohistoqu&#237;mica</title>
            <p>A imunohistoqu&#237;mica foi utilizada para investigar a presen&#231;a da mol&#233;cula de ades&#227;o intercelular-1 (ICAM-1) e TNF-&#945; nos quatro segmentos da aorta.</p>
            <p>Os resultados indicaram que os n&#237;veis de ICAM-1 s&#243; aumentaram no segmento a&#243;rtico 4 no grupo G3, por&#233;m n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a significativa em rela&#231;&#227;o aos n&#237;veis medianos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 1</xref>).</p>
            <p>
              <fig id="f3">
                <label>Figura 1</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>M&#233;dia dos n&#237;veis da mol&#233;cula de ades&#227;o intercelular-1 (ICAM-1) no segmento a&#243;rtico 4 dos animais em cada grupo.</title>
                </caption>
                <graphic xlink:href="2359-5647-ijcs-31-02-0114-80002-gf01-pt.jpg"/></fig>
            </p>
            <p>Um resultado semelhante foi encontrado para o TNF-&#945;, ou seja, o n&#237;vel desse marcador foi significativamente mais elevado no segmento a&#243;rtico 4 (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 2</xref>). Os n&#237;veis de TNF-&#945; no grupo G3 foram semelhantes aos do grupo controle, enquanto que os n&#237;veis no grupo G2 foram maiores do que o dobro em rela&#231;&#227;o ao grupo controle (p &lt; 0,05).</p>
            <p>
              <fig id="f4">
                <label>Figura 2</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>M&#233;dia dos n&#237;veis de fator de necrose tumoral alfa (TNF-&#945;) no segmento a&#243;rtico 4 dos animais em cada grupo.</title>
                </caption>
                <graphic xlink:href="2359-5647-ijcs-31-02-0114-80002-gf02-pt.jpg"/></fig>
            </p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
        <p>A aterosclerose &#233; uma doen&#231;a cardiovascular importante e a compreens&#227;o do seu desenvolvimento &#233; necess&#225;ria para a sua preven&#231;&#227;o e tratamento. Este conhecimento pode ser adquirido atrav&#233;s de modelos experimentais. Neste contexto, v&#225;rios estudos em animais t&#234;m demonstrado que uma dieta rica em gorduras conduz &#224; obesidade, hipercolesterolemia e outras complica&#231;&#245;es como les&#245;es endoteliais.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> O protocolo experimental do presente estudo foi um modelo precoce de aterosclerose e envolveu a adi&#231;&#227;o de 0,25% de colesterol a partir de ovos liofilizados &#224; dieta de coelhos com o objetivo de causar les&#245;es ateroscler&#243;ticas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> A utiliza&#231;&#227;o de coelhos como modelo experimental atende os objetivos do presente estudo porque esses animais desenvolvem les&#245;es a&#243;rticas rapidamente.</p>
        <p>Este estudo avaliou as altera&#231;&#245;es bioqu&#237;micas e imunoqu&#237;micas causadas por uma dieta rica em colesterol com e sem linha&#231;a, considerada um alimento funcional.</p>
        <p>O aumento no CT encontrado &#224; an&#225;lise bioqu&#237;mica dos grupos G2 e G3 n&#227;o era esperado no tratamento com linha&#231;a. Um resultado semelhante foi obtido por Dupasquier et al., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> que n&#227;o observaram altera&#231;&#245;es de CT em animais que receberam uma dieta com 10% de linha&#231;a. Este resultado inesperado pode ser explicado por v&#225;rios fatores, incluindo a concentra&#231;&#227;o de linha&#231;a utilizada, a forma de administra&#231;&#227;o da linha&#231;a (sementes mo&#237;das), aquecimento do alimento para incorpora&#231;&#227;o de componentes e a dura&#231;&#227;o do consumo das sementes. Resultados anteriores indicaram que os &#225;cidos alfa-linoleico e linoleico s&#227;o sens&#237;veis &#224; luz, aquecimento e oxig&#234;nio, e sofrem oxida&#231;&#227;o quando exposto a temperaturas entre 120&#176;C e 270&#176;C.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> Por conseguinte, o processo de produ&#231;&#227;o de alimentos contendo linha&#231;a no presente estudo podem ter provocado uma redu&#231;&#227;o do n&#237;vel destes &#225;cidos, comprometendo sua fun&#231;&#227;o nutrac&#234;utica.</p>
        <p>Os n&#237;veis de LDL-colesterol aumentaram nos grupos tratados com a dieta rica em colesterol; no entanto, os n&#237;veis permaneceram semelhantes entre esses grupos. Resultados semelhantes foram obtidos em um estudo em seres humanos envolvendo o consumo de linha&#231;a, no qual os n&#237;veis de CT e LDL-colesterol permaneceram inalterados,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> embora o per&#237;odo experimental de 4 semanas pode n&#227;o ter sido suficiente para causar esta redu&#231;&#227;o. Zheng et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> realizaram um ensaio cl&#237;nico randomizado em indiv&#237;duos com diagn&#243;stico de hipercolesterolemia e utilizaram extrato de lignana de linha&#231;a durante um per&#237;odo de 8 semanas. Os n&#237;veis de LDL-colesterol no grupo que recebeu 600 mg do extrato reduziram entre as semanas 6 e 8. Os autores conclu&#237;ram que o extrato de lignana diminuiu a concentra&#231;&#227;o de colesterol de maneira dose-dependente. Um estudo investigou o efeito da ingest&#227;o de fitoesterol e indicou que os n&#237;veis de colesterol no sangue reduziram ap&#243;s 4 semanas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> Al&#233;m disso, os n&#237;veis de colesterol permaneceram inalterados entre as semanas 8 e 12,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> o que sugere que fatores sazonais podem ter afetado os resultados.</p>
        <p>No presente estudo, o CT aumentou em todos os grupos testados. Estudos t&#234;m mostrado que lignanas presentes na linha&#231;a reduzem o colesterol s&#233;rico. Este efeito est&#225; provavelmente relacionado &#224;s suas propriedades antioxidantes, fornecidas pela lignana secoisolariciresinol-diglicos&#237;deo (SDG), enterolactona e enterodiol, que inibem a peroxida&#231;&#227;o de &#225;cidos graxos poli-insaturados in vitro e favorecem a diminui&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de colesterol.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> Uma hip&#243;tese para explicar a discrep&#226;ncia entre os resultados do presente estudo e outros na literatura &#233; a alta concentra&#231;&#227;o de colesterol ingerida. Outra hip&#243;tese &#233; a dura&#231;&#227;o da dieta funcional (8 semanas), o que pode ter sido demasiadamente curta para induzir uma redu&#231;&#227;o significativa do LDL-colesterol e CT.</p>
        <p>No presente estudo n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a nos n&#237;veis de HDL-colesterol observados entre os tr&#234;s grupos. N&#237;veis mais elevados de HDL-colesterol aumentam a prote&#231;&#227;o contra a forma&#231;&#227;o de placas ateroscler&#243;ticas no cora&#231;&#227;o. Estudos demonstraram que o consumo de linha&#231;a a 15% esteve fortemente associado &#224; prote&#231;&#227;o contra inflama&#231;&#227;o, estr&#243;genos e genotoxicidade.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Os resultados que consideramos mais fascinantes foram os relacionados aos n&#237;veis de TG. Houve uma diminui&#231;&#227;o significativa (aproximadamente 70%) neste par&#226;metro bioqu&#237;mico no grupo <bold>G</bold>3, o que demonstra que a administra&#231;&#227;o de alimentos contendo linha&#231;a (um alimento funcional que cont&#233;m principalmente &#225;cidos graxos &#244;mega 3, fibras e lignana) foi eficaz na redu&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de TG. Este resultado est&#225; alinhado com os de estudos anteriores e sugere que a suplementa&#231;&#227;o com &#244;mega 3 atrav&#233;s do consumo de linha&#231;a ajuda a reduzir os n&#237;veis de TG, possivelmente atrav&#233;s da redu&#231;&#227;o de part&#237;culas de quilom&#237;crons remanescentes e inibi&#231;&#227;o da s&#237;ntese e secre&#231;&#227;o de lipoprote&#237;nas de muito baixa densidade (VLDL-colesterol) pelo f&#237;gado.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Cintra et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> testaram o efeito do consumo de uma dieta rica em gordura e baseada em linha&#231;a em ratos Wistar e observaram uma redu&#231;&#227;o nos n&#237;veis de CT e TG, maior excre&#231;&#227;o fecal de lip&#237;dios e menor deposi&#231;&#227;o de colesterol no f&#237;gado. Esse resultado foi semelhante ao obtido por Bhathena et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A imunohistoqu&#237;mica foi utilizada para investigar a presen&#231;a de dois marcadores envolvidos com inflama&#231;&#227;o, uma mol&#233;cula de ades&#227;o celular (ICAM-1) e uma citocina pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;ria (TNF-&#945;). V&#225;rios estudos t&#234;m utilizado o ICAM-1 como um marcador de inflama&#231;&#227;o. Em um estudo com 60 coelhos (10 em um grupo controle e 50 em um grupo com aterosclerose), os animais alimentados com uma dieta rica em gordura apresentaram n&#237;veis mais elevados de ICAM-1 na aorta comparados com os do grupo controle (p &lt; 0,01), o que indica um papel para a ICAM-1 como preditora de doen&#231;a cardiovascular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A import&#226;ncia do presente estudo reside na an&#225;lise do ICAM-1 em quatro segmentos da aorta. Os resultados indicaram um aumento nos n&#237;veis de ICAM-1 em todos os grupos de animais e todas as se&#231;&#245;es de tecido; no entanto, os resultados n&#227;o foram estatisticamente significantes. Um resultado semelhante foi obtido em um estudo animal realizado por Prim et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> em 2012 e em estudos em humanos, que tamb&#233;m mostraram redu&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o significativas nos n&#237;veis dos marcadores ICAM-1 e VCAM-1.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Devemos salientar que nenhuma atividade anti-inflamat&#243;ria foi observada no grupo que recebeu a linha&#231;a (G3), sugerindo que os resultados do efeito anti-inflamat&#243;rio dos &#225;cidos graxos &#244;mega 3 s&#227;o contradit&#243;rios. Al&#233;m disso, os resultados da ICAM-1 sugerem que esta atividade &#233; dependente da dura&#231;&#227;o do consumo de &#225;cidos graxos &#244;mega 3.</p>
        <p>Os resultados da an&#225;lise do TNF-&#945; indicaram uma diferen&#231;a significativa entre os grupos. Os n&#237;veis de TNF-&#945; estiveram mais elevados no grupo G1 do que no G3. Este resultado demonstrou um efeito da linha&#231;a, mas n&#227;o foi estatisticamente significativo. Al&#233;m disso, os n&#237;veis de TNF-&#945; aumentaram no G2, o que indica que este marcador est&#225; associado com estresse e inflama&#231;&#227;o. Um resultado semelhante foi observado em um estudo anterior,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> no qual os n&#237;veis elevados de TNF-&#945; estiveram associados com eventos coronarianos recorrentes ap&#243;s infarto do mioc&#225;rdio.</p>
        <p>N&#237;veis do marcador inflamat&#243;rio TNF-&#945; reduziram significativamente no grupo G3 (grupo da linha&#231;a), o que favorece a hip&#243;tese de que os componentes da linha&#231;a possam reduzir a atividade anti-inflamat&#243;ria e antiaterog&#234;nica. Um estudo anterior observou uma diminui&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de TNF-&#945; ap&#243;s o consumo de &#225;cidos graxos &#244;mega 3 pela maioria dos pacientes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
        <p>Os resultados do presente estudo est&#227;o alinhados com a literatura e mostraram uma redu&#231;&#227;o no desenvolvimento de aterosclerose no grupo alimentado com uma dieta funcional.</p>
        <p>Os resultados obtidos no grupo da linha&#231;a mostraram altera&#231;&#245;es significativas nos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de TG e diminui&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de TNF-&#945; na an&#225;lise imunohistoqu&#237;mica. Esses achados corroboram as observa&#231;&#245;es de estudos anteriores que demonstraram a linha&#231;a como tendo uma forte tend&#234;ncia para agir efetivamente na redu&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de TNF-&#945;, evitando assim les&#227;o e desenvolvimento de placas ateroscler&#243;ticas na &#237;ntima das art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias.</p>
        <p>No entanto, v&#225;rias diferen&#231;as podem surgir quando altera&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o feitas no experimento ou protocolo de estudo. Por isso, sugerimos que mais estudos sejam conduzidos comparando diretamente estas sementes funcionais.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <ack>
        <title>Agradecimentos</title>
        <p>Agradecimentos &#224; Jasmine Alimentos Ltda. (Curitiba, PR, Brasil) pela doa&#231;&#227;o da linha&#231;a utilizada no estudo. Estamos tamb&#233;m gratos aos estudantes de medicina (Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica do Paran&#225;) Carlos Humberto Guilman Tanizawa, Bruno Carnevalli, Alexandre da Silva Phaco Jr. e Eduardo Hubbe Buss pela ajuda na alimenta&#231;&#227;o dos animais.</p>
      </ack>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de disserta&#231;&#227;o de Mestrado de Maynara Leonardi Schuh Martins pela Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica do Paran&#225;.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#201;tica e consentimento informado</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Este estudo foi aprovado pelo Comit&#234; de &#201;tica da Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica do Paran&#225; sob o n&#250;mero de protocolo 720-2012. Todos os procedimentos envolvidos nesse estudo est&#227;o de acordo com a Declara&#231;&#227;o de Helsinki de 1975, atualizada em 2013. O consentimento informado foi obtido de todos os participantes inclu&#237;dos no estudo.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
