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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">ijcs</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>International Journal of Cardiovascular Sciences</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Int. J. Cardiovasc. Sci.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="epub">2359-5647</issn>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">2359-4802</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">tbSvGwp5gwVgBH5djVsFrwD</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S2359-56472017000300262</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/2359-4802.20170034</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Articles</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Methods of Endothelial Function Assessment: Description and Applications</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Storch</surname>
            <given-names>Amanda Sampaio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mattos</surname>
            <given-names>Jo&#227;o Dario de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Alves</surname>
            <given-names>Renata</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Galdino</surname>
            <given-names>Iuri dos Santos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rocha</surname>
            <given-names>Helena Naly Miguens</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Niter&#243;i</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niter&#243;i, Rio de Janeiro, RJ - Brazil</institution>
          <institution content-type="normalized">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Amanda Sampaio Storch</bold>, Universidade Federal Fluminense - UFF Rua Professor Hernani Pires de Melo, 101 S&#227;o Domingos, Niter&#243;i, RJ - Brazil. E-mail: <email>amandasstorch@gmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research: Storch AS, Mattos JD, Alves R, Galdino IS, Rocha HNM. Acquisition of data: Storch AS, Mattos JD, Alves R, Galdino IS, Rocha HNM. Analysis and interpretation of the data: Storch AS, Mattos JD, Alves R, Galdino IS, Rocha HNM. Writing of the manuscript: Storch AS, Mattos JD, Alves R, Galdino IS, Rocha HNM. Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Storch AS, Mattos JD, Alves R, Galdino IS, Rocha HNM.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub-ppub">
        <season>May-Jun</season>
        <year>2017</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>30</volume>
      <issue>3</issue>
      <fpage>262</fpage>
      <lpage>273</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>15</day>
          <month>08</month>
          <year>2016</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>21</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2016</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>23</day>
          <month>03</month>
          <year>2017</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords:</title>
        <kwd>Endothelium, Vascular</kwd>
        <kwd>Function, Endothelim</kwd>
        <kwd>Atherosclerosis</kwd>
        <kwd>Vasodilatation.</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>The endothelium is a monolayer of cells, called endothelial cells, that lines the interior of blood vessels, including arteries, veins and cardiac chambers,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> acting as a protective layer between circulating blood and other tissues.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> The endothelium is crucial for the control of vascular homeostasis, and is involved in the regulation of intracellular signaling,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> vascular tonus and permeability,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> coagulation cascade and angiogenesis,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> among others. One of the main activities of the endothelium is the release of autocrine and paracrine substances in response to stimuli.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> Injuries to the endothelium trigger an inflammatory response with participation of several cell types - lymphocytes, monocytes, platelets and smooth muscle cells<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> - culminating in endothelial cell dysfunction, stiffness of vessel wall and atherosclerotic plaque formation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Endothelial dysfunction is an early, key characteristic of development and progression of atherosclerotic plaque and subsequent complications. This is characterized by a reduced bioavailability of endothelium-derived vasodilators, such as nitric oxide (NO), along with a relative or absolute increase in available vasoconstrictors. Such unbalanced condition impairs the endothelium-dependent vasodilation, a functional marker of endothelial dysfunction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>
			</p>
      <p>At the beginning of atherosclerotic plaque formation, endothelial dysfunction is characterized by increased expression and release of adhesion molecules, including endothelial selectin (E-selectin), intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1). These molecules are released in response to stimuli of inflammatory cytokines, bacterial lipopolysaccharides and oxidized low-density lipoproteins (ox-LDL). They promote cell-cell and cell-extracellular matrix adhesion, leading to foam cell accumulation on the subendothelial space,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> increased vessel wall thickness and consequent reduction or even complete obstruction of vascular lumen.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Assessment of endothelial function consists of the analysis of endothelial cells responsiveness to vasodilator or vasoconstrictor stimuli, contributing to advances in the understanding of atherosclerosis and possible therapeutic targets.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> The methods include <italic>in vitro</italic> analysis, such as culture of endothelial cells, and <italic>in vivo</italic> analysis, such as flow-mediated dilation (FMD), venous occlusion plethysmography (VOP) and measurement of serum markers. However, none of these methods have been currently applied in the clinical setting, due to invasiveness, high costs and difficult standardization of the techniques.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Endothelial dysfunction precedes morphological atherosclerotic changes and may contribute to the development of lesions and clinical complications. Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are the main cause of natural death in the world, including in Brazil. Recent data shows CVD accounted for approximately 30% of deaths in the country. In this context, the use of the aforementioned techniques in clinical research allows a better understanding of this problem and the development of new prevention and treatment strategies to decrease morbidity, mortality and also public costs. A deep understanding of endothelial dysfunction assessment tools by healthcare professionals allows the improvement of these techniques and enables the transition from clinical research to clinical practice.</p>
      <p>Here we describe the most recent methods for the assessment of endothelial dysfunction.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title><italic>In vitro</italic> analysis</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Endothelial cell cultures</title>
        <p>Culture of endothelial cells has been widely described in the literature, especially in studies on the effect of oxidative stress and inflammation on mobilization and proliferation of these cells <italic>in vitro</italic>.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> The yield of endothelial cells culture from peripheral blood represents an important step in research on circulating angiogenic cells, since these cells were firstly isolated for research purpose.</p>
        <p>However, the use of cell culture for assessment of endothelial function has its pros and cons. The possibility of investigating a wide variety of intracellular signaling pathways allows the development of different studies, with different purposes. For example, the discovery of surface markers, monoclonal antibodies, and magnetic beads for immunoassays has facilitated the isolation, quantification and characterization of endothelial cells. However, this process has limitations related to phenotypic changes of the cells, dependent on cell cuture media and time. Also, the culture of endothelial cells has not been fully established as a model comparable to <italic>in vivo</italic> ones.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> Therefore, the protocol for cell culture should be carefully prepared, since many growing factors have been recognized to stimulate different phenotypes in proliferating cells.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Due to the difficulty in studying the endothelium <italic>in vivo</italic>, several <italic>in vitro</italic> techniques have been developed.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> Among these, human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) have been widely used as a source of human endothelial cells, since they are free from pathogens and are physiologically more relevant than other available lineages.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> Primary HUVECs preserve endothelial cell native characteristics, including the expression of specific surface markers and intracellular signaling pathways.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>
				</p>
        <p>In culture media, HUVECs change from a dispersed to a clustered pattern within days of incubation, covering most of the bottom surface of the plate.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> Once the plate is completed covered, the cells polarize, form tight junctions, and finally achieve the cobblestone stage, which mimic the in vivo condition.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> HUVECs have been used in molecular biology research, contributing to advances in the pathophysiology of atheroma plaque formation and mechanisms involved in the control of angiogenesis and vascularization of affected areas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> Cultures of HUVECs are applied in studies on cell interactions (resulting in analysis of adhesion molecules and cytokines), effects of shear rate and oscillatory flow in cell signaling (mimicking what occurs in the vessel lumen), and allows the discovery of receptors and transcription factors involved in the development and progression of endothelial dysfunction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> However, caution is needed in interpreting the results because of the limitations of this method.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title><italic>In vitro</italic> functional studies</title>
        <p>In the last decades, different techniques have been used to assess endothelial function <italic>in vitro</italic> including the organ bath technique, and myographic recordings, and shown to be essential for the discovery of endothelium derived relaxing factors (EDRFs). The most widely studied EDRF is nitric oxide (NO).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>These studies allow the measurement of endothelium-dependent relaxation of vascular in response to well-known agonists, such as acetylcholine (ACh) and sodium nitroprusside.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Isolated organ bath is an <italic>in vitro</italic> technique that assesses vascular reactivity in response to agonists, yielding a dose-response curve used to investigate physiological and pharmacological responses of biological preparations isolated from a variety of species (rabbit, rat, etc). Tissues and organs used in this method include artery and vein rings or strips, atrium, ventricle, papillary muscle, diaphragm, fundus of stomach, small bowel (duodenum, jejunum, and ileum), trachea, uterus, among others. The method aims to mimic an optimal physiological condition regarding temperature, aeration and nutrients for analysis of these preparations. An organ bath system is composed of a double-jacketed glass chambers with capacity varying from 5 to 50mL connected to a helical warming coil through which the nutritive solution is conducted. The warming coil was submerged in water maintained at 37&#176;C, which was perfused with a peristaltic pump. The isolated organ or tissue is maintained in muscle chamber; one end was attached to a glass rod connected to an air pump that provided aeration of the nutritive solution, and the other end was fixed to a lever connected to a force transducer by a cotton thread.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>
				</p>
        <p>From this point on, the experiments have involved the cumulative addition of drugs to the muscle chamber or electrical stimulation (when the organ was mounted between to platinum electrodes connected to an electrical stimulator), resulting in contraction or relaxation of the muscle studied. Changes in tension are recorded by myographs (kymograph, physiography or digital system),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> that register the intensity and kinetics of different contraction stages (velocity, frequency or decay). Dose-response or stimulus-response curves are generated from the experimental results.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> Displacement of the dose-response curve shifts to the right indicates impairment of EDRF/NO release in the endothelium.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The organ bath technique is hence an important method for enabling the control of experimental conditions - nutritive solution, temperature, etc. - and isolation of endothelial function elements by using, for example, endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) inhibitors (e.g. L-NAME). Other advantages of the method include a relatively simple preparation, which allows the analysis of simultaneous preparations; the possible use of electrical stimulation; and an accurate quantification of the response.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>
				</p>
        <p>One disadvantage of this method is the fact that its use is restricted to animal experimental studies, due to ethical considerations regarding the required availability and amount of human samples, and to the variability of patients' responses to controlled events. Another one is the necessity to use relatively large tissue samples (&gt;1 mm diameter), which limits the assessment of smaller diameter vessels.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> Although this has been the most widely used method for endothelial function assessment in animal models, one major limitation is to not distinguish the biological processes occurring in the vessel lumen and outside the blood vessel.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title><italic>In vivo</italic> analysis</title>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Flow-mediated dilation (FMD)</title>
      <p>There is strong evidence supporting that the detection of brachial artery endothelial dysfunction is an important indicator of systemic endothelial dysfunction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> Vascular function can be measured by several methods, including invasive and non-invasive techniques.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Invasive techniques consist mainly of intra-arterial administration of compounds that stimulate NO release, which induces dilation of vascular beds in healthy subjects. In this situation, detection of vasoconstriction may indicate endothelial dysfunction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> Nevertheless, the invasive nature of these techniques unables their use in the general population and, for this reason, non-invasive methods could be more practical and more accessible alternatives for measurement of vascular function.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Among the non-invasive techniques for assessment of vascular function, the most important, and most commonly used combines arterial imaging (especially of brachial artery) in response to reactive hyperemia, causing a flow increase and expected endothelium-dependent dilation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> In this method, an arterial occlusion cuff is inflated for occlusion of arteries in the distal hand or distal forearm, followed by deflation allowing vasodilation in response to reactive hyperemia in distal and proximal vascular beds, which is mediated by release of endothelial factors, such as NO.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> NO induces increased shear stress and dilation, resulting in increased flow in the proximal artery.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> Such response is known as flow-mediated dilation (FMD). The method involves ultrasound arterial imaging in two conditions, at rest (baseline) and during reactive hyperemia (after a five-minute arterial occlusion).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Brachial FMD is an indirect measure of NO release by the endothelium due to a transient flow stimulus.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> Dependence of FMD on NO was demonstrated by intra-arterial infusion of NG-monomethyl-L-arginine (L-NMMA), a specific eNOS inhibitor, which decreased arterial dilation by approximately 66% in response to shear stress.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>
			</p>
      <p>A proportional relationship between the magnitude of dilation and endothelial function has been suggested.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> Impaired FMD is one of the early, reversible manifestations of vascular disease, and may be an important indicator of endothelial damage.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> In addition, endothelial dysfunction detected by FMD can potentially predict a risk factor even in the absence of coronary diseases.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> Assessment of FMD has been proposed as a method with potential clinical applicability in the identification of risk factors for cardiovascular events, even in asymptomatic patients.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Furthermore, measurement of FMD can stratify individuals at low, moderate or high risk for future cardiometabolic events.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> Gokce et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> have suggested that impaired FMD has long-term prognostic value and that the technique may be used to influence therapeutical strategies on a particular patient. In this context, studies have demonstrated an association between impaired FMD and risk factors for cardiovascular events.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>
			</p>
      <p>In methodological perspectives, some aspects should be taken into account in assessing FMD. Due to variations in dilation between post-prandial periods, particularly after high fat meals and fasting periods, or during menstrual cycle, it is recommended that FMD be assessed during fasting and at the same menstrual cycle phase (folicular phase).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>
			</p>
      <p>However, similar to other methods, FMD has a few limitations that should be considered. First, the lack of standardization and variations in cuff placement or positioning make comparison of results difficult. Besides, in some situations, the degree of reactive hyperemia may vary even under the same stimulus. Also, changes in the structure of blood vessels and impaired dilation may be limiting factors during FMD assessment.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> It is worth pointing out that the method is highly observer-dependent, which may lead to different FMD values.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Laser Doppler flowmetry (LDF)</title>
      <p>LDF is an excellent method for measuring skin microcirculation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> The method is based on the direction of a laser light beam to a tissue sample at a known frequency and measurement of the Doppler shift that arises in light that has been scattered by moving red blood cells.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> LDF has been widely used because of its non-invasiveness, simplicity and possibility of continuous measurement.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> LDF does not provide a direct measurement of blood flow, but rather an index of cutaneous perfusion.</p>
      <p>The technique is based on diffusion and refraction of a monochromatic light beam. The light has its wavelength changed (Doppler effect) after being scattered by moving red blood cells.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> The frequency and size of this effect are associated with velocity and amount of red blood cells. The wavelength commonly used in laser-Doppler flowmeter is 780 nm, which can penetrate into the skin regardless of color or oxygen saturation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>
			</p>
      <p>When combined to other techniques, such as the infusion of vasoactive substances, iontophoresis of small charged molecules and techniques that induce reactive hyperemia, LDF has been used to determine changes in skin microcirculation at real time.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> For example, LDF combined with the intradermal administration of ACh by iontophoresis induces endothelium-dependent dilation that allows quantification of local blood flow.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>
			</p>
      <p>LDF has good precision in quantifying rapid changes in cutaneous blood flow. However, the characteristic heterogeneity of the tissue, due to differences in anatomy, causes spatial variability that leads to a relatively low reproducibility of the method. On the other hand, the use of integrated probes may reduce spatial variability and increases in reproducibility.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> Another advantage of this technique is its non-invasiveness; even when combined with intradermal infusion, the method is relatively safe due to the small amount of drug infused. LDF is less challenging than FMD, but has good clinical potential for assessment of vascular health.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>
			</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Venous occlusion plethysmography (VOP)</title>
      <p>VOP has been studied for more than 90 years, and its primary objective was to evaluate blood flow in the organs.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> Today, VOP is widely used in the evaluation of endothelial function, in the assessment of the autonomic nervous system that regulates blood flow, and the vasodilation response to several stimuli, such as exercise and stress.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref> For its easy applicability, VOP has been widely used in <italic>in vivo</italic> studies on vascular physiology in humans, both in healthy individuals and in several disease conditions.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>
			</p>
      <p>VOP is a non-invasive method that involves inflation of the upper arm cuff to a pressure lower than systolic pressure. Usually, an inflation pressure of around 40 mmHg is used for intervals of approximately 10 seconds, followed by 5 seconds of deflation, during 2-3 minutes<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The inflation pressure used is sufficient to arrest venous return without impairing arterial flow towards the forearm, causing a linear increase in blood flow to the limb. This is measured by a strain gauge, which detects any change in tissue volume, placed in the point of maximal circumference of the forearm.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>
			</p>
      <p>At resting conditions, blood flow in the forearm is divided into 70% in striated skeletal muscle and 30% in the skin. There are multiple arteriovenous communications in the hand related to skin supply. To avoid that such blood supply affects the measurement of forearm blood flow, a wrist cuff is inflated to suprasystolic pressure just before flow measurement.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Vessel responsiveness is assessed by evaluation of volume changes in the limb in response to stimuli, which can be a mechanical stimulus that promotes reactive hyperemia, or a chemical stimulus via administration of vasoactive compounds (invasive technique). A decreased or impaired response may be an evidence of endothelial dysfunction,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref> which is considered a critical factor for the development, progression and complications of coronary artery disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref> Preserved endothelial function acts as an important regulator of vascular inflammation and remodeling.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Endothelium-dependent vasodilation can be measured by reactive hyperemia which is induced by inflation of a forearm cuff as described above. The stimulus triggers the release of vasodilators, particularly NO, in the microvasculature, and increases flow velocity. The shear stress resulting from the friction of blood against the wall of the vessel promotes vasodilation. The cuff is rapidly deflated and changes in the vessels are measured.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref> This response can also be measured by administration of ACh, which is an agonist of muscarinic receptors located on the endothelium, and used in the assessment of endothelium-dependent vasodilation. Usually, increasing doses of ACh are administered during 5 minutes and the forearm blood flow is measured (as mL.100mL<sup>-1</sup>.min<sup>-1</sup>) in the last two minutes of infusion.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Endothelium-independent vasodilation is evaluated by the infusion of vasoactive substances that act as NO precursors, such as sodium nitroprusside, for example. Vascular changes will be detected by strain gauges, which confirm whether an adequate response has occurred. When the response is consistent with the stimulus, the endothelial function is preserved.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Invasive VOP, i.e., involving intra-arterial infusion of vasoactive substances, is considered a gold standard tool for analysis of vascular behavior, but is largely impractical in the clinical setting.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Pulse wave velocity (PWV)</title>
      <p>At the end of ventricular ejection, a pressure wave propagates from the heart to the periphery at certain velocity. This velocity is named PWV.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref> Some authors have defined PWV as the distance traveled by blood flow divided by the time taken to travel that distance (in meters/second).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>
			</p>
      <p>PWV has been used as an important marker of cardiovascular risk.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref> The lower the PW, the more elastic and healthier the vessel. However, increased arterial stiffness is related to increased propagation of pulse waves in the aorta and large vessels, and early return of pulse waves from the periphery.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref> Pulse waves are normally reflected at discontinuities throughout the arterial tree, and retrograde waves are generated in the ascending aorta. This early return in the end of systole causes a cardiac overload.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The association between arterial stiffness and risk factors such as coronary artery disease, diabetes mellitus, arterial hypertension, diastolic function and age has been well established.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref> PWV values are lower in healthy young individuals, but increases with age, as the elastic properties of blood vessels decrease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref> The cutoff value of PWV for prediction of cardiovascular events is still controversial, but a value greater than 12 m/s has been suggested as indicator of cardiovascular risk.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Technical differences exist between the methods for PWV measurement. However, the carotid-femoral relation has been considered the gold standard in the literature, for its non-invasiveness and for expressing PWV values directly related to the aorta artery.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref> The method is performed with the individual in the supine position, and two transducers are used for the measurement, one is placed on the right common carotid artery and one on the right femoral artery. The difference between the time for the onset of carotid pulse wave and femoral pulse wave, and the distance between the two transducers are used to calculate PWV.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Another method that has been widely recommended for pulse wave analysis is applanation tonometry. This technique is used to estimate aortic pulse wave from the common carotid artery or the radial artery pulse waves. However, as radial artery is supported by a bony structure, which makes the measurement easier, radial artery tonometry has been the most commonly recommended approach. A transducer is placed on the skin at protruding parts of the vessel to record pressure wave signals, and then a transfer function is applied to calculate aortic pressure wave.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Since arterial stiffness is a strong evidence of cardiovascular disease, analysis of pulse wave in the clinical practice may identify changes that might be related to vascular health, even before the occurrence of signs and symptoms.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Limitations of the method are related to associated comorbidities, including metabolic syndrome, obesity and diabetes, which may affect the femoral pulse wave recordings. Besides, men with abdominal obesity and women with large breast size can cause errors in distance measurements.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref>
			</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Serum markers of endothelial dysfunction</title>
      <p>Biomarkers are analytic tools used in the analysis of biological parameters. In 2001, the National Institutes of Health Biomarkers Definitions Working Group defined a biomarker or biological markers as "a characteristic that is objectively measured and evaluated as an indicator of normal biological processes, pathogenic processes, or pharmacologic responses to a therapeutic intervention". Today, biomarkers have been used in: 1) identification of individuals at high cardiovascular risk; 2) fast and accurate diagnosis of diseases; 3) effective prognosis and treatment. Regardless of its purpose, a biomarker has clinical relevance when it is accurate, standardized and reproducible, appropriate for the patients' condition, of easy interpretation by clinicians, and if it has high sensitivity and/or specificity for the parameter it proposes to identify.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Advantages of the use of serum biomarkers in the assessment of endothelial function include simplicity of the procedures and the fact that samples of venous blood are widely used in laboratory routine. The use of these biological markers in the prognosis and/or diagnosis of vascular diseases is most common at initial stages, but this is an area of great potential.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>
			</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Cell adhesion molecules (ICAM-1, VCAM-1 and E-selectin)</title>
      <p>Endothelial cells play a key role in the transport of another cell types and metabolic substrates between blood and interstitial space, including a complex signaling system that regulates innate immune responses in the vascular bed. When these cells are activated by pro-inflammatory stimuli, such as bacterial endotoxins, interleukin 1B (IL-1B), tumoral necrosis factor alpha (TNF-&#945;), C-reactive protein (CRP), and ox-LDL, or by blood flow-related hemodynamic forces, the expression of adhesion molecules is increased and, thus, are considered early markers of endothelial activation and systemic inflammation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Transendothelial migration of leukocytes is regulated by soluble cell adhesion molecules, such as ICAM-1, VCAM-1 and E-selectins. ICAM-1 is a member of the immunoglobulin supergene family and ligand for the &#946;2 integrin molecules present on leukocytes,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref> and is highly expressed in endothelial cells and subendothelial macrophages.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref> ICAM-1 mediates a number of cell-cell interactions, including adhesion and transmigration of leukocytes to the vascular endothelial wall. Data from the literature support the hypothesis that ICAM-1 expression activates endothelial cells and leads to inflammation, which, in turn, are important steps for the initiation and progression of atherosclerosis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref>
			</p>
      <p>VCAM-1 also belongs to the immunoglobulin supergene family and is ligand to the very late antigen-4, a &#946;-integrin found on the surface of mononuclear cells.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref> VCAM-1 expression is restricted to endothelial cells and occasional fusiform cells. In contrast to ICAM-1, which is produced in low concentrations, VCAM-1 is not expressed on healthy endothelial cells.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref> It has been suggested that VCAM-1 expression may result in endothelial activation, as it increases the recruitment of monocytes and improves the monocyte-endothelial interaction in the initial steps of the atherosclerotic lesion formation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref>
			</p>
      <p>E-selectin, a molecule belonging to the family of C-type lectins, is probably the most specific endothelial activation marker.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref> Its expression is restricted to vascular endothelium and induced by inflammatory cytokines. This adhesion molecule is involved in leukocyte recruitment to inflammation sites, and participates in slow leukocyte rolling in inflamed venules.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref>
			</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Inflammatory markers</title>
      <p>Recent evidence has demonstrated that inflammation is closely related to the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis and its complications. CRP, CD40 ligand (CD40L), IL-18, monocyte chemotactic protein 1 (MCP1), among others, are inflammatory markers that result in endothelial activation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref> There is also strong scientific evidence that inflammatory activation is an important pathway involved in the development and progression of atherosclerosis. The inflammatory cascade is involved in the entire process of plaque formation, from the early stages of endothelial dysfunction to the development of acute coronary syndromes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref>
			</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Interleukin-18 (IL-18)</title>
      <p>IL-18, a member of the IL-1 cytokine family, is highly expressed in atherosclerotic plaques and found mainly in macrophages. IL-18 promotes the increase of adhesion molecule expression in vascular endothelium and, for this reason, increased IL-18 expression is directly associated with the development of endothelial dysfunction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref>
			</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>C-reactive protein (CRP)</title>
      <p>CRP is a circulating pentraxin consisting of five identical subunits arranged as a cyclic pentamer that has an important role on human innate immune response.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref> Research of the last twenty years have suggested that CRP may have proatherosclerotic effect, and directly affect adhesion molecule expression and fibrinolysis, thereby participating in inflammatory process of endothelial cells and development of endothelial dysfuntion.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref>
			</p>
      <p>These studies have demonstrated that CRP promotes endothelial activation by expression of ICAM-1, VCAM-1, E-selectins and MCP-1, and activates macrophages to express cytokine and tissue factor, leading to enhanced LDL uptake by other lipoproteins.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref> In addition, CRP negatively modulates the production of endothelium-derived vasoactive factors, especially NO, which is the main regulator of vascular homeostasis. This process may facilitate endothelial cells apoptosis and attenuate important compensatory mechanisms to angiogenesis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Besides, CRP may stimulate the production of endothelin-1 (ET-1), a powerful endothelium-dependent vasoconstrictor, and IL-6, a key proinflammatory cytokine.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref> These data corroborate the hypothesis that CRP is a predictor of atherosclerosis and vascular death. CRP serum concentrations may reflect endothelial health, since this protein has the potential to change endothelial cell phenotype, and contribute to lesion formation, plaque rupture and coronary thrombosis. Therefore, CRP acts not only as an inflammatory biomarker, but also as a mediator of vascular disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>
			</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>CD40 ligand (CD40L)</title>
      <p>CD40L, found either in free or soluble form, is a type II transmembrane protein belonging to TNF superfamily, involved in a pathophysiologic pathway closely related to inflammation and atherogenesis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref> Most circulating CD40L is expressed in platelets, which are not only critical elements for homeostasis, but also have the potential to trigger an inflammatory response in the vascular wall.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref> Once activated, platelets promptly express CD40L, which, in turn, induces endothelial cells to secrete chemokines and to express adhesion molecules, thereby promoting the recruitment and extravasation of leukocytes at the site of injury.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref>
			</p>
      <p>CD40L can be quickly released from the platelet membrane as a soluble form. Both forms have prothrombotic and proinflammatory effects, enhancing platelet activation and aggregation, and platelet-leukocyte and leukocyte-endothelium conjugation. CD40L also increases the release of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitrogen from stimulated platelets.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref> In summary, CD40L activation system promotes a chronic inflammatory state in the vascular wall, contributing to the development of endothelial dysfunction, atherogenesis and respective complications.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref>
			</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Monocyte chemotactic protein 1 (MCP-1)</title>
      <p>Monocytes adhered to the vascular wall due to the effect of cell adhesion molecules transmigrate from the endothelium into the tunica intima, the innermost layer of the arterial wall. This monocyte migration is mediated by a concentration gradient of MCP-1, via interaction with the monocyte receptor CCR2. In the arterial intima, monocytes develop into macrophages and begin to express scavenger receptors, such as SR-A, CD36, and LOX-1, that internalize modified lipoproteins. This process gives rise to macrophages or foam cells that act in lipid transportation, which characterize early atherosclerotic lesions.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref>
			</p>
      <p>MCP-1 induces the recruitment of monocytes after endothelial lesion, and this lesion seems crucial for the expression of MCP-1 in adherent platelets. Therefore, MCP-1 expression after vascular lesion is a highly specialized mechanism and exerts a key role in vascular remodeling in injury. Measurement of plasma MCP-1 may reflect the degree of endothelial dysfunction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref>
			</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Circulating endothelial cells (CEC) and endothelial microparticles (EMP)</title>
      <p>Endothelial function reflects the balance between vascular endothelial lesion and repair. Based on this relationship, measurement of mobilization of mature endothelial cells and derived microparticles has been performed to estimate the endothelial injury degree. Circulating endothelial cells (CEC) are detached in activation or loss of integrity of vascular endothelium, and may be measured by flow cytometry or fluorescence microscopy. Once endothelial apoptosis begins, there is an abrupt increase in calcium release from sarcoplasmic reticulum, changing the status of the resting cell membrane.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref> Data in the literature have suggested a direct relationship between increased CEC levels in peripheral circulation and the extent of endothelial lesion in patients with atherosclerotic disease and vascular inflammation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Endothelial microparticles (EMP) are small vesicles that are released from the membrane of activated or injured CEC cells in response to activation and/or apoptosis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref> Once released from the cells of origin, EMP express on their surface adhesion molecules, enzymes, receptors, and constitutive antigens,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref> whose composition may characterize the endothelial progenitor cells. Normally, there is a local, slight, reversible endothelial activation, i.e., when the endothelium in the basal state starts to express cytokines and adhesion molecules, triggering inflammatory mechanisms, and circulating EMP are rarely found. Increased EMP levels have been found in a variety of conditions associated with endothelial activation or apoptosis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref> suggesting a direct relationship of EMP with thrombogenesis and atheroma plaque formation,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref> and involvement of these molecules in inflammation, vascular injury and angiogenesis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref>
			</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Myeloperoxidase (MPO) and Reactive oxygen species (ROS)</title>
      <p>MPO, a member of the heme peroxidase superfamily, is an enzyme released from activated neutrophils, monocytes, and tissue macrophages, that catalyzes ROS formation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref> In addition to its activity against infectious diseases, MPO has been also recognized for its role in the onset and progression of atherosclerosis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref> MPO can bind to glycosaminoglycans in the vascular walls and impair the release of endothelium-derived NO leading to local endothelial function.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Products of MPO activity, such as hypochlorous acid, tyrosyl radical and nitrogen dioxide reacts with hydrogen peroxide and may contribute to oxidative damages in lipids and proteins in the body. Therefore, literature corroborates the idea that MPO levels may predict the development of endothelial dysfunction and coronary artery disease. Low MPO levels and certain specific MPO polymorphisms have been described as cardioprotectors.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Although oxidative stress may promote endothelial dysfunction by numerous mechanisms, the main pathway involves the reduction in NO bioavailability. In certain circumstances, a chronic ROS production may exceed enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant capacity, leading to an increase in oxidized biomolecules and associated tissue damage. Evidence has suggested that oxidative stress has a central role in atherogenesis, probably via development and progression of endothelial dysfunction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref>
			</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)</title>
      <p>VEGF, also known as vascular permeability factor, is widely known for its role in angiogenesis, promoting the proliferation and migration of endothelial cells, and increasing vascular permeability. It is produced by different cell types, including endothelial cells. VEGF binds mainly to cell surface receptor tyrosine kinases named VEGFR-1, VEGFR-2 and VEGFR-3.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref> Concerning the assessment of endothelial function, VEGFR-2 stands out among these receptors due to its expression restricted to vascular endothelial cells. It also has an important role in cell migration, endothelium-dependent vasodilation and angiogenesis.</p>
      <p>VEGFR-2 activation occurs by its binding to VEGF or by increased blood flow shear rate, which triggers a signaling cascade and consequent activation of the MEK-MAPK pathway (proliferation and migration), the PI3K-Akt pathway (survival), and the Src-eNOS pathway (permeability). In adults, VEGFR-2 is physiologically detectable in low amounts in the blood. In adverse conditions, such as tumoral growth, injury repair, and inflammatory diseases, VEGFR-2 participates in the local revascularization process.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref>
			</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Others</title>
      <p>Ox-LDLs are proinflammatory, immunogenic molecules that may affect a great variety of atherosclerotic processes, from early events, such as adhesion molecule expression and activation of the immune system, to late events, such as platelet aggregation and destabilization of the atherosclerotic plaque.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> Ox-LDL is produced by oxidative processes during LDL migration through blood vessel walls, and has been suggested as a marker of endothelial dysfunction and atherogenesis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Another endothelial function marker is free fatty acids (FFAs). FFAs may enhance ROS levels by increased cytokine production in mononuclear cells. In addition, FFAs may induce the activation of proinflammatory NF-kB pathways in human endothelial cells. Because to these characteristics, FFAs are considered an early biomarker of endothelial lesion and atherosclerosis, with important implications for the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Procoagulant consequences of endothelial activation can be measured by changes in the balance between tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) and its endogenous inhibitor, plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1). Von Willebrand factor, a glycoprotein extensively produced in activated endothelium, has an additional role in the activation of cells and platelets, and induction of coagulation. In addition, fibrinogen may also be considered an endothelial function biomarker. This glycoprotein, synthesized mainly in hepatic cells and megakaryocytes, may bind to glycoprotein (GP) IIb/IIIa surface proteins and for bridges to platelets. Fibrinogen stimulates migration of smooth muscle cells and platelet aggregation and increases blood viscosity; hence, it is associated with development of atherosclerosis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref>
			</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclusion</title>
      <p>Evidence has shown the importance of endothelial dysfunction for the development and progression of cardiovascular diseases. Numerous <italic>in vivo</italic> or <italic>in vitro</italic>, and invasive or non-invasive methods have been used for the investigation of endothelial function. Although these techniques have been widely used in the clinical research, these methods cannot be used for diagnostic purposes due to their invasiveness, high cost and difficult standardization. Therefore, further studies and investments in the field are suggested to make these methods applicable in the clinical practice and, hence, minimize public health problems related to cardiovascular diseases by means of an early diagnosis of endothelial dysfunction.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Limitations</title>
        <p>The present study is a narrative review of the literature and, for this reason, does not present a well-established, reproducible methodology. Identification, selection, analysis and interpretation of the studies reviewed were left to the authors' discretion. However, it is worth highlighting that the aim of this review was to provide an update of current methods used for the assessment of endothelial dysfunction and to point out new perspectives in this field.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study was partially funded by CAPES, FAPERJ, CNPq.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <ack>
      <title>Acknowledgements</title>
      <p>The authors thank the Laboratory of Exercise Science of the Fluminense Federal University for the support provided during the study.</p>
    </ack>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigos de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>M&#233;todos de Investiga&#231;&#227;o da Fun&#231;&#227;o Endotelial: Descri&#231;&#227;o e suas Aplica&#231;&#245;es</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Storch</surname>
            <given-names>Amanda Sampaio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mattos</surname>
            <given-names>Jo&#227;o Dario de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Alves</surname>
            <given-names>Renata</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Galdino</surname>
            <given-names>Iuri dos Santos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rocha</surname>
            <given-names>Helena Naly Miguens</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff2">
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niter&#243;i, Rio de Janeiro, RJ - Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Amanda Sampaio Storch</bold>, Universidade Federal Fluminense - UFF Rua Professor Hernani Pires de Melo, 101 S&#227;o Domingos, Niter&#243;i, RJ - Brasil. E-mail: <email>amandasstorch@gmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: Storch AS, Mattos JD, Alves R, Galdino IS, Rocha HNM. Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados: Storch AS, Mattos JD, Alves R, Galdino IS, Rocha HNM. An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados: Storch AS, Mattos JD, Alves R, Galdino IS, Rocha HNM. Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Storch AS, Mattos JD, Alves R, Galdino IS, Rocha HNM. Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Storch AS, Mattos JD, Alves R, Galdino IS, Rocha HNM.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave:</title>
        <kwd>Endot&#233;lio Vascular</kwd>
        <kwd>Fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial</kwd>
        <kwd>Aterosclerose</kwd>
        <kwd>Vasodilata&#231;&#227;o</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>O endot&#233;lio &#233; a monocamada celular que reveste o interior dos vasos sangu&#237;neos, incluindo art&#233;rias, veias e as c&#226;maras do cora&#231;&#227;o,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> atuando como uma camada protetora entre os demais tecidos e o sangue circulante.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> Essas c&#233;lulas s&#227;o denominadas c&#233;lulas endoteliais. O endot&#233;lio exerce fun&#231;&#227;o determinante no controle da homeostase vascular, participando da regula&#231;&#227;o de sinais intracelulares,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> permeabilidade e t&#244;nus vascular,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> cascata de coagula&#231;&#227;o e angiog&#234;nese,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> entre outros. Uma das principais fun&#231;&#245;es do endot&#233;lio &#233; a libera&#231;&#227;o de subst&#226;ncias frente a est&#237;mulos, que atuam de forma aut&#243;crina e/ou par&#225;crina.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> Dessa forma, agress&#245;es ao endot&#233;lio geram uma resposta inflamat&#243;ria, com atua&#231;&#227;o de diversos tipos celulares (linf&#243;citos, mon&#243;citos, plaquetas e c&#233;lulas musculares lisas),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> levando a um quadro de disfun&#231;&#227;o da c&#233;lula endotelial, enrijecimento da parede vascular e forma&#231;&#227;o da placa de aterosclerose.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial &#233; uma caracter&#237;stica precoce chave no desenvolvimento e progress&#227;o da placa aterog&#234;nica e suas respectivas complica&#231;&#245;es. Essa condi&#231;&#227;o &#233; caracterizada por uma redu&#231;&#227;o na biodisponibilidade de vasodilatadores derivados do endot&#233;lio, tais como o &#243;xido n&#237;trico (NO), e um aumento, relativo ou absoluto, da biodisponibilidade de vasoconstritores. Este desequil&#237;brio prejudica a vasodilata&#231;&#227;o dependente endot&#233;lio, marca funcional que caracteriza a disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>
				</p>
        <p>No in&#237;cio da forma&#231;&#227;o da placa ateromatosa, a disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial pode ser caracterizada pelo aumento na express&#227;o e libera&#231;&#227;o de mol&#233;culas de ades&#227;o, entre elas, a selectina endotelial (E-selectina), a mol&#233;cula de ades&#227;o intercelular 1 (ICAM-1) e a mol&#233;cula de ades&#227;o vascular 1 (VCAM-1). Essas mol&#233;culas s&#227;o liberadas em resposta a est&#237;mulos de citocinas inflamat&#243;rias, de lipopolissacar&#237;deos bacterianos ou de lipoprote&#237;nas de baixa densidade oxidadas (LDL-ox). Elas permitem a liga&#231;&#227;o c&#233;lula-c&#233;lula ou c&#233;lula-matriz extracelular, levando &#224; deposi&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas espumosas no espa&#231;o subendotelial,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> e aumento da espessura da parede do vaso, com redu&#231;&#227;o ou at&#233; mesmo completa obstru&#231;&#227;o do l&#250;men vascular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A determina&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o da endotelial consiste na an&#225;lise de sua responsividade a est&#237;mulos vasodilatadores ou vasoconstritores, permitindo o avan&#231;o no entendimento do desenvolvimento e progress&#227;o da aterosclerose e poss&#237;veis alvos terap&#234;uticos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> Os m&#233;todos consistem em an&#225;lises <italic>in vitro</italic>, como cultura de c&#233;lulas endoteliais<italic>, e in vivo</italic>, como a dilata&#231;&#227;o mediada pelo fluxo (DMF), pletismografia por oclus&#227;o venosa (POV) ou dosagem de marcadores s&#233;ricos. No entanto, nenhuma dessas t&#233;cnicas atualmente &#233; aplicada para diagn&#243;stico cl&#237;nico de disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, uma vez que elas s&#227;o muito invasivas, caras ou dif&#237;ceis de padronizar.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A altera&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial precede as altera&#231;&#245;es ateroscler&#243;ticas morfol&#243;gicas e pode contribuir para o desenvolvimento da les&#227;o e das complica&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas finais. As doen&#231;as cardiovasculares (DCV) s&#227;o as principais causas de morte natural no mundo, inclusive no Brasil. Dados recentes do DATASUS de 2014 apontaram que aproximadamente 30% dos registros de mortalidade nacional foram decorrentes de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares. Dessa forma, a pesquisa cl&#237;nica, por meio das t&#233;cnicas mencionadas acima, possibilita o melhor entendimento desse problema e permite que novas oportunidades de preven&#231;&#227;o e tratamento surjam, diminuindo a morbimortalidade e gastos p&#250;blicos. O amplo conhecimento das ferramentas de avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial pelos profissionais da &#225;rea da sa&#250;de possibilita o aprimoramento das mesmas, tornando poss&#237;vel a transla&#231;&#227;o da pesquisa cl&#237;nica para efetiva aplica&#231;&#227;o na cl&#237;nica m&#233;dica.</p>
        <p>A seguir, t&#233;cnicas de avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial ser&#227;o descritas de acordo com &#250;ltimos achados da literatura.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>An&#225;lises <italic>in vitro</italic></title>
        <sec>
          <title>Cultura de c&#233;lulas endoteliais</title>
          <p>A cultura de c&#233;lulas endoteliais &#233; largamente descrita na literatura, principalmente em estudos que demonstram o efeito do estresse oxidativo e inflama&#231;&#227;o sobre os mecanismos de mobiliza&#231;&#227;o e prolifera&#231;&#227;o dessas c&#233;lulas <italic>in vitro.</italic><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> O desenvolvimento da cultura de c&#233;lulas endoteliais a partir de sangue perif&#233;rico representa um importante passo nas pesquisas sobre c&#233;lulas angiog&#234;nicas circulantes, uma vez que essas c&#233;lulas passaram a ser isoladas para estudo.</p>
          <p>Contudo, a utiliza&#231;&#227;o da cultura celular para avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial apresenta pr&#243;s e contras. A possibilidade do estudo de diferentes vias de sinaliza&#231;&#227;o intracelular permite que diversos ensaios sejam feitos, com diferentes objetivos. Por exemplo, a descoberta de marcadores de superf&#237;cie, anticorpos monoclonais e <italic>beads</italic> magn&#233;ticas de imunoensaio facilitaram o processo de isolamento, quantifica&#231;&#227;o e caracteriza&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas endoteliais. No entanto, essa t&#233;cnica apresenta limita&#231;&#245;es em rela&#231;&#227;o a altera&#231;&#245;es fenot&#237;picas que as c&#233;lulas sofrem dependendo do tempo de cultura e do meio utilizado, al&#233;m de n&#227;o estar completamente estabelecido como um modelo fiel ao <italic>in vivo.</italic><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> Dessa forma, o protocolo para realiza&#231;&#227;o da cultura deve ser cuidadosamente estudado, uma vez que diferentes fatores de crescimento s&#227;o conhecidos por estimular diferentes fen&#243;tipos nas c&#233;lulas em prolifera&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Devido &#224; dificuldade em se estudar o endot&#233;lio <italic>in vivo,</italic> diversas t&#233;cnicas <italic>in vitro</italic> foram desenvolvidas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> Dentre essas t&#233;cnicas, as HUVECs (c&#233;lulas endoteliais de veia umbilical humana) t&#234;m sido largamente utilizadas como fonte de c&#233;lulas endoteliais humanas, uma vez que s&#227;o livres de pat&#243;genos e fisiologicamente mais relevantes que a demais linhagens dispon&#237;veis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> Culturas prim&#225;rias com essas c&#233;lulas s&#227;o capazes de manter caracter&#237;sticas nativas das c&#233;lulas do endot&#233;lio, incluindo a express&#227;o de marcadores de superf&#237;cie espec&#237;ficos, al&#233;m de vias de sinaliza&#231;&#227;o de intracelulares.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Uma vez no meio de cultura, essas c&#233;lulas apresentam padr&#227;o disperso na placa e ap&#243;s dias de incuba&#231;&#227;o, passam a apresentar padr&#227;o confluente, ocupando a maior parte do fundo da placa.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> Quando a placa se apresenta completamente coberta, as c&#233;lulas se agrupam e formam <italic>tight junctions (jun&#231;&#245;es de oclus&#227;o)</italic>; as c&#233;lulas adquirirem formato de paralelep&#237;pedo e se assemelham ao que ocorre <italic>in vivo.</italic><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> HUVECs s&#227;o usualmente utilizadas em pesquisas de biologia molecular, permitindo avan&#231;os no estudo da fisiopatologia da forma&#231;&#227;o da placa de ateroma e dos mecanismos respons&#225;veis pelo controle da angiog&#234;nese e vasculariza&#231;&#227;o das &#225;reas danificadas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> Culturas de HUVECs possibilitam estudos de intera&#231;&#227;o celular (resultando na an&#225;lise de mol&#233;culas de ades&#227;o e citocinas), avalia&#231;&#227;o dos efeitos da taxa de cisalhamento e fluxo oscilat&#243;rio na sinaliza&#231;&#227;o celular (de forma a reproduzir o fen&#244;meno que ocorre no l&#250;men dos vasos), al&#233;m de permitir a descoberta de receptores e fatores de transcri&#231;&#227;o que participam no desenvolvimento e progress&#227;o da disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> No entanto, os resultados devem ser interpretados com cuidado devido &#224;s j&#225; mencionadas limita&#231;&#245;es da metodologia.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Ensaios funcionais <italic>in vitro</italic></title>
          <p>Nas &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas, ensaios funcionais <italic>in vitro</italic> v&#234;m sendo utilizados para avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, como o banho de &#243;rg&#227;o e o registro miogr&#225;fico, e se mostrado t&#233;cnicas essenciais para a descoberta de fatores de relaxamento derivados do endot&#233;lio (EDRF), sendo o mais estudado entre eles, o &#243;xido n&#237;trico (NO).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> Tais ensaios s&#227;o importantes uma vez que nos permitem medir o relaxamento dependente do endot&#233;lio de alguns segmentos, em resposta a agonistas reconhecidos - acetilcolina (ACh) e nitroprussiato de s&#243;dio.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>
					</p>
          <p>O banho de &#243;rg&#227;o isolado &#233; uma t&#233;cnica <italic>in vitro</italic> que avalia a reatividade vascular em resposta a agonistas, gerando uma curva dose resposta utilizada para investigar altera&#231;&#245;es fisiol&#243;gicas e farmacol&#243;gicas de prepara&#231;&#245;es biol&#243;gicas isoladas de v&#225;rias esp&#233;cies (coelho, rato, etc). Tecidos e &#243;rg&#227;os utilizados incluem: an&#233;is ou tiras de art&#233;rias e veias, &#225;trio, ventr&#237;culo ou m&#250;sculo papilar, diafragma, <italic>fundus</italic> de est&#244;mago, intestino (duodeno, jejuno e &#237;leo), traqueia, &#250;tero, entre outros. Esta t&#233;cnica tem por fun&#231;&#227;o reproduzir um ambiente fisiol&#243;gico adequado de temperatura, aera&#231;&#227;o e nutrientes para an&#225;lises dessas prepara&#231;&#245;es. Ela &#233; composta por uma aparelhagem que consiste de uma cuba de vidro de parede dupla que possui em seu interior uma c&#226;mara muscular, com capacidade vari&#225;vel entre 5 e 50 mL, conectada a uma serpentina helicoidal por onde desloca-se o l&#237;quido nutritivo. Esta serpentina helicoidal encontra-se banhada com &#225;gua aquecida a 37&#186;C, a qual &#233; impulsionada por uma bomba de circula&#231;&#227;o. O &#243;rg&#227;o ou tecido isolado &#233; mantido dentro da c&#226;mara muscular. Uma de suas extremidades &#233; fixada em uma haste de vidro conectada a uma bomba de ar que proporciona aera&#231;&#227;o da solu&#231;&#227;o nutritiva, e a outra extremidade, fixada a uma alavanca, &#233; conectada a um transdutor de for&#231;a por uma linha de algod&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A partir da&#237; os experimentos envolvem adi&#231;&#227;o de drogas em doses cumulativas &#224; c&#226;mara muscular ou estimula&#231;&#227;o el&#233;trica (quando o &#243;rg&#227;o &#233; fixado entre dois eletrodos de platina conectados a um estimulador el&#233;trico), que resultam na contra&#231;&#227;o ou relaxamento do m&#250;sculo em estudo. As mudan&#231;as de tens&#227;o s&#227;o registradas em mi&#243;grafos (quim&#243;grafos, fisi&#243;grafos ou sistemas de aquisi&#231;&#227;o digital),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> os quais registram a intensidade e a cin&#233;tica dos diferentes est&#225;gios da contra&#231;&#227;o (velocidade, frequ&#234;ncia ou decaimento). A partir dos resultados experimentais, curvas de resposta &#224; dose ou ao est&#237;mulo s&#227;o geradas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> Quando a curva dose-resposta desloca-se para a direita, significa que h&#225; um comprometimento da libera&#231;&#227;o de EDRF/NO pelo endot&#233;lio.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Essa t&#233;cnica &#233; importante, pois proporciona o controle total do ambiente de experimenta&#231;&#227;o (solu&#231;&#227;o nutritiva, temperatura controlada, etc) e &#233; capaz de isolar elementos da fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial usando, por exemplo, inibidores da enzima &#243;xido n&#237;trico sintase endotelial (eNOS), como L-NAME. Outras vantagens do m&#233;todo incluem o preparo relativamente simples, o que permite m&#250;ltiplas prepara&#231;&#245;es simultaneamente; a possibilidade do uso de estimula&#231;&#227;o el&#233;trica; e quantifica&#231;&#227;o precisa da resposta.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Uma desvantagem desse m&#233;todo &#233; que sua utiliza&#231;&#227;o &#233; restrita &#224; experimenta&#231;&#227;o animal, devido a considera&#231;&#245;es &#233;ticas que limitam a disponibilidade e a quantidade de amostras humanas e &#224; variabilidade das respostas relacionadas com eventos controlados nos pacientes. Outra desvantagem seria a necessidade de utilizar um tamanho relativamente grande do tecido (&gt; 1 mm de di&#226;metro), o que inviabiliza a avalia&#231;&#227;o de vasos com di&#226;metro menores.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> Apesar de ser a metodologia mais amplamente utilizada para o estudo da fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial em modelos animais, ela apresenta a limita&#231;&#227;o de n&#227;o distinguir os fen&#244;menos biol&#243;gicos que ocorrem no l&#250;men e no exterior do vaso sangu&#237;neo.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>An&#225;lises <italic>in vivo</italic></title>
        <sec>
          <title>Dilata&#231;&#227;o mediada pelo fluxo (DMF)</title>
          <p>Importantes evid&#234;ncias sugerem que a detec&#231;&#227;o da disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial na art&#233;ria braquial atua como um importante indicador de disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial sist&#234;mica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> A fun&#231;&#227;o vascular pode ser medida de diversas formas, tanto com a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de t&#233;cnicas invasivas como m&#233;todos n&#227;o invasivos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>
					</p>
          <p>As t&#233;cnicas invasivas envolvem principalmente a administra&#231;&#227;o intra-arterial de subst&#226;ncias que promovem o aumento da libera&#231;&#227;o de NO que, por sua vez, induz a dilata&#231;&#227;o dos leitos vasculares investigados em indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis. A observa&#231;&#227;o de vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o nessas situa&#231;&#245;es indica poss&#237;vel disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> Todavia, por sua natureza invasiva, apresentam como desvantagem a dificuldade de utiliza&#231;&#227;o generalizada na popula&#231;&#227;o. Dessa forma, o desenvolvimento e a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de m&#233;todos n&#227;o invasivos tornam-se mais pr&#225;ticos e acess&#237;veis para determina&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o vascular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Dentre as in&#250;meras t&#233;cnicas n&#227;o invasivas de determina&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o vascular, uma que desponta como a mais utilizada e mais importante, combina o imageamento de art&#233;rias (principalmente da art&#233;ria braquial) em resposta a uma hiperemia reativa, induzindo aumento de fluxo local e esperada dilata&#231;&#227;o dependente de endot&#233;lio.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> Nesta t&#233;cnica, com aux&#237;lio de manguito pneum&#225;tico ou torniquete, vasos distais da m&#227;o ou do antebra&#231;o s&#227;o oclu&#237;dos por determinado tempo, seguido da libera&#231;&#227;o dos aparatos de oclus&#227;o. Essa libera&#231;&#227;o resultar&#225; em hiperemia reativa nos leitos vasculares distais e proximais, consequ&#234;ncia de uma dilata&#231;&#227;o local, mediada pela libera&#231;&#227;o de alguns fatores, como o NO.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> O aumento do fluxo nas art&#233;rias proximais, como a braquial, &#233; resultado do aumento do estresse de cisalhamento e da dilata&#231;&#227;o induzida pelo NO.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> A esta resposta, d&#225;-se o nome de dilata&#231;&#227;o mediada pelo fluxo (DMF). Classicamente, a t&#233;cnica envolve o imageamento de art&#233;rias com aux&#237;lio de um ultrassom durante duas condi&#231;&#245;es: durante o repouso (medidas basais) e durante a hiperemia reativa (ap&#243;s um per&#237;odo de 5 minutos de oclus&#227;o arterial).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A DMF na art&#233;ria braquial &#233; uma medida indireta de libera&#231;&#227;o do NO pelo endot&#233;lio a partir de um est&#237;mulo transiente de fluxo sangu&#237;neo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> A depend&#234;ncia da DMF pelo NO foi mostrada por meio da infus&#227;o intra-arterial de um inibidor espec&#237;fico da eNOS , a Ng-mono-metil-L-arginina (L-NMMA), que reduziu em aproximadamente 66% a dilata&#231;&#227;o arterial em resposta ao estresse de cisalhamento.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Tem sido proposta uma rela&#231;&#227;o proporcional entre a magnitude da dilata&#231;&#227;o mediada com a fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> Uma DMF prejudicada &#233; considerada uma das primeiras manifesta&#231;&#245;es potencialmente revers&#237;veis de doen&#231;a vascular, e pode resultar em uma importante medida do impacto de danos ao endot&#233;lio.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> Al&#233;m disso, a disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial detectada pela DMF tem potencial em predizer um fator de risco mesmo na aus&#234;ncia de diagn&#243;stico para doen&#231;as coronarianas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> Nesse sentido, a determina&#231;&#227;o da DMF tem sido proposta como uma t&#233;cnica com potencial aplicabilidade cl&#237;nica na identifica&#231;&#227;o de fatores de risco para eventos cardiovasculares, mesmo em pacientes assintom&#225;ticos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A determina&#231;&#227;o da DMF tem capacidade de estratificar os indiv&#237;duos em baixo, moderado ou alto risco para futuros eventos cardiometab&#243;licos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> Para Gokce et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> uma prejudicada DMF tem valor progn&#243;stico a longo prazo e sugerem que a t&#233;cnica pode ser utilizada na tomada de decis&#245;es terap&#234;uticas sobre determinado paciente. Baseado nisso, estudos mostraram uma associa&#231;&#227;o entre uma deficiente DMF com o aumento de fatores de riscos de eventos cardiovasculares.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Sob perspectivas metodol&#243;gicas, alguns cuidados devem ser levados em considera&#231;&#227;o durante a determina&#231;&#227;o da DMF. Por causa de varia&#231;&#245;es na magnitude de dilata&#231;&#227;o entre per&#237;odos p&#243;s-prandiais, principalmente ap&#243;s refei&#231;&#245;es ricas em lip&#237;deos e momentos de jejum ou, ainda, durante o ciclo menstrual, &#233; recomendado que os estudos que investiguem a DMF sejam conduzidos com pacientes em jejum e mulheres na fase folicular do ciclo menstrual.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Contudo, assim como outras t&#233;cnicas, a avalia&#231;&#227;o da DMF apresenta algumas limita&#231;&#245;es que devem ser levadas em considera&#231;&#227;o. Primeiramente, a falta de padroniza&#231;&#227;o e varia&#231;&#245;es no posicionamento dos manguitos nos punhos/bra&#231;os e nos di&#226;metros dos vasos dificultam a compara&#231;&#227;o dos resultados com outros achados. Al&#233;m disso, em determinadas condi&#231;&#245;es de doen&#231;as, o grau de hiperemia reativa pode sofrer varia&#231;&#227;o mesmo sob est&#237;mulos similares. Ainda, altera&#231;&#245;es nas estruturas dos vasos sangu&#237;neos e uma dilata&#231;&#227;o prejudicada podem atuar como fatores limitantes durante a t&#233;cnica de DMF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> Vale ressaltar que se trata de uma t&#233;cnica altamente avaliador-dependente, o que pode levar a diferentes valores de DMF.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Fluxometria por laser Doppler (FLD)</title>
          <p>A fluxometria por laser Doppler (FLD) &#233; uma excelente t&#233;cnica para mensura&#231;&#227;o da microcircula&#231;&#227;o cut&#226;nea.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> &#201; baseada na medi&#231;&#227;o do efeito doppler causado pela refra&#231;&#227;o de uma luz emitida em frequ&#234;ncia conhecida sobre as c&#233;lulas vermelhas do sangue em movimenta&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> A FLD &#233; amplamente utilizada por se tratar de uma t&#233;cnica n&#227;o invasiva, simples de ser aplicada e por permitir medi&#231;&#245;es cont&#237;nuas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> FLD n&#227;o determina diretamente o fluxo sangu&#237;neo local, mas fornece um &#237;ndice de perfus&#227;o cut&#226;nea.</p>
          <p>Esta t&#233;cnica &#233; baseada na difus&#227;o e refra&#231;&#227;o de um feixe de luz monocrom&#225;tica. O feixe de luz sofre mudan&#231;as em seu comprimento de onda (efeito doppler) quando se choca com c&#233;lulas vermelhas sangu&#237;neas que est&#227;o em constante movimenta&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> A frequ&#234;ncia e a magnitude da mudan&#231;a do comprimento de onda do feixe de luz t&#234;m associa&#231;&#227;o com a velocidade dos gl&#243;bulos vermelhos e com a quantidade dessas c&#233;lulas. A maioria dos equipamentos utiliza um comprimento de onda de 780 nan&#244;metros, suficientes para penetrar na pele de qualquer indiv&#237;duo, independentemente de cor ou satura&#231;&#227;o de oxig&#234;nio.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Quando combinada a outras t&#233;cnicas, como a infus&#227;o de subst&#226;ncias vasoativas com efeito local, a iontoforese de pequenas mol&#233;culas carregadas ou t&#233;cnicas que induzam hiperemia reativa, a FLD tem sido utilizada para determina&#231;&#227;o de mudan&#231;as na microcircula&#231;&#227;o da pele em tempo real.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> Por exemplo, a administra&#231;&#227;o intrad&#233;rmica de ACh por iontoforese induz dilata&#231;&#227;o dependente de endot&#233;lio que combinada com a FLD permite quantificar o fluxo sangu&#237;neo da regi&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A FLD apresenta boa precis&#227;o para quantificar r&#225;pidas altera&#231;&#245;es no fluxo sangu&#237;neo cut&#226;neo. Todavia, a heterogeneidade caracter&#237;stica desse tecido, devido a diferen&#231;as em sua anatomia, promove uma variabilidade espacial, que contribui para uma relativa baixa qualidade na reprodutibilidade da t&#233;cnica. Por outro lado, o uso de probes integrados auxilia na diminui&#231;&#227;o da variabilidade espacial, permitindo aumentos na reprodutibilidade.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> Outra vantagem desta t&#233;cnica &#233; seu car&#225;ter n&#227;o invasivo; mesmo quando acoplada &#224; infus&#227;o intrad&#233;rmica, a t&#233;cnica &#233; relativamente segura, dada a pequena quantidade de droga infundida. Esta t&#233;cnica apresenta menor complexidade do que a DMF, por&#233;m com um bom potencial de relev&#226;ncia cl&#237;nica para testar a sa&#250;de vascular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Pletismografia por oclus&#227;o venosa (POV)</title>
          <p>A pletismografia por oclus&#227;o venosa (POV) come&#231;ou a ser estudada h&#225; mais de 90 anos e o seu objetivo inicial era avaliar o fluxo sangu&#237;neo em &#243;rg&#227;os.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> Atualmente, a POV vem sendo amplamente utilizada em estudos que investigam a fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, avaliando a a&#231;&#227;o do sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo na regula&#231;&#227;o do fluxo sangu&#237;neo, assim como a resposta vasodilatadora frente a est&#237;mulos diversos como, por exemplo, o exerc&#237;cio e o estresse mental.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref> Por ser um m&#233;todo de f&#225;cil aplicabilidade, a POV &#233; muito utilizada no estudo da fisiologia vascular em humanos <italic>in vivo</italic>, tanto em indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis quanto em diversas situa&#231;&#245;es patol&#243;gicas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>
					</p>
          <p>O procedimento n&#227;o invasivo de POV consiste na coloca&#231;&#227;o de um manguito pneum&#225;tico na por&#231;&#227;o superior do bra&#231;o do indiv&#237;duo, e inflado a uma press&#227;o inferior a press&#227;o diast&#243;lica. Geralmente utiliza-se uma press&#227;o em torno 40 mmHg, sendo o manguito inflado intermitentemente durante aproximadamente 10 segundos e desinflado por 5 segundos. Esse procedimento dura em torno de 2 a 3 minutos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A press&#227;o gerada por essa manobra &#233; suficiente para manter o fluxo arterial em dire&#231;&#227;o ao antebra&#231;o, por&#233;m impossibilita o retorno venoso, o que acarreta no aumento do volume do membro. Tal aumento &#233; linear e captado por meio de um sensor sil&#225;stico (<italic>strain gauge</italic>) que &#233; posicionado no ponto de maior volume do antebra&#231;o. Esse sensor &#233; preenchido com merc&#250;rio e &#233; capaz de medir qualquer altera&#231;&#227;o no volume tecidual.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>
					</p>
          <p>O indiv&#237;duo em situa&#231;&#227;o de repouso apresenta o fluxo sangu&#237;neo no antebra&#231;o que se divide em, aproximadamente, 70% no m&#250;sculo estriado esquel&#233;tico e 30% na pele. A m&#227;o possui in&#250;meras comunica&#231;&#245;es arteriovenosas relacionadas &#224; irriga&#231;&#227;o da pele. Para que isso n&#227;o influencie na medida de fluxo no antebra&#231;o, &#233; posicionado um manguito inferior em torno do punho &#233; inflado a uma press&#227;o supra sist&#243;lica momentos antes da medida.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A varia&#231;&#227;o no volume do membro proveniente da manobra &#233; utilizada para avaliar a responsividade do vaso. Esse est&#237;mulo pode ser mec&#226;nico, promovendo hiperemia reativa, ou por via qu&#237;mica e invasiva, pela administra&#231;&#227;o de subst&#226;ncias vasoativas. A resposta prejudicada ou diminu&#237;da pode ser um ind&#237;cio de disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref> A disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial &#233; considerada um fator cr&#237;tico no desenvolvimento, progress&#227;o e complica&#231;&#245;es para a doen&#231;a arterial coronariana.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref> A fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, quando preservada, funciona como um importante regulador de inflama&#231;&#227;o vascular e remodelamento.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A vasodilata&#231;&#227;o endot&#233;lio-dependente pode ser mensurada por meio da hiperemia reativa que &#233; estimulada por meio de um manguito posicionado no bra&#231;o e inflado uma press&#227;o supra sist&#243;lica conforme descrito acima. Esse est&#237;mulo induz a produ&#231;&#227;o de vasodilatadores, principalmente NO, a partir da microvasculatura, aumentando a velocidade do fluxo. O estresse de cisalhamento provocado pelo atrito do sangue com a parede do vaso promove vasodilata&#231;&#227;o. Posteriormente, o manguito &#233; liberado rapidamente e as varia&#231;&#245;es nos vasos s&#227;o medidas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref> Outra forma de se medir essa resposta &#233; por meio da infus&#227;o de ACh, que atua como agonista de receptores muscar&#237;nicos localizados no endot&#233;lio, e usada para avaliar vasodilata&#231;&#227;o dependente do endot&#233;lio. Geralmente s&#227;o infundidas doses crescentes durante 5 minutos e a medida de fluxo sangu&#237;neo no antebra&#231;o, dada por mL.100mL<sup>-1</sup>.min<sup>-1</sup> tecidual, &#233; verificada nos dois &#250;ltimos minutos da infus&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>
					</p>
          <p>J&#225; a vasodilata&#231;&#227;o endot&#233;lio-independente &#233; avaliada pela infus&#227;o de subst&#226;ncias vasoativas precursoras de NO, como o nitroprussiato de s&#243;dio. Os <italic>strain gauges</italic> v&#227;o identificar a varia&#231;&#227;o vascular confirmar se houve uma resposta adequada ou n&#227;o. Quando a resposta condiz com o est&#237;mulo, podemos afirmar que a fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial est&#225; preservada.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A POV, quando realizada de forma invasiva utilizando a infus&#227;o intra-arterial de subst&#226;ncias vasoativas, &#233; considerada como ferramenta padr&#227;o-ouro para a an&#225;lise do comportamento vascular. Por&#233;m, isso inviabiliza a sua realiza&#231;&#227;o em grande escala na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Velocidade de onda de pulso (VOP)</title>
          <p>Ao fim da eje&#231;&#227;o ventricular, &#233; gerada uma onda de press&#227;o que se propaga do cora&#231;&#227;o para a periferia em determinada velocidade. A medida dessa velocidade &#233; denominada velocidade de onda de pulso (VOP).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref> Alguns autores definem a VOP como a dist&#226;ncia percorrida pelo fluxo sangu&#237;neo dividida pelo tempo necess&#225;rio para percorrer tal dist&#226;ncia, dada em metros/segundos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A VOP tem sido adotada como um importante marcador de risco cardiovascular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref> Assim, quanto menor a VOP, mais el&#225;stico e saud&#225;vel se encontra o vaso. Por&#233;m, quando o vaso apresenta um alto n&#237;vel de rigidez, ocorre um aumento na propaga&#231;&#227;o das ondas de pulso na art&#233;ria aorta e grandes vasos, al&#233;m de causar um retorno precoce das ondas de pulso refletidas da periferia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref> A onda de pulso &#233; normalmente refletida em qualquer ponto de descontinuidade da &#225;rvore arterial, causando uma onda retr&#243;grada na aorta ascendente. Esse retorno antecipado, ainda no final da s&#237;stole, promove uma sobrecarga no trabalho card&#237;aco.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A associa&#231;&#227;o entre a rigidez arterial e fatores de risco como doen&#231;a arterial coronariana, diabetes mellitus, hipertens&#227;o arterial, disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica e idade j&#225; est&#225; bem estabelecida.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref> Um indiv&#237;duo jovem saud&#225;vel apresenta valores reduzidos de VOP, por&#233;m, com o avan&#231;ar da idade as propriedades el&#225;sticas dos vasos reduzem, aumentando os valores de VOP.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref> Ainda existem controv&#233;rsias quanto aos valores de VOP e risco cardiovascular, por&#233;m, valores maiores que 12 m/s s&#227;o tidos como "ponto de corte".<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Existem diferentes t&#233;cnicas para mensura&#231;&#227;o da VOP, por&#233;m a forma estabelecida na literatura como padr&#227;o ouro &#233; a rela&#231;&#227;o car&#243;tida-femoral por expressar valores diretamente relacionados a art&#233;ria aorta e por ser um m&#233;todo n&#227;o invasivo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref> Essa t&#233;cnica &#233; realizada com o indiv&#237;duo em posi&#231;&#227;o supina, e dois transdutores s&#227;o posicionados, um na art&#233;ria car&#243;tida comum direita e outro na art&#233;ria femoral direita. A diferen&#231;a de tempo entre o in&#237;cio da onda de pulso carot&#237;deo e o in&#237;cio da onda de pulso femoral, e a medida da dist&#226;ncia entre os transdutores s&#227;o utilizados para calcular a VOP.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Outro m&#233;todo amplamente recomendado para a an&#225;lise das ondas de pulso &#233; a tonometria de aplana&#231;&#227;o. Essa t&#233;cnica &#233; utilizada para estimar a onda de press&#227;o a&#243;rtica a partir da onda de press&#227;o na art&#233;ria car&#243;tida comum ou radial. O uso da tonometria da art&#233;ria radial &#233; mais recomendado devido ao suporte da estrutura &#243;ssea no local, o que facilita a medida. Para a sua realiza&#231;&#227;o, &#233; utilizado um transdutor posicionado na pele no local mais proeminente do vaso. Os sinais da onda press&#227;o s&#227;o captados pelo aparelho e posteriormente &#233; aplicada uma fun&#231;&#227;o de transfer&#234;ncia para calcular a onda de press&#227;o da aorta.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A rigidez arterial representa um forte ind&#237;cio de doen&#231;a cardiovascular, o que justifica o uso da an&#225;lise de onda de pulso na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica, identificando altera&#231;&#245;es nos vasos que possam estar diretamente relacionados &#224; sa&#250;de vascular mesmo antes do aparecimento de sinais ou sintomas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Poss&#237;veis limita&#231;&#245;es da t&#233;cnica est&#227;o relacionadas &#224; exist&#234;ncia de comorbidades associadas como s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica, obesidade e diabetes, o que pode prejudicar o registro da onda de press&#227;o femoral. Al&#233;m disso, homens com obesidade abdominal e mulheres com grande volume do busto podem ocasionar erro na determina&#231;&#227;o da dist&#226;ncia entre os pontos de medida.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Marcadores s&#233;ricos de disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial</title>
          <p>Biomarcadores s&#227;o ferramentas anal&#237;ticas usadas para avaliar par&#226;metros biol&#243;gicos. Em 2001, um grupo de trabalho do <italic>National Institutes of Health</italic> (NIH) padronizou a defini&#231;&#227;o de biomarcador, ou marcadores biol&#243;gicos, como "uma caracter&#237;stica que &#233; objetivamente medida e avaliada como um indicador de processos biol&#243;gicos normais, processos patog&#234;nicos ou respostas farmacol&#243;gicas para uma interven&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica". Atualmente, s&#227;o utilizados como ferramenta para: 1) identifica&#231;&#227;o de indiv&#237;duos sob alto risco; 2) diagn&#243;stico r&#225;pido e preciso em condi&#231;&#245;es de doen&#231;a; 3) progn&#243;stico e tratamento eficazes. Independentemente de sua finalidade, um biomarcador apresenta relev&#226;ncia cl&#237;nica quando apresenta as seguintes caracter&#237;sticas: precis&#227;o; padroniza&#231;&#227;o e reprodutibilidade; adequa&#231;&#227;o ao paciente; f&#225;cil interpreta&#231;&#227;o por cl&#237;nicos; e alta sensibilidade e/ou especificidade pelo par&#226;metro que se prop&#245;e a identificar.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>
					</p>
          <p>O uso de biomarcadores s&#233;ricos para avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial apresenta vantagens devido &#224; relativa simplicidade dos procedimentos e ao fato de que amostras de sangue venoso s&#227;o amplamente utilizadas na rotina laboratorial. A utiliza&#231;&#227;o desses marcadores biol&#243;gicos para avalia&#231;&#227;o do progn&#243;stico e/ou diagn&#243;stico de doen&#231;as vasculares ainda est&#225; em um est&#225;gio inicial de desenvolvimento, mas essa &#225;rea de atua&#231;&#227;o apresenta um grande potencial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Mol&#233;culas de ades&#227;o celular (ICAM-1, VCAM-1 e E-selectina)</title>
          <p>As c&#233;lulas endoteliais desempenham um papel chave no transporte de c&#233;lulas e substratos metab&#243;licos entre o sangue e o espa&#231;o intersticial, incluindo um complexo sistema de sinaliza&#231;&#227;o que regula respostas imunes inatas do leito vascular. Quando essas c&#233;lulas s&#227;o ativadas por est&#237;mulos pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rios, tais como endotoxinas bacterianas, interleucina 1B (IL-1B), fator de necrose tumoral-&#945; (TNF-&#945;), prote&#237;na C reativa (PCR), LDL-ox ou por for&#231;as hemodin&#226;micas relacionadas ao fluxo sangu&#237;neo, a express&#227;o de mol&#233;culas de ades&#227;o &#233; aumentada e, portanto, s&#227;o consideradas marcadores precoces de ativa&#231;&#227;o endotelial e inflama&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A migra&#231;&#227;o transendotelial de leuc&#243;citos &#233; regulada por mol&#233;culas de ades&#227;o celular sol&#250;veis, tais como ICAM-1, VCAM-1 e E-selectinas. A ICAM-1 &#233; membro da superfam&#237;lia de imunoglobulinas e ligante para integrinas &#946;2 de mol&#233;culas presentes em leuc&#243;citos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref> e &#233; altamente expressa em c&#233;lulas endoteliais e macr&#243;fagos subendoteliais.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref> A ICAM-1 participa da media&#231;&#227;o de uma s&#233;rie de intera&#231;&#245;es c&#233;lula-c&#233;lula, incluindo a ades&#227;o e transmigra&#231;&#227;o de leuc&#243;citos na parede do endot&#233;lio vascular. Dados da literatura suportam a hip&#243;tese de que a express&#227;o de ICAM-1 leva &#224; ativa&#231;&#227;o c&#233;lulas endoteliais e a inflama&#231;&#227;o que, por sua vez, s&#227;o passos importantes na inicia&#231;&#227;o e progress&#227;o da aterosclerose.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A VCAM-1 tamb&#233;m pertence &#224; superfam&#237;lia de imunoglobulinas e &#233; um ligante do ant&#237;geno-4 muito tardio, uma &#946;-integrina encontrada apenas na superf&#237;cie de c&#233;lulas mononucleares.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref> Sua express&#227;o &#233; predominantemente restrita a c&#233;lulas endoteliais e c&#233;lulas fusiformes ocasionais. De forma contr&#225;ria a ICAM-1, que &#233; produzida em baixos n&#237;veis, a VCAM-1 n&#227;o &#233; expressa no endot&#233;lio saud&#225;vel.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref> Sup&#245;e-se que a express&#227;o de VCAM-1 pode resultar da ativa&#231;&#227;o endotelial, uma vez que aumenta o recrutamento local de mon&#243;citos e melhora a intera&#231;&#227;o mon&#243;cito-endot&#233;lio durante a inicia&#231;&#227;o da forma&#231;&#227;o de les&#245;es ateroscler&#243;ticas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A E-selectina, mol&#233;cula pertence &#224; fam&#237;lia das lectinas do tipo C, &#233; provavelmente a mais espec&#237;fica dentre os marcadores de ativa&#231;&#227;o endotelial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref> Sua express&#227;o &#233; restrita ao endot&#233;lio vascular e induzida por citocinas inflamat&#243;rias. Essa mol&#233;cula de ades&#227;o desempenha um papel importante no recrutamento de leuc&#243;citos para o local da inflama&#231;&#227;o e, medeia a rolagem de leuc&#243;citos em vasos sangu&#237;neos inflamados.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Marcadores inflamat&#243;rios</title>
          <p>Ao longo dos &#250;ltimos anos, evid&#234;ncias t&#234;m demonstrado que a inflama&#231;&#227;o est&#225; intimamente relacionada com a patog&#234;nese da aterosclerose e suas complica&#231;&#245;es. PCR, ligante de CD40 (CD40L), IL-18, prote&#237;na quimiot&#225;tica de mon&#243;citos (MCP-1), entre outros, s&#227;o marcadores inflamat&#243;rios que resultam na ativa&#231;&#227;o endotelial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref> Fortes evid&#234;ncias cient&#237;ficas indicam que a ativa&#231;&#227;o inflamat&#243;ria &#233; uma importante via no desenvolvimento e progress&#227;o de aterosclerose. A cascata inflamat&#243;ria est&#225; envolvida durante todo o processo de forma&#231;&#227;o da placa ateroscler&#243;tica, desde as fases iniciais de disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial at&#233; o desenvolvimento de s&#237;ndromes coron&#225;rias agudas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Interleucina-18 (IL-18)</title>
          <p>A interleucina- 18 (IL-18), membro da fam&#237;lia de citocinas IL-1, &#233; altamente expressa em placas ateroscler&#243;ticas e se localiza principalmente em macr&#243;fagos residentes nessas &#225;reas. O aumento da express&#227;o de IL-18 est&#225; associado diretamente ao desenvolvimento da disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, uma vez que essa interleucina promove aumento na express&#227;o de mol&#233;culas de ades&#227;o no endot&#233;lio vascular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Prote&#237;na-C Reativa (PCR)</title>
          <p>A PCR &#233; pentraxina circulante composta de cinco subunidades id&#234;nticas dispostas na forma de um pent&#226;mero c&#237;clico, que desempenha um papel importante na resposta imune inata humana.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref> Pesquisas nos &#250;ltimos 20 anos sugerem que a PCR pode apresentar capacidade pr&#243;-aterog&#234;nica e afetar diretamente a express&#227;o de mol&#233;culas de ades&#227;o e a fibrin&#243;lise, atuando, assim no processo inflamat&#243;rio em c&#233;lulas endoteliais no desenvolvimento da disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Esses estudos demonstram que a PCR promove ativa&#231;&#227;o endotelial por meio da express&#227;o de ICAM-1, VCAM-1, E-selectinas e MCP-1 e, ainda, ativa macr&#243;fagos que expressam citocinas e fatores teciduais, promovendo um aumento da absor&#231;&#227;o de lipoprote&#237;nas de baixa densidade (LDL) por outras lipoprote&#237;nas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref> Verificou-se tamb&#233;m que a PCR modula negativamente a produ&#231;&#227;o de fatores vasoativos derivados do endot&#233;lio, principalmente o NO, principal controlador da homeostase vascular. Esse processo pode facilitar a ocorr&#234;ncia de apoptose nas c&#233;lulas endoteliais e atenuar mecanismos compensat&#243;rios importantes para a angiog&#234;nese.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Paralelamente, a PCR tem capacidade de acentuar a produ&#231;&#227;o da endotelina-1 (ET-1), um potente vasoconstritor dependente do endot&#233;lio, e da IL-6, uma citocina pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;ria chave.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref> Todos esses dados corroboram com a ideia de que a PCR &#233; preditora de aterosclerose e morte vascular. Sua concentra&#231;&#227;o s&#233;rica pode refletir a sa&#250;de endotelial, uma vez que essa prote&#237;na tem capacidade de alterar o fen&#243;tipo de c&#233;lulas endoteliais e, assim, contribuir para a forma&#231;&#227;o da les&#227;o, ruptura da placa e trombose coron&#225;ria. Portanto, al&#233;m de atuar como um biomarcador inflamat&#243;rio, a PCR tamb&#233;m &#233; considerada um mediador de doen&#231;a vascular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Ligante de CD40 (CD40L)</title>
          <p>O ligante CD40 (CD40L), que pode se apresentar na forma livre ou sol&#250;vel, &#233; uma prote&#237;na transmembrana de tipo II que pertence &#224; superfam&#237;lia do TNF e comp&#245;e uma via fisiopatol&#243;gica intimamente envolvida na inflama&#231;&#227;o e na aterog&#234;nese.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref> O CD40L origina-se principalmente de plaquetas que, apesar de serem essenciais para a hemostasia, tamb&#233;m t&#234;m potencial para iniciar uma resposta inflamat&#243;ria na parede vascular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref> Uma vez ativadas, plaquetas prontamente expressam CD40L e o aparecimento dessa mol&#233;cula em sua superf&#237;cie induz as c&#233;lulas endoteliais a secretar quimiocinas e expressar mol&#233;culas de ades&#227;o, promovendo, assim, o recrutamento e extravasamento de leuc&#243;citos no local da les&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref>
					</p>
          <p>CD40L pode rapidamente desprender-se da membrana plaquet&#225;ria, apresentando-se na forma sol&#250;vel. Ambas as formas t&#234;m atividade pr&#243;-tromb&#243;tica e pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;ria, aumentando a ativa&#231;&#227;o e agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria e a conjuga&#231;&#227;o de plaquetas-leuc&#243;citos e leuc&#243;cito-endot&#233;lio. Ainda, aumentam a liberta&#231;&#227;o de esp&#233;cies reativas de oxig&#234;nio e nitrog&#234;nio a partir de plaquetas estimuladas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref> Resumindo, esse sistema de ativa&#231;&#227;o de CD40L promove um estado inflamat&#243;rio cr&#244;nico na parede vascular e isso contribui para o desenvolvimento da disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, aterog&#234;nese e suas respectivas complica&#231;&#245;es.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Prote&#237;na quimiot&#225;tica de mon&#243;citos (MCP-1)</title>
          <p>Uma vez aderidos &#224; parede vascular devido &#224; a&#231;&#227;o das mol&#233;culas de ades&#227;o celular, os mon&#243;citos migram do endot&#233;lio para a camada &#237;ntima, a mais interna da parede vascular. Essa migra&#231;&#227;o de mon&#243;citos &#233; mediada por um gradiente de concentra&#231;&#227;o de MCP-1, a partir da intera&#231;&#227;o dessa mol&#233;cula com os receptores CCR2 de mon&#243;citos. Uma vez no interior da camada &#237;ntima, os mon&#243;citos desenvolvem-se em macr&#243;fagos e come&#231;am a expressar receptores antioxidantes, tais como SR-A, CD36 e LOX-1, que internalizam lipoprote&#237;nas modificadas. Essa internaliza&#231;&#227;o d&#225; origem a macr&#243;fagos ou c&#233;lulas espumosas que transportam lip&#237;dios, os quais caracterizam as les&#245;es ateroscler&#243;ticas precoces.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Estudos mostram que a MCP-1 induz o recrutamento de mon&#243;citos ap&#243;s les&#227;o endotelial, e esse dano parece ser necess&#225;rio para o aparecimento local dessa mol&#233;cula e sua express&#227;o sobre plaquetas aderentes. Portanto, a express&#227;o de MCP-1 ap&#243;s a les&#227;o vascular &#233; um mecanismo altamente especializado, que desempenha um papel decisivo no remodelamento vascular em situa&#231;&#245;es de inj&#250;ria. A dosagem do seu n&#237;vel plasm&#225;tico pode refletir o grau de disfun&#231;&#227;o e comprometimento do endot&#233;lio vascular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>C&#233;lulas endoteliais circulantes (CEC) e micropart&#237;culas endoteliais (MPE)</title>
          <p>A fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial reflete o balan&#231;o entre les&#227;o e repara&#231;&#227;o do endot&#233;lio vascular. Essa rela&#231;&#227;o levou ao desenvolvimento de ensaios para quantificar o descolamento das c&#233;lulas endoteliais maduras e de micropart&#237;culas derivadas para representar o grau de dano. C&#233;lulas endoteliais circulantes (CEC), que se desprendem quando h&#225; ativa&#231;&#227;o ou perda de integridade do endot&#233;lio vascular, podem ser medidas na circula&#231;&#227;o por citometria de fluxo ou microscopia de fluoresc&#234;ncia. Uma vez iniciado o processo de apoptose endotelial, ocorre aumento abrupto da libera&#231;&#227;o de c&#225;lcio pelo ret&#237;culo endoplasm&#225;tico, fazendo com que a membrana celular saia do estado repouso.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref> Dados da literatura sugerem que h&#225; uma rela&#231;&#227;o direta entre o aumento o n&#250;mero CEC na circula&#231;&#227;o perif&#233;rica e a extens&#227;o da les&#227;o endotelial em pacientes com doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica e inflama&#231;&#227;o vascular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Micropart&#237;culas endoteliais (MPE) s&#227;o pequenas ves&#237;culas formadas e liberadas pela membrana celular de CEC ativadas ou danificadas em resposta a ativa&#231;&#227;o e/ou apoptose.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref> Ao se desprender de suas c&#233;lulas de origem, as MPE carregam em sua superf&#237;cie mol&#233;culas de ades&#227;o, enzimas e receptores, al&#233;m de expressarem uma variedade de ant&#237;genos constitutivos,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref> e portanto, sua composi&#231;&#227;o pode ser utilizada para caracterizar o estado da c&#233;lula endotelial progenitora. Em condi&#231;&#245;es normais, a ativa&#231;&#227;o endotelial - quando o endot&#233;lio sai de seu estado basal e passa a expressar citocinas e mol&#233;culas de ades&#227;o, desencadeando mecanismos inflamat&#243;rios - mant&#233;m-se local, discreta e revers&#237;vel, de forma que MPE circulantes s&#227;o dificilmente encontradas. J&#225; n&#237;veis elevados de MPE foram observados em uma variedade de condi&#231;&#245;es associadas com a ativa&#231;&#227;o endotelial ou &#224; apoptose,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref> indicando que MPE est&#227;o diretamente relacionadas com a trombog&#234;nese e forma&#231;&#227;o da placa de ateroma,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref> participando ainda nos processos de inflama&#231;&#227;o, dano vascular e angiog&#234;nese.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Mieloperoxidase (MPO) e esp&#233;cies reativas de oxig&#234;nio (EROs)</title>
          <p>A mieloperoxidase (MPO) &#233; uma enzima membro da superfam&#237;lia heme peroxidases, liberada por neutr&#243;filos ativados, mon&#243;citos e macr&#243;fagos teciduais, que catalisam a forma&#231;&#227;o de esp&#233;cies reativas de oxig&#234;nio (EROS).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref> Al&#233;m de sua import&#226;ncia no combate a doen&#231;as infecciosas, a MPO &#233; cada vez mais reconhecida pelo seu papel no in&#237;cio e progress&#227;o da aterosclerose.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref> A MPO liga-se a glicosaminoglicanas nas paredes vasculares e, nessa circunst&#226;ncia, prejudica a libera&#231;&#227;o de NO derivada do endot&#233;lio e fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial local.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Produtos da atividade das MPO, como &#225;cido hipocloroso, radical tirosil e di&#243;xido de nitrog&#234;nio, reagem com per&#243;xido de hidrog&#234;nio e podem contribuir para a ocorr&#234;ncia de danos oxidativos em lip&#237;deos e prote&#237;nas do organismo. Portanto, os dados da literatura corroboram a ideia de que n&#237;veis de MPO podem predizer o desenvolvimento da disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial e doen&#231;a arterial coronariana, enquanto baixos n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos e determinados polimorfismos espec&#237;ficos de MPO foram descritos como cardioprotetores.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Por sua vez, o estresse oxidativo pode promover a disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial por uma s&#233;rie de mecanismos, mas a via predominante envolve a redu&#231;&#227;o da biodisponibilidade de NO. Em determinadas circunst&#226;ncias, a produ&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica de EROs pode exceder a capacidade antioxidante enzim&#225;tica e n&#227;o enzim&#225;tica e, consequentemente, ocorrer um aumento dos n&#237;veis de biomol&#233;culas oxidadas e os poss&#237;veis danos teciduais associados. Evid&#234;ncias sugerem que o estresse oxidativo tem um papel central na aterog&#234;nese e que poderia desempenhar esse papel por meio do desenvolvimento e progress&#227;o da disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Fator de crescimento do endot&#233;lio vascular (VEGF)</title>
          <p>O fator de crescimento do endot&#233;lio vascular (VEGF), tamb&#233;m conhecido por fator de permeabilidade vascular, &#233; amplamente conhecido por seu papel na angiog&#234;nese, estimulando a prolifera&#231;&#227;o e migra&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas endoteliais, al&#233;m de aumentar a permeabilidade vascular. Esse fator &#233; secretado por v&#225;rios tipos celulares diferentes, incluindo as c&#233;lulas endoteliais. VEGF liga-se principalmente a receptores tirosina-quinase de superf&#237;cie celular denominados VEGFR-1, VEGFR-2 e VEGFR-3.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref> Dentre esses receptores, o VEGFR-2 destaca-se no que diz respeito &#224; avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, pois sua express&#227;o &#233; restrita &#224;s c&#233;lulas do endot&#233;lio vascular. Esse receptor desempenha um papel significativo na migra&#231;&#227;o celular, vasodilata&#231;&#227;o dependente do endot&#233;lio e angiog&#234;nese.</p>
          <p>A ativa&#231;&#227;o de VEGFR-2 ocorre a partir da liga&#231;&#227;o com VEGF ou por aumento da taxa de cisalhamento do fluxo sangu&#237;neo, que desencadeia uma cascata de sinaliza&#231;&#227;o e ativa&#231;&#227;o das vias MEK-MAPK (prolifera&#231;&#227;o e migra&#231;&#227;o), PI3K-Akt (sobreviv&#234;ncia) e de Src eNOS (permeabilidade). Em adultos, VEGFR2 &#233; fisiologicamente detect&#225;vel em quantidades baixas na vasculatura e, em situa&#231;&#245;es adversas (como crescimento tumoral, repara&#231;&#227;o de feridas e em doen&#231;as inflamat&#243;rias) participa do processo de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o local.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Outros</title>
          <p>LDL-oxs s&#227;o mol&#233;culas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias e imunog&#234;nicas que podem afetar uma grande variedade de processos ateroscler&#243;ticos a partir de eventos precoces, tais como a express&#227;o da mol&#233;cula de ades&#227;o e ativa&#231;&#227;o do sistema imunit&#225;rio, at&#233; eventos posteriores, tais como a agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria e desestabiliza&#231;&#227;o da placa ateroscler&#243;tica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> A LDL-ox &#233; formada por processos oxidativos durante a migra&#231;&#227;o das part&#237;culas de LDL na parede dos vasos sangu&#237;neos e, recentemente, tem sido proposta como marcador de disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial e aterog&#234;nese.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Outro marcador da sa&#250;de endotelial s&#227;o os &#225;cidos graxos livres (AGLs). AGLs podem elevar os n&#237;veis de EROS a partir da produ&#231;&#227;o de citocinas em c&#233;lulas mononucleares. Al&#233;m disso, podem induzir a ativa&#231;&#227;o de vias pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias de NF-kB em c&#233;lulas endoteliais humanas. Gra&#231;as a essas caracter&#237;sticas, os AGLs s&#227;o considerados um biomarcador precoce para les&#227;o endotelial e aterosclerose, apresentando implica&#231;&#245;es importantes para a preven&#231;&#227;o e tratamento de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>
					</p>
          <p>As consequ&#234;ncias pr&#243;-coagulantes da ativa&#231;&#227;o endotelial podem ser mensuradas por altera&#231;&#245;es no equil&#237;brio entre o ativador do plasminog&#234;nio tecidual (tPA) e do seu inibidor end&#243;geno, o inibidor da ativa&#231;&#227;o do plasminog&#234;nio-1 (PAI-1). Al&#233;m disso, o fator de von Willebrand, uma glicoprote&#237;na amplamente liberada pelo endot&#233;lio ativo, apresenta um papel adicional na ativa&#231;&#227;o celular, na promo&#231;&#227;o da coagula&#231;&#227;o e na ativa&#231;&#227;o de plaquetas. Al&#233;m desses fatores, o fibrinog&#234;nio tamb&#233;m pode ser considerado um biomarcador de fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial. Essa glicoprote&#237;na &#233; sintetizada principalmente nas c&#233;lulas hep&#225;ticas e em megacari&#243;citos, e pode se ligar a prote&#237;nas da superf&#237;cie da glicoprote&#237;na (GP) IIb / IIIa, criando pontes entre as plaquetas. O fibrinog&#234;nio estimula a migra&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas de m&#250;sculo liso, promove a agrega&#231;&#227;o de plaquetas e aumenta a viscosidade no sangue e, portanto, &#233; associado com o desenvolvimento inicial da aterosclerose.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
        <p>Evid&#234;ncias mostram a import&#226;ncia da disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial para o desenvolvimento e progress&#227;o das doen&#231;as cardiovasculares. In&#250;meros s&#227;o os m&#233;todos para investiga&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o da endotelial, sendo estes <italic>in vivo</italic> ou <italic>in vitro</italic>, invasivos ou n&#227;o invasivos. Vale ressaltar que essas t&#233;cnicas s&#227;o amplamente utilizadas no &#226;mbito da pesquisa cl&#237;nica, por&#233;m os mesmos ainda n&#227;o s&#227;o utilizados em diagn&#243;sticos, por serem muito invasivas, muito caras ou dif&#237;ceis de serem padronizadas. Ressaltamos, assim, a import&#226;ncia de mais estudos e investimentos na &#225;rea a fim de torn&#225;-las aplic&#225;veis na pratica cl&#237;nica e, com isso, minimizar problemas de sa&#250;de p&#250;blica relacionados a doen&#231;as cardiovasculares, por meio do diagn&#243;stico precoce de disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Limita&#231;&#245;es</title>
          <p>O presente artigo trata-se de uma revis&#227;o de literatura narrativa e, portanto, n&#227;o apresenta uma metodologia de confec&#231;&#227;o estabelecida e reprodut&#237;vel, ficando a cargo dos autores a identifica&#231;&#227;o e sele&#231;&#227;o de estudos, sua an&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o. Por&#233;m, ressalta-se que o objetivo dessa revis&#227;o &#233; fornecer uma atualiza&#231;&#227;o sobre os m&#233;todos atualmente utilizados para avaliar fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, e apontar novas perspectivas nessa &#225;rea do conhecimento.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo foi parcialmente financiado por CAPES, FAPERJ, CNPq.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <ack>
        <title>Agradecimentos</title>
        <p>Os autores gostariam de agradecer ao Laborat&#243;rio de Ci&#234;ncias do Exerc&#237;cio (LACE) da Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF) por todo suporte dado durante a elabora&#231;&#227;o do presente estudo.</p>
      </ack>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
