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<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" article-type="review-article" dtd-version="1.0" specific-use="sps-1.6" xml:lang="en">
  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">ijcs</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>International Journal of Cardiovascular Sciences</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Int. J. Cardiovasc. Sci.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">2359-4802</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">2359-5647</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">6MzZJF5YqHdwDSgypz6kzKC</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S2359-56472017000100081</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/2359-4802.20160060</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Articles</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Understanding Hospitalization in Patients with Heart Failure</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mesquita</surname>
            <given-names>Evandro Tinoco</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Jorge</surname>
            <given-names>Antonio Jos&#233; Lagoeiro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rabelo</surname>
            <given-names>Luciana Morais</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Souza</surname>
            <given-names>Celso Vale</given-names>
            <suffix>Jr</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <label>1</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Niter&#243;i</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niter&#243;i, RJ &#8722; Brazil</institution>
          <institution content-type="normalized">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Antonio Jos&#233; Lagoeiro Jorge</bold>. Universidade Federal Fluminense. Rua Coronel Bittencourt, 66, Boa Vista. Postal Code: 24900-000, Maric&#225;, RJ &#8722; Brazil E-mail: <email>lagoeiro@cardiol.br</email>; <email>lagoeiro@globo.com</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research: Mesquita ET, Jorge AJL. Writing of the manuscript: Mesquita ET, Jorge AJL, Rabelo LM, Souza Jr. CV. Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Mesquita ET, Jorge AJL, Rabelo LM, Souza Jr. CV.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub-ppub">
        <season>Jan-Feb</season>
        <year>2017</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>30</volume>
      <issue>1</issue>
      <fpage>81</fpage>
      <lpage>90</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>18</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2016</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>28</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2016</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>02</day>
          <month>09</month>
          <year>2016</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <p>Heart failure is one of the most important and challenging public health problems of the 21<sup>st</sup> century and is associated with hard outcomes, such as death and hospitalization. New treatments for heart failure, despite the decrease in mortality, have not contributed to the decrease in hospitalization rates. Patients admitted with heart failure have a high event rate (&gt; 50%) with a mortality rate between 10 and 15% and a rehospitalization rate within 6 months after discharge of 30 to 40%. Three major causes seem to directly affect the rehospitalization of patients with heart failure: comorbidities, congestion and target-organ lesion. The transition from inpatient to outpatient is a period of vulnerability, due to the progressive nature complexity of heart failure, with an impact on prognosis and which can extend for up to 6 months after hospital discharge. The physician has an important role in the actions that can minimize the risk of hospitalization for heart failure and the multidisciplinary approach, associated with the implementation of good practices supported by scientific evidence, can reduce the risk of hospitalization. The use of routines that have been proven to reduce hospitalization should be used in Brazilian hospitals. The objective of this review was to discuss the main causes of hospitalization, their impact on heart failure evolution and strategies that can be used to reduce it.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords</title>
        <kwd>Heart Failure / mortality</kwd>
        <kwd>Hospitalization / trends</kwd>
        <kwd>Comorbidity</kwd>
        <kwd>Prognosis</kwd>
        <kwd>Medication Adherence</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>Heart failure (HF) is one of the most important and challenging public health problems of the 21<sup>st</sup> century and is associated with hard outcomes, such as death and hospitalization. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> HF is highly prevalent, resulting in decreased life expectancy and quality of life. The cost related to its treatment, especially regarding hospitalization, is quite high, regardless of the presentation characteristics, HF with Reduced Ejection Fraction (HFrEF), HF with ejection fraction in the middle range (40-49%)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> and HF with Preserved Ejection fraction (HFpEF).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>
			</p>
      <p>In 2007, HF was responsible for 2.6% of hospitalizations and 6% of deaths recorded by the Unified Health System (SUS) in Brazil, consuming 3% of the total resources used to meet all admissions performed through system.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> It is estimated that 26 million individuals have HF worldwide.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The prevalence of HF is increasing worldwide, mainly due to the improvement in the care of ischemic disease and HF treatment with medications and devices, such as pacemakers and artificial ventricles, as well as the aging of the population, which leads to the increase in hospitalization costs for the health system. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Many patients with heart failure are elderly and have multiple comorbidities, both cardiac and extracardiac, such as chronic kidney disease, depression, sleep apnea, arterial hypertension, atrial fibrillation, coronary artery disease, diabetes and chronic lung disease, which are accentuated with aging and can contribute to the increased risk of events such as hospital admissions and readmissions. The long-term prognosis is poor and half of the patients diagnosed with heart failure die within 5 years after the first hospitalization.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> The survival rate at 5 years is lower than that observed in most cancer cases. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The good response of individuals with HF to new forms of treatment does not contribute to the decrease in hospitalization rates related to the syndrome. Some recent publications suggest the opposite trend, in which a decrease in mortality and increase in hospitalizations was observed.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> This apparent paradox between the use of new methods of treatment in heart failure and increased hospital admissions can be partly explained by the use of devices, such as artificial ventricles, resynchronizers and defibrillators in patients with HF. Another reason is related to the use of medications for HF, which increase survival at suboptimal doses. A recent study carried out in European countries showed that only 25 to 30% of patients in the real world receive the doses of beta-blockers recommended by the guidelines. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The difficulty in reaching the maximum recommended doses of medications may be related to the fact that patients with HF are elderly with multiple comorbidities and, therefore, the prescribed medication may be poorly tolerated. Other reasons are related to polypharmacy, the complexity of prescription regimens to achieve the optimum dose and the fact that recently hospitalized HF patients are not adequately monitored by health professionals, especially in the first 30 days, when the risk of rehospitalization is very high.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> Studies show that less than one third of patients hospitalized for HF was assessed by a cardiologist in the first 3 months after hospital discharge.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>
			</p>
      <p>HF patients have a high risk for the development of a new condition: the post-hospitalization syndrome,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> due to the association of the high complexity of care in intensive care units and the presence of multiple comorbidities, leading to the exposure to different homeostatic stressors during the hospitalization period.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The relevance of the "rehospitalization" topic in the last decade involves two important points: first, the perception that reducing these rates would be a window of opportunity to decrease the waste of resources in the health system and, second, that the hospitalization causes additional damage to the heart and other organs. Hospitals in the United States with high rates of rehospitalization have started to be penalized, which led to a search for evidence-based strategies capable of improving the performance of these instituitions.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Rehospitalization remains a challenge. New ways to care for HF patients at advanced stages, such as home care, long-term care hospitals and strategies involving palliative care, have started to be implemented in our country for this group of patients at advanced stages.</p>
      <p>The integration of cardiologists, family doctors and multidisciplinary teams has been increasingly used in HF care, aiming to prolong life, improve patient functional capacity and reduce hospital length of stay. These results are considered effective markers of therapy in large HF studies.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The present study aimed to discuss the main causes of hospitalization, its impact on HF evolution and strategies that can be used to reduce it.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Heart Failure and Hospitalization</title>
      <p>The absolute number of cases of HF has increased due to the aging of the population, improved survival rates after myocardial infarction and modern HF treatment strategies<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>(<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Chart 1</xref>). Throughout life, patients with HF can have a sudden worsening of their symptoms, requiring emergency room care and hospital admission due to acute HF syndrome. These frequent decompensations lead to progressive deterioration of cardiac function and quality of life<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>(<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
      <table-wrap id="t1">
        <label>Chart 1</label>
        <caption>
          <title>The heart failure (HF) scenario</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="box" rules="all">
          <colgroup>
            <col width="100%"/>
          </colgroup>
          <tbody>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">1 in 5 adults aged &gt; 40 years will have HF</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">1 in 5 patients with HF will die within 1 year</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">3 of the major risk factors for HF have been increasing - age, obesity and diabetes</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">HF is the main cause of hospitalization in Brazil (SUS) in individuals older than 60 years</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">The prevalence of HF in Europe and the United States will increase from the current 3% to 3.5% by 2030</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">The risk of sudden death in HF is 6 to 9 times higher when compared to the population without HF</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">There are 600,000 new cases of HF in Europe and 500,000 in the United States per year</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">There are 26 million individuals with HF worldwide</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">US$ 28 billion was the cost of the HF in 2010 in the United States, with a predicted cost of US$ 77.7 billion in the year 2030</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN1">
            <p>SUS: Unified Health System (Sistema &#218;nico de Sa&#250;de)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>. Adapted from: Lopez-Send&#243;n J, Montoro N,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> The changing landscape of heart failure outcomes. Medicographia; 2015;37:125-34.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>
        <fig id="f1">
          <label>Figure 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Heart failure as a progressive disease with deterioration of cardiac function and quality of life. Adapted from Gheorghiade M, et al. Pathophysiologic Targets in the Early Phase of Acute Heart Failure Syndromes. Am J Cardiol; 2005;96:11G-17G</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="2359-5647-ijcs-30-01-0081-60060-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Patients admitted for HF have a high event rate (&gt; 50%), with a mortality rate between 10 and 15% and a rehospitalization rate within 6 months after discharge of 30 to 40%.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The improvement of post-discharge outcomes for HF remains a major focus of the needs that are unmet in clinical practice. Better understanding of the mechanisms that worsen the prognosis of patients hospitalized for HF and have a direct impact on rehospitalization, can provide better care and then reduce hospital readmission rates.</p>
      <p>The increasing prevalence of HF has direct consequences for hospitalizations, which is currently recognized as one of the most important results in cardiology. The worsening in HF symptoms results in hospitalization and is associated with a high mortality rate and post-discharge rehospitalization, being the most important parameter related to the cost of care for patients with HF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> The causes for hospitalization are difficult to assess, as they are influenced not only by clinical factors but also by social, cultural and economic factors.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> The cardiologist, as a leader of the multidisciplinary team, develops a treatment plan focused on the clinical aspects of HF and the comorbidity approach. Patients with HF in primary care with a history of previous hospital admissions must be accompanied both by the family doctor and a cardiologist. This strategy improves medication adherence and decrease HF mortality<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> and it has been demonstrated, in a population study including 10,599 patients with HF, that patients treated by both a primary care doctor and a specialist within 30 days after hospital discharge showed a lower rate of death at 1 year (7.2%), when compared to those who were treated only by a primary care doctor (10.4%; p &lt; 0.001). When care is provided exclusively by a cardiologist, there is an increasing trend of mortality (hazard ratio - HR: 1.41 vs. Primary Care; 95% confidence interval - 95% CI: 0.98 to 2.03; p = 0.067). Patients who had shared care had higher rates of ejection fraction and noninvasive tests for detection of ischemia and cardiac catheterizations.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>
			</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Main Factors Influencing Results After Hospital Discharge</title>
      <p>The first hospitalization can be a consequence of an acute event by myocarditis, coronary heart disease, cardiac arrhythmia or acute valvular disease and may also occur due to the decompensation of a chronic HF picture due to infection, non-adherence to pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatment, use of medications such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medications, among others.</p>
      <p>Outpatients with stable chronic HF have an annual rate of hospitalization of around 31.9%. This rate increases to 43.9% in patients who were hospitalized for acute HF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> Longitudinal prospective studies show similar results when comparing stable patients with those hospitalized for HF, but hospitalization is associated with increased risk of death and its effect on prognosis is similar to that described in patients with acute coronary syndrome.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Three major causes seem to directly affect the rehospitalization of patients with HF: comorbidities, congestion and target-organ lesions.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Cardiovascular and non-cardiovascular comorbidities play an important role in post-discharge events in patients with HF. Cardiovascular comorbidities that may result in rehospitalization are myocardial ischemia, arrhythmias (such as atrial fibrillation) and uncontrolled hypertension. All of them can potentially be treated at the first hospitalization.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Non-cardiovascular comorbidities are also important in the rehospitalization process and it has been observed that, after the first hospitalization due to HF, 65% of patients are readmitted for another cause rather than decompensated HF. Therefore, most rehospitalization have another cause other than HF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>
			</p>
      <p>A study showed that diabetes, chronic kidney disease and anemia are independent factors associated with higher mortality and/or rehospitalization rates. Other non-cardiovascular comorbidities, such as infections and chronic lung disease can also be causes of rehospitalization.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>
			</p>
      <p>In the analysis of the Cardiovascular Health Study of risk factors for all hospitalization causes among elderly patients with a new diagnosis of HF, three conditions (decreased muscle strength, reduced gait speed and depression) were considered independent risk factors for hospitalization after a HF diagnosis, even when considering other social, demographic and clinical factors.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Other factors related to patient characteristics, such as non-adherence to treatment, food abuse, drugs, alcohol, family and social support and access to health care, directly affect rehospitalization.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Congestion is considered the leading cause of hospitalization for HFrEF and HFpEF and plays an important role as a cause of rehospitalization and as a death marker after hospital discharge.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The slow resolution of congestion signs and symptoms during the first days of hospitalization for HF is associated with adverse outcomes and its more severe presentation form, represented by a worsening in HF during hospitalization. This event is an independent predictor of increased mortality.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> The assessment of clinical signs of congestion, such as pulmonary rales, jugular venous pressure, peripheral edema and weight gain, is important at the time of hospital discharge and the first days after leaving the hospital. Clinical signs, however, are less effective than hemodynamic worsening markers to rule out congestion. Serum levels of natriuretic peptides can identify persistent congestion, even in the presence of an apparent improvement in the clinical picture.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>
			</p>
      <p>Studies have shown that congestion markers, such as weight gain and poor response to diuretics, are associated with rehospitalization and short-term outcomes, but not with long-term mortality.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The risk of death after hospitalization for HF remains increased between 12 to 18 months after the event.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref> These data indicate that persistent target-organ lesions, such as heart, lungs, kidneys, liver and brain, are associated with hospitalization. Additionally, other markers related to organ lesions and/or loss of function are associated with hard outcomes after hospitalization for HF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The association between chronic kidney disease and worsening of outcomes in patients with HF has been well established.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> Recently, the role of liver dysfunction has been demonstrated. The increased pressure in the inferior vena cava caused by congestion is transmitted to the liver, leading to cholestasis and death of hepatocytes, with an increase in serum transaminases. This fact has been associated with worse prognosis, including mortality from all causes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>(<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>)</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f2">
          <label>Figure 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Mechanisms of increased risk of death and rehospitalization in patients hospitalized for HF. Adapted from Medicographia; 2015;37:139-43.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="2359-5647-ijcs-30-01-0081-60060-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Vulnerable Phase of Heart Failure</title>
      <p>The vulnerable phase of HF is characteristic of patients with acute heart failure and is defined as the period during which microenvironmental changes in lifestyle, after an episode of decompensated HF, can cause an increased risk for adverse cardiovascular events, such as death and rehospitalization from HF. Patients who overcome this phase uneventfully can remain stable for a long period.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>
			</p>
      <p>The vulnerable phase of HF, which occurs in each episode of acute HF, can be divided into three sub-phases: very early stage, early stage and late stage - having a variable impact for each individual<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>(<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>).</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f3">
          <label>Figure 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>The vulnerable phase of heart failure. Adapted from Medicographia; 2015;37:144-7.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="2359-5647-ijcs-30-01-0081-60060-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <sec>
        <title>Very-early vulnerable stage of heart failure</title>
        <p>The very early vulnerable stage begins with an acute episode of HF and extends until a few days after hospital discharge. After the initial stabilization period of an acute episode, approximately 15% of patients may experience an in-hospital worsening of HF, which is associated with the risk of adverse events.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>
				</p>
        <p>This phase is more often observed in patients who are discharged before full congestion improvement, which usually occurs between 4-5 days of hospitalization, or who are affected by comorbidities, target-organ lesions and post-hospitalization syndrome.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> The pressure exerted by the public health system, encouraging early hospital discharges, leads doctors to use higher doses of diuretics within shorter periods of time to achieve congestion improvement.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> the cost of renal function worsening, and many patients could remain relatively congested at the time of hospital discharge. Kidney and liver dysfunction may determine the prognosis of these patients at the very early vulnerable stage. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> The presence of anemia at admission also contributes to a worse outcome, if not correctly managed at this phase.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Continuous-use drugs that modify the evolution of HF are not easy to be started within a short period of hospital stay, and patients may experience an increased risk of rehospitalization or death after discharge, simply because the correct therapy was not provided. These patients require a follow-up carried out by a multidisciplinary team at short time intervals. Guidelines recommend phone contact within 3 days and a medical consultation within two weeks after discharge.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Early vulnerable stage of heart failure</title>
        <p>The early vulnerable phase starts after hospital discharge of the patient with an acute HF episode. The hospital length of stay was adequate for congestion improvement; however, problems related to HF as well as to other comorbidities may be present because they have been aggravated by hospitalization. During the hospital-to-home transition, HF specialist nurses, nutritionists, physical therapists and pharmacists should be involved in the process of educating the HF patient for self-care, including the rehabilitation process and the medication reconciliation in the outpatient setting. These factors (medication management, dietary counseling and cardiac rehabilitation) are important determinants of vulnerability after acute HF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>. This vulnerability phase is also related to the attitudes of patients, family members and caregivers, i.e., incorporation of the lifestyle changes required after hospital discharge.</p>
        <p>Among the rehospitalization cases, 30% occur in the first 2 months after discharge and are preceded by cardiovascular events, which can be prevented by the multidisciplinary team actions.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> Simple processes, although effective, such as adequate use of medication, can reduce the rehospitalization rates, since for 50% of patients with HFrEF, medications are not prescribed according to the recommendations in the guidelines.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>
				</p>
        <p>HF rehospitalization rates in young adults and the elderly are similar, suggesting that the risk of rehospitalization is present regardless of age.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Viral and bacterial infections are important causes of HF decompensation at this stage and can be prevented by vacination.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The transition from inpatient to outpatient can be very difficult in vulnerable period due to the complexity of the HF progressive nature. Multiple comorbidities, continuous use of polypharmacy and patients' difficulty to perceive the severity of their problem are important factors in determining the risk of vulnerability in the post-discharge stage.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Late vulnerable stage of heart failure</title>
        <p>The late vulnerable phase, which extends up to 6 months after discharge, is related to the reactivation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) and hemodynamic alterations occur prior to systemic congestion. Regardless of the medical practice habits in different areas of the world, the prognosis of patients for different continents is similar in that phase.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The worst prognosis at this stage could be prevented by optimizing treatment adherence. Adherence to medication and social support improves the survival free of cardiac events in patients with HF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>
				</p>
        <p>After the late phase, adverse events decrease over time and then reach a plateau, which can be sustained for several months. During the plateau, the optimization of disease-modifying measures, including the use of devices, is the main target for hospitalization control.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>
				</p>
        <p>HF vulnerability phases can last approximately 6 months after an acute HF episode and is determinant of prognosis. To prevent the occurrence of outcomes, patients should be discharged at least 24 to 48 hours after hemodynamic stabilization, while euvolemic, with optimized oral medication and stable function of vital organs, especially the kidneys and the liver.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Measures to Reduce Rehospitalization</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Optimized heart failure treatment</title>
        <p>The in-hospital care of patients with HF should be considered as a continuum, with consecutive phases (immediate, intermediate and pre-discharge phases), each consisting of different treatment goals<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">.45</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The immediate phase begins at admission and aims at clinical stabilization (peripheral oxygenation, ventilation support and adequate perfusion), symptom improvement (especially dyspnea), reduction of target-organ lesions (myocardium, kidneys and liver), reduction of the risk of early complications and reduced length of stay in the intensive care unit.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>
				</p>
        <p>With the clinical picture stabilization and symptom improvement, the patient is transferred to the ward, where the next phases (intermediate and pre-discharge) are initiated. This period is the beginning of the hospital-to-home transition.</p>
        <p>The process involves the use of a multidisciplinary team and the recommendations should consider a moment of better responsiveness of patients and their families for the implementation of a long-term care plan. In this phase, the following objectives should be prioritized:<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref> maintaining patient stabilization with treatment optimization; initiating and titrating the medication doses that modify the disease; identifying the underlying etiology of HF and associated comorbidities; minimizing hospital stressors; careful assessment for use of devices in appropriate patients; optimization of hemodynamics (euvolemia); stratification of pre-hospital admission risk in order to identify vulnerable and high-risk patients; involvement of the patient, their families and caregivers in a program of HF education and care; and cardiac rehabilitation program.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Promotion of self-care</title>
        <p>The promotion of self-care is defined as encouraging a process of naturalistic decision-making that patients use in selecting behaviors that maintain physiological stability and response to symptoms once they occur. It can be a great ally for physicians who care for patients with HF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A systematic review of randomized trials on multidisciplinary care programs of patients with HF showed that the increase in patient self-care activities effectively reduced hospitalization for HF (Hazard Ratio - RR = 0.66; 95% confidence interval - 95%CI = 0.52- 0.83), and hospitalization for all causes (RR = 0.73, 95%CI: 0.57 to 0.93), but with no effect on mortality (RR = 1.14, 95%CI: 0.67 to 1.94).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Another systematic review of randomized studies, which specifically focused on self-care interventions (six studies with 857 patients), showed that self-care activities reduced rehospitalization for HF (Odds ratio - OR = 0.44; 95%CI = 0,27- 0.71; p = 0.001) and hospitalization for all causes (OR = 0.59; 95% CI = .44-.80; p = 0.001), without a significant effect, however, on mortality (OR = 0.93, 95%CI: 0.57-1.51; p = 0.76).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref> In this review, the patients maintained the primary role in caring for their health condition, which included educational sessions or an educational software offering information on signs and symptoms of HF, the importance of daily weight control, dietary restrictions and the importance of medication adherence.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Biomarker monitoring</title>
        <p>Scientific evidence suggests that serial measurements of plasma natriuretic peptides (Brain Natriuretic Peptide - BNP and N-terminal portion of prohormone natriuretic peptide type B - NT-proBNP) can promote a significant improvement in reducing hospitalizations for HF. A recent meta-analysis, which included 14 studies with 3,004 patients with HF, assessed whether the use of BNP to guide treatment would reduce the risk of rehospitalization for HF. The study found a decreased risk of rehospitalization for HF (RR = 0.79; 95% CI = 0.63 to 0.98; p = 0.03), but had no effect on the risk of death (RR 0.94, 95 % = 0.81 to 1.08; p = 0.39) or on rehospitalization for all causes (RR = 0.97, 95% CI 0.89 to 1.07; p = 0.56). The study also observed that alterations in BNP values &#8203;&#8203;can have significant effects on clinical outcomes of patients with HF. Therapy guided by BNP was not associated with an increased risk of adverse effects.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Although the use of the BNP strategy has beneficial effects with decreased mortality in patients younger than 75 years, it was not effective in patients older than 75 years, which represents most of the patients with HF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Recently, the European Guideline on HF recommended the use of natriuretic peptides as a new strategy to optimize the treatment of patients with chronic HF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Telemedicine</title>
        <p>Telemedicine is a generic term, which encompasses different situations of patient control, using telemonitoring and a structured telephone support system. Thus, it is a type of remote monitoring of markers, such as weight, heart rate, blood pressure, pulse oximetry, electrocardiogram and also the pulmonary arterial pressure through sophisticated implantable devices.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A meta-analysis evaluated 9,805 patients to demonstrate the effectiveness of telemonitoring and a structured telephone support system in patients with HF. The study showed that telemonitoring reduced all-cause mortality (RR = 0.66, 95% CI 0.54 to 0.81; p &lt; 0.0001), and the structured telephone support system showed similar results, although non-significant (RR = 0.88, 95% CI 0.76 to 1.01; p = 0.08). Both telemonitoring (RR = 0.79; 95% CI = 0.67 to 0.94; p = 0.008) and telephone support (RR = 0.77, 95%CI: 0.68 to 0.87; p &lt; 0.0001) reduced HF-related hospitalizations. Both procedures improved the quality of life and functional class; reduced costs; and were well accepted by patients, with improvement in medical prescription adherence and self-care. Telemonitoring and a structured telephone support system are effective interventions to improve outcomes in patients with HF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>
				</p>
        <p>The use of an implanted device in the pulmonary artery of patients with advanced HF was recently approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and has shown to reduce morbidity and mortality in HF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclusions</title>
      <p>The cardiologist has an important role in determining actions that can minimize the risk of hospitalization for heart failure. In different scenarios, we observed that hospitalization for heart failure is a major public health concern. The multidisciplinary approach associated with the implementation of good practices based on scientific evidence can reduce the risk of hospitalization. The application of these routines, which have shown to reduce hospitalization, should be carried out in Brazilian hospitals.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Entendendo a Hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o em Pacientes com Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mesquita</surname>
            <given-names>Evandro Tinoco</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Jorge</surname>
            <given-names>Antonio Jos&#233; Lagoeiro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rabelo</surname>
            <given-names>Luciana Morais</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Souza</surname>
            <given-names>Celso Vale</given-names>
            <suffix>Jr</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff2">
          <label>1</label>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niter&#243;i, RJ &#8722; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Antonio Jos&#233; Lagoeiro Jorge</bold>. Universidade Federal Fluminense. Rua Coronel Bittencourt, 66, Boa Vista. CEP: 24900-000, Maric&#225;, RJ &#8722; Brasil. E-mail: <email>lagoeiro@cardiol.br</email>; <email>lagoeiro@globo.com</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos Autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: Mesquita ET, Jorge AJL. Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Mesquita ET, Jorge AJL, Rabelo LM, Souza Jr. CV. Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Mesquita ET, Jorge AJL, Rabelo LM, Souza Jr. CV.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p>A insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca &#233; um dos mais importantes e desafiadores problemas de sa&#250;de p&#250;blica do s&#233;culo 21 e est&#225; associada com desfechos duros, como morte e interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar. Novos tratamentos para a insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, apesar da diminui&#231;&#227;o da mortalidade, n&#227;o t&#234;m contribu&#237;do para a redu&#231;&#227;o da hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o. Pacientes internados por insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca t&#234;m uma elevada taxa de eventos (superior a 50%), com taxa de mortalidade entre 10 e 15% e taxa de reospitaliza&#231;&#227;o em at&#233; 6 meses ap&#243;s a alta de 30 a 40%. Tr&#234;s grandes causas parecem afetar diretamente a reospitaliza&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca: comorbidades, congest&#227;o e les&#245;es em &#243;rg&#227;os alvo. A transi&#231;&#227;o do paciente internado para o paciente ambulatorial &#233; um per&#237;odo de vulnerabilidade, devido &#224; complexidade da natureza progressiva da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, com impacto no progn&#243;stico e que pode se estender por at&#233; 6 meses ap&#243;s a alta hospitalar. O m&#233;dico tem um importante papel nas a&#231;&#245;es que podem minimizar o risco de interna&#231;&#245;es por insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, e a abordagem multidisciplinar, associada &#224; implementa&#231;&#227;o de boas pr&#225;ticas embasadas em evid&#234;ncias cient&#237;ficas, pode reduzir o risco de interna&#231;&#227;o. A aplica&#231;&#227;o de rotinas, que comprovadamente reduzem a interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar, deveria ser utilizada nos hospitais brasileiros. O objetivo desta revis&#227;o foi discutir as principais causas de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o, seu impacto na evolu&#231;&#227;o da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e as estrat&#233;gias que podem ser adotadas para sua redu&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave</title>
        <kwd>Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca/mortalidade</kwd>
        <kwd>Hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o/tend&#234;ncias</kwd>
        <kwd>Progn&#243;stico</kwd>
        <kwd>Ades&#227;o &#224; Medica&#231;&#227;o</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>A Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca (IC) &#233; um dos mais importantes e desafiadores problemas de sa&#250;de p&#250;blica do s&#233;culo 21 e est&#225; associada com desfechos duros, como morte e interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> A IC &#233; altamente prevalente, com redu&#231;&#227;o da expectativa e da qualidade de vida. O custo relacionado ao seu cuidado, principalmente &#224; interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar, &#233; bastante elevado, independente do fen&#243;tipo de apresenta&#231;&#227;o, IC com Fra&#231;&#227;o de Eje&#231;&#227;o Reduzida (ICFER), IC com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o na faixa m&#233;dia (40 a 49%)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> e IC com Fra&#231;&#227;o de Eje&#231;&#227;o Preservada (ICFEP).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Em 2007, a IC foi respons&#225;vel por 2,6% das hospitaliza&#231;&#245;es e por 6% dos &#243;bitos registrados pelo Sistema &#218;nico de Sa&#250;de (SUS) no Brasil, consumindo 3% do total de recursos utilizados para atender todas as interna&#231;&#245;es realizadas pelo sistema.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> Estima-se que 26 milh&#245;es de pessoas sejam portadoras de IC em todo o mundo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A preval&#234;ncia da IC vem aumentando no mundo, devido principalmente &#224; melhora dos cuidados da doen&#231;a isqu&#234;mica e do tratamento da pr&#243;pria IC, com medicamentos e dispositivos, como marca-passos e ventr&#237;culos artificiais, e tamb&#233;m ao envelhecimento da popula&#231;&#227;o, o que leva ao crescimento dos custos relacionado &#224;s interna&#231;&#245;es hospitalares para o sistema de sa&#250;de.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Muitos pacientes com IC s&#227;o idosos e apresentam comorbidades m&#250;ltiplas, card&#237;acas e extracard&#237;acas, como doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica, depress&#227;o, apneia do sono, hipertens&#227;o arterial, fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial, doen&#231;a arterial coronariana, diabetes e doen&#231;a pulmonar cr&#244;nica, que se acentuam com o envelhecimento e podem contribuir para o aumento do risco de eventos como admiss&#245;es hospitalares e reinterna&#231;&#245;es. O progn&#243;stico a longo prazo &#233; ruim, e metade dos pacientes diagnosticados com IC morrem em at&#233; 5 anos ap&#243;s a primeira interna&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> A taxa de sobrevida em 5 anos &#233; menor do que a observada na maioria dos casos de c&#226;ncer.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A boa resposta das pessoas com IC &#224;s novas modalidades de tratamento n&#227;o contribui para a redu&#231;&#227;o das taxas de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o relacionadas &#224; s&#237;ndrome. Algumas publica&#231;&#245;es recentes sugerem a tend&#234;ncia oposta, na qual se observam uma redu&#231;&#227;o da mortalidade e um aumento das hospitaliza&#231;&#245;es.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> Este aparente paradoxo entre o emprego de novas modalidades no tratamento da IC e o aumento das hospitaliza&#231;&#245;es pode ser, em parte, explicado pela utiliza&#231;&#227;o de dispositivos como ventr&#237;culos artificiais, ressincronizadores e desfibriladores card&#237;acos em pacientes com IC. Outro motivo estaria relacionado &#224; utiliza&#231;&#227;o de medicamentos para IC, que aumentam a sobrevida, em doses sub&#243;timas. Recente pesquisa realizada nos pa&#237;ses europeus mostrou que somente 25 a 30% dos pacientes no mundo real alcan&#231;am as doses de betabloqueadores recomendas pelas diretrizes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A dificuldade em alcan&#231;ar as doses m&#225;ximas recomendadas dos medicamentos pode estar relacionada ao fato de que pacientes com IC s&#227;o idosos e com m&#250;ltiplas comorbidades e, por isso, toleram mal a medica&#231;&#227;o prescrita. Outras raz&#245;es est&#227;o relacionadas &#224; polifarm&#225;cia, &#224; complexidade dos esquemas de prescri&#231;&#227;o para alcan&#231;ar a dose &#243;tima e ao fato de pacientes recentemente hospitalizados por IC n&#227;o serem monitorados por profissionais de sa&#250;de de modo adequado, principalmente nos primeiros 30 dias, quando o risco de reospitaliza&#231;&#227;o &#233; muito elevado.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> Estudos mostram que menos de um ter&#231;o dos pacientes hospitalizados por IC foi avaliado por um cardiologista nos primeiros 3 meses ap&#243;s alta hospitalar.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Pacientes com IC apresentam risco elevado para o desenvolvimento de uma nova condi&#231;&#227;o: a s&#237;ndrome de p&#243;s-hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> por conta da associa&#231;&#227;o da alta complexidade dos cuidados em ambientes de terapia intensiva e a presen&#231;a de comorbidades m&#250;ltiplas, levando a uma exposi&#231;&#227;o a diferentes estressores homeost&#225;ticos durante o per&#237;odo de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A relev&#226;ncia do tema "reospitaliza&#231;&#227;o" na &#250;ltima d&#233;cada envolve dois pontos importantes: primeiro, a identifica&#231;&#227;o de que reduzir essas taxas seria uma janela de oportunidades para a redu&#231;&#227;o do desperd&#237;cio no sistema de sa&#250;de e, em segundo, que a hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o promove um dano adicional ao cora&#231;&#227;o e a outros &#243;rg&#227;os. Hospitais nos Estados Unidos com altas taxas de reospitaliza&#231;&#227;o come&#231;aram a ser penalizados, o que levou a uma busca de estrat&#233;gias, baseadas em evid&#234;ncias, capazes de melhorar o desempenho dessas institui&#231;&#245;es.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A reospitaliza&#231;&#227;o permanece um desafio. Novas formas de cuidar dos pacientes com IC em est&#225;gio avan&#231;ado, como assist&#234;ncia domiciliar, hospitais de longa perman&#234;ncia e estrat&#233;gias envolvendo cuidados paliativos, come&#231;am a ser implementadas em nosso meio para esse grupo de pacientes em est&#225;gios avan&#231;ados.</p>
        <p>Cada vez mais, a integra&#231;&#227;o de cardiologistas, m&#233;dicos de fam&#237;lia e equipes multidisciplinares vem sendo utilizada na linha de cuidado da IC, visando prolongar a vida, melhorar a capacidade funcional dos pacientes e reduzir a hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o. Esses resultados s&#227;o considerados marcadores de efic&#225;cia na terapia em grandes estudos de IC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>
				</p>
        <p>O presente trabalho teve como objetivo discutir as principais causas de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o, seu impacto na evolu&#231;&#227;o da IC e as estrat&#233;gias que podem ser adotadas para sua redu&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca e Hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>O n&#250;mero absoluto de casos de IC tem aumentado devido ao envelhecimento da popula&#231;&#227;o, &#224; melhor sobrevida ap&#243;s o infarto do mioc&#225;rdio e &#224;s modernas estrat&#233;gias de tratamento da IC<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Quadro 1</xref>). Os portadores de IC podem, ao longo da vida, apresentar um s&#250;bito agravamento de seus sintomas, necessitando buscar atendimento na sala de emerg&#234;ncia e sendo admitidos com s&#237;ndrome de IC aguda. Essas frequentes descompensa&#231;&#245;es levam &#224; progressiva deteriora&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca e da qualidade de vida<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>(<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 1</xref>).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t2">
          <label>Quadro 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>O panorama da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC)</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="box" rules="all">
            <colgroup>
              <col width="100%"/>
            </colgroup>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">1 em cada 5 adultos com idade &gt; 40 anos ter&#225; IC</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">1 em cada 5 pacientes com IC morrer&#225; dentro de 1 ano</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">3 dos maiores fatores de risco para IC v&#234;m aumentando - idade, obesidade e diabetes</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">IC &#233; a principal causa de interna&#231;&#227;o no Brasil (SUS) em pessoas acima dos 60 anos</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">A preval&#234;ncia de IC na Europa e Estados Unidos aumentar&#225; dos atuais 3% para 3,5% at&#233; 2030</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">O risco de morte s&#250;bita em IC &#233; de 6 a 9 vezes maior quando comparado com a popula&#231;&#227;o sem IC</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">S&#227;o 600 mil os novos casos de IC na Europa e 500 mil nos Estados Unidos por ano</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Existem 26 milh&#245;es de pessoas com IC em todo o mundo</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">US$ 28 bilh&#245;es foi o custo da IC em 2010 nos Estados Unidos, com previs&#227;o de US$ 77,7 bilh&#245;es no ano de 2030</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN2">
              <p>SUS: Sistema &#218;nico de Sa&#250;de.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> Adaptado de Lopez-Send&#243;n J e Montoro N.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>
							</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>
          <fig id="f4">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca como uma doen&#231;a progressiva com deterioriza&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca e da qualidade de vida. Adaptado de Gheorghiade M, et al. Pathophysiologic Targets in the Early Phase of Acute Heart Failure Syndromes. Am J Cardiol; 2005;96:11G-17G</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="2359-5647-ijcs-30-01-0081-60060-gf01-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Pacientes internados por IC t&#234;m elevada taxa de eventos (&gt; 50%), com taxa de mortalidade entre 10 e 15% e de reospitaliza&#231;&#227;o em at&#233; 6 meses ap&#243;s a alta de 30 a 40%.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A melhora dos resultados p&#243;s-alta hospitalar por IC permanece um dos maiores focos entre as necessidades n&#227;o atendidas na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica. O melhor entendimento dos mecanismos que pioram o progn&#243;stico dos pacientes hospitalizados por IC e impactam diretamente na reospitaliza&#231;&#227;o pode oferecer um melhor cuidado e, ent&#227;o, reduzir as taxas de readmiss&#227;o hospitalar.</p>
        <p>O aumento da preval&#234;ncia da IC tem consequ&#234;ncias diretas na hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o que &#233;, hoje em dia, reconhecida como um dos mais importantes resultados em cardiologia. A piora do quadro cl&#237;nico da IC resulta em hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o e est&#225; associada a uma elevada taxa de mortalidade e reospitaliza&#231;&#227;o p&#243;s-alta, sendo o par&#226;metro mais importante relacionado ao custo do cuidado nos pacientes com IC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> As causas de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o de dif&#237;cil avalia&#231;&#227;o, pois s&#227;o influenciadas n&#227;o apenas por fatores cl&#237;nicos, mas tamb&#233;m sociais, culturais e econ&#244;micos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> O cardiologista, ao liderar sua equipe multidisciplinar, desenvolve um projeto terap&#234;utico focado nos aspectos cl&#237;nicos da IC e na abordagem das comorbidades. Pacientes com IC na Aten&#231;&#227;o Prim&#225;ria que apresentam hist&#243;ria de interna&#231;&#245;es hospitalares pr&#233;vias devem ser acompanhados tanto pelo m&#233;dico de fam&#237;lia, como tamb&#233;m por um cardiologista. Essa estrat&#233;gia melhora a ades&#227;o a medicamentos e reduz a morbimortalidade da IC,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> tendo sido demonstrado, em um estudo populacional incluindo 10.599 pessoas com IC, que pacientes em consulta com o m&#233;dico da Aten&#231;&#227;o Prim&#225;ria e o especialista at&#233; 30 dias ap&#243;s alta hospitalar apresentaram menor taxa de morte em 1 ano (7,2%) quando comparados com aqueles que s&#243; se consultaram com o m&#233;dico da Aten&#231;&#227;o Prim&#225;ria (10,4%; p &lt; 0,001). Os cuidados feitos somente com cardiologista apresentaram tend&#234;ncia de aumento da mortalidade (<italic>Hazard Ratio</italic> &#8722; HR: 1,41 vs. Aten&#231;&#227;o Prim&#225;ria; Intervalo de Confian&#231;a de 95% &#8722; IC95%: 0,98 a 2,03; p = 0,067). Pacientes que partilharam o cuidado tinham taxas mais elevadas de avalia&#231;&#227;o da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o, e testes n&#227;o invasivos para detec&#231;&#227;o de isquemia e de cateterismos card&#237;acos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>
				</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Principais Fatores que Influenciam nos Resultados P&#243;s-Alta Hospitalar</title>
        <p>A primeira interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar pode ser em consequ&#234;ncia de um evento agudo por miocardite, doen&#231;a coronariana, arritmia card&#237;aca ou doen&#231;a valvar aguda, podendo ocorrer tamb&#233;m por conta de uma descompensa&#231;&#227;o de um quadro de IC cr&#244;nica decorrente de infec&#231;&#227;o, n&#227;o ader&#234;ncia ao tratamento farmacol&#243;gico e n&#227;o farmacol&#243;gico, uso de medicamentos como anti-inflamat&#243;rios n&#227;o hormonais, entre outros.</p>
        <p>Pacientes ambulatoriais com IC cr&#244;nica est&#225;vel t&#234;m taxa anual de interna&#231;&#227;o em torno de 31,9%. Essa taxa aumenta para 43,9% em pacientes que foram hospitalizados por quadro de IC aguda.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> Estudos prospectivos longitudinais mostram resultados semelhantes, ao compararem pacientes que permanecem est&#225;veis com aqueles hospitalizados por IC, por&#233;m a hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o est&#225; associada ao aumento do risco de morte, e seu efeito no progn&#243;stico &#233; semelhante ao descrito para pacientes com s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Tr&#234;s grandes causas parecem afetar diretamente a reospitaliza&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com IC: comorbidades, congest&#227;o e les&#245;es em &#243;rg&#227;os alvo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Comorbidades cardiovasculares e n&#227;o cardiovasculares t&#234;m um papel importante nos eventos p&#243;s-alta de pacientes com IC. S&#227;o comorbidades cardiovasculares que podem precipitar a reospitaliza&#231;&#227;o: isquemia mioc&#225;rdica, arritmias (como a fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial) e hipertens&#227;o arterial n&#227;o controlada. Todas podem ser potencialmente tratadas no momento da primeira hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>
				</p>
        <p>As comorbidades n&#227;o cardiovasculares tamb&#233;m s&#227;o importantes no processo de reospitaliza&#231;&#227;o, sendo observado que, ap&#243;s a primeira interna&#231;&#227;o por IC, 65% dos pacientes s&#227;o reinternados por uma causa diferente da IC descompensada. Portanto, a maioria das reospitaliza&#231;&#245;es tem uma causa diferente de IC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Estudo mostrou que diabetes, doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica e anemia s&#227;o fatores independentes associados com maior taxa de mortalidade e/ou reospitaliza&#231;&#227;o. Outras comorbidades n&#227;o cardiovasculares, como infec&#231;&#245;es e doen&#231;a pulmonar cr&#244;nica, podem tamb&#233;m ser causas de reospitaliza&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Na an&#225;lise do <italic>Cardiovascular Health Study</italic> dos fatores de risco para todas as causas de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o entre pacientes idosos com um novo diagn&#243;stico de IC, tr&#234;s condi&#231;&#245;es (diminui&#231;&#227;o de for&#231;a muscular, diminui&#231;&#227;o da velocidade de marcha e depress&#227;o) foram considerados fatores de risco independentes para hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o ap&#243;s o diagn&#243;stico de IC, mesmo quando foram considerados outros fatores sociais, demogr&#225;ficos e cl&#237;nicos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Outros fatores relacionados &#224;s caracter&#237;sticas dos pacientes, como n&#227;o ader&#234;ncia ao tratamento, abuso alimentar, drogas, &#225;lcool, suporte familiar e social e acesso ao sistema de sa&#250;de, afetam diretamente a reospitaliza&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Congest&#227;o &#233; considerada a principal causa de interna&#231;&#227;o para ICFER e ICFEP e tem papel importante como causa de reospitaliza&#231;&#227;o e como marcador de morte ap&#243;s alta hospitalar.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A lenta resolu&#231;&#227;o dos sinais e sintomas de congest&#227;o durante os primeiros dias de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por IC est&#225; associada a resultados adversos e &#224; sua forma mais grave de apresenta&#231;&#227;o, manifestada por uma piora da IC durante o per&#237;odo de interna&#231;&#227;o. Isso &#233; um evento preditor independente de aumento da mortalidade.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> A avalia&#231;&#227;o de sinais cl&#237;nicos de congest&#227;o, como estertores pulmonares, press&#227;o venosa de jugular, edema perif&#233;rico e ganho de peso, &#233; importante no momento da alta hospitalar e nos primeiros dias ap&#243;s a sa&#237;da do hospital. Sinais cl&#237;nicos, no entanto, s&#227;o menos eficazes que marcadores da piora do quadro hemodin&#226;mico para afastar congest&#227;o. Os n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos dos pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos podem identificar congest&#227;o persistente, mesmo na presen&#231;a de uma aparente melhora do quadro cl&#237;nico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>
				</p>
        <p>Estudos t&#234;m mostrado que marcadores de congest&#227;o, como ganho de peso e m&#225; resposta a diur&#233;ticos, est&#227;o associados com reospitaliza&#231;&#227;o e desfechos em curto prazo, mas n&#227;o com mortalidade a longo prazo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>
				</p>
        <p>O risco de morte ap&#243;s hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por IC permanece aumentado entre 12 a 18 meses ap&#243;s o evento.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref> Esses dados indicam que o dano persistente de &#243;rg&#227;os alvo, como cora&#231;&#227;o, pulm&#245;es, rins, f&#237;gado e c&#233;rebro, est&#227;o associados &#224; hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o. Al&#233;m disso, outros marcadores, relacionados a les&#245;es em &#243;rg&#227;os e/ou perda de fun&#231;&#227;o destes, s&#227;o associados a desfechos duros ap&#243;s a hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por IC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A rela&#231;&#227;o entre doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica e piora dos resultados em pacientes com IC est&#225; bem estabelecida.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> Recentemente, o papel da disfun&#231;&#227;o hep&#225;tica tem sido mostrado. O aumento da press&#227;o na veia cava inferior causado pela congest&#227;o &#233; transmitido ao f&#237;gado, levando a colestase e &#224; morte de hepat&#243;citos, com aumento das transaminases s&#233;ricas. Tal fato foi associado com pior progn&#243;stico, incluindo mortalidade por todas as causas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figura 2</xref>)</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f5">
            <label>Figura 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Mecanismos do aumento do risco de morte e reospitaliza&#231;&#227;o em pacientes hospitalizados por IC. Adaptado de Medicographia; 2015;37:139-43.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="2359-5647-ijcs-30-01-0081-60060-gf02-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Fase Vulner&#225;vel da Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca</title>
        <p>A fase vulner&#225;vel da IC &#233; caracter&#237;stica de pacientes com IC aguda e &#233; definida como o per&#237;odo em que mudan&#231;as microambientais no modo de vida, ap&#243;s um epis&#243;dio de IC descompensada, podem causar um aumento do risco para eventos cardiovasculares adversos, como morte e reospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por IC. Pacientes que superam essa fase sem intercorr&#234;ncias podem permanecer est&#225;veis por um longo per&#237;odo de tempo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>
				</p>
        <p>A fase vulner&#225;vel da IC, que ocorre em cada epis&#243;dio de IC aguda, pode ser dividida em tr&#234;s subfases: fase muito precoce, fase precoce e fase tardia - tendo impacto vari&#225;vel para cada indiv&#237;duo<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 3</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f6">
            <label>Figura 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>A fase vulner&#225;vel da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. Adaptado de Medicographia; 2015;37:144-7.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="2359-5647-ijcs-30-01-0081-60060-gf03-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <sec>
          <title>Fase vulner&#225;vel muito precoce da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca</title>
          <p>A fase vulner&#225;vel muito precoce se inicia com um epis&#243;dio agudo de IC e se estende at&#233; alguns dias ap&#243;s a alta hospitalar. Ap&#243;s um per&#237;odo inicial de estabiliza&#231;&#227;o de um epis&#243;dio agudo, cerca de 15% dos pacientes podem experimentar uma piora da IC intra-hospitalar, que est&#225; associada ao risco de eventos adversos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Essa fase &#233; mais observada em pacientes que recebem alta antes da completa melhora da congest&#227;o, que normalmente ocorre entre 4 a 5 dias de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o, ou que s&#227;o afetados por comorbidades, les&#245;es de &#243;rg&#227;o alvo e s&#237;ndrome de p&#243;s-hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> A press&#227;o exercida pelo sistema de sa&#250;de, estimulando altas hospitalares precoces, faz com que os m&#233;dicos utilizem elevadas doses de diur&#233;ticos em menores per&#237;odos de tempo para alcan&#231;arem a melhora da congest&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> Altas doses de diur&#233;ticos podem aliviar a congest&#227;o rapidamente, por&#233;m aumentam o custo da piora da fun&#231;&#227;o renal, e muitos pacientes poderiam permanecer relativamente congestos no momento da alta hospitalar. Disfun&#231;&#227;o renal e hep&#225;tica podem determinar o progn&#243;stico desses pacientes na fase vulner&#225;vel muito precoce.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> A presen&#231;a de anemia no momento da admiss&#227;o contribui tamb&#233;m para um pior resultado, quando n&#227;o tratada corretamente nessa fase.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Medicamentos de uso cont&#237;nuo que modificam a evolu&#231;&#227;o da IC n&#227;o s&#227;o f&#225;ceis de serem iniciados dentro de um curto per&#237;odo de tempo de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o, e os pacientes podem experimentar um aumento do risco de reospitaliza&#231;&#227;o ou morte ap&#243;s alta simplesmente por falta da administra&#231;&#227;o da terapia correta. Esses pacientes necessitam de um seguimento realizado por uma equipe multidisciplinar em intervalos curtos de tempo. Diretrizes recomendam o contato telef&#244;nico em at&#233; 3 dias e uma visita m&#233;dica em 2 semanas ap&#243;s alta.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Fase vulner&#225;vel precoce da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca</title>
          <p>A fase vulner&#225;vel precoce se inicia ap&#243;s a alta hospitalar do paciente que teve um epis&#243;dio de IC aguda. O per&#237;odo de interna&#231;&#227;o foi adequado para a melhora da congest&#227;o, entretanto problemas relacionados &#224; pr&#243;pria IC e tamb&#233;m a outras comorbidades podem estar presentes por terem sido agravados pela hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o. Na transi&#231;&#227;o hospital-casa, enfermeiras especialistas em IC, nutricionistas, fisioterapeutas e farmac&#234;uticos deveriam estar envolvidos no processo de educar o paciente para o autocuidado da IC, incluindo o processo de reabilita&#231;&#227;o, e para a reconcilia&#231;&#227;o medicamentosa no cen&#225;rio ambulatorial. Esses fatores (manejo da medica&#231;&#227;o, orienta&#231;&#227;o diet&#233;tica e reabilita&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca) s&#227;o determinantes importantes de vulnerabilidade ap&#243;s a IC aguda.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Essa fase de vulnerabilidade tamb&#233;m &#233; relacionada a atitudes do paciente, de familiares e de cuidadores, ou seja, incorpora&#231;&#227;o das mudan&#231;as de estilo de vida necess&#225;rias ap&#243;s alta hospitalar.</p>
          <p>Dentre as reospitaliza&#231;&#245;es, 30% ocorrem nos primeiros 2 meses ap&#243;s a alta e s&#227;o precedidas de eventos cardiovasculares, que podem ser prevenidos pela a&#231;&#227;o de uma equipe multidisciplinar.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> Processos simples, mas eficazes, como uso correto da medica&#231;&#227;o, podem reduzir a taxa de reospitaliza&#231;&#227;o, j&#225; que, em 50% dos pacientes com ICFER, as medica&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o s&#227;o prescritas de acordo com o recomendado nas diretrizes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>
					</p>
          <p>As taxas de readmiss&#227;o por IC em adultos jovens s&#227;o similares as de idosos, o que sugere que o risco de reospitaliza&#231;&#227;o est&#225; presente independentemente da idade.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>
					</p>
          <p>As infec&#231;&#245;es virais e bacterianas s&#227;o causas importantes de descompensa&#231;&#227;o da IC nessa fase e pass&#237;veis de preven&#231;&#227;o por vacina&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A transi&#231;&#227;o do paciente internado para o ambulatorial pode ser muito dif&#237;cil no per&#237;odo vulner&#225;vel, devido &#224; complexidade da natureza progressiva da IC. M&#250;ltiplas comorbidades, uso de polifarm&#225;cia de modo cont&#237;nuo e dificuldade do paciente em perceber a gravidade de seu problema s&#227;o fatores importantes para determinar o risco de vulnerabilidade na fase p&#243;s-alta.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Fase vulner&#225;vel tardia da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca</title>
          <p>A fase vulner&#225;vel tardia, que se estende at&#233; 6 meses ap&#243;s a alta hospitalar, est&#225; relacionada &#224; reativa&#231;&#227;o do Sistema Renina Angiotensina Aldosterona (SRAA), e as altera&#231;&#245;es hemodin&#226;micas ocorrem antes da congest&#227;o sist&#234;mica. Independente dos h&#225;bitos de pr&#225;tica m&#233;dica em &#225;reas diferentes do mundo, o progn&#243;stico dos pacientes para diferentes continentes &#233; semelhante nessa fase.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>
					</p>
          <p>O pior progn&#243;stico nessa fase poderia ser prevenido otimizando-se e ader&#234;ncia ao tratamento. A ader&#234;ncia &#224; medica&#231;&#227;o e o apoio social melhoram a sobrevida livre de eventos card&#237;acos em pacientes com IC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Ap&#243;s a fase tardia, eventos adversos diminuem ao longo do tempo e, ent&#227;o, alcan&#231;am um plat&#244;, que pode se manter ao longo de v&#225;rios meses. Durante o plat&#244;, a otimiza&#231;&#227;o de medidas modificadoras da doen&#231;a, incluindo a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de dispositivos, &#233; o principal alvo para controle da hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>
					</p>
          <p>As fases de vulnerabilidade da IC podem durar em torno de 6 meses ap&#243;s um epis&#243;dio de IC aguda e &#233; determinante do progn&#243;stico. Para evitar a ocorr&#234;ncia de desfechos, os pacientes deveriam receber alta pelo menos 24 a 48 horas ap&#243;s a estabiliza&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica, estando euvol&#234;mico, com medica&#231;&#227;o oral otimizada e fun&#231;&#227;o est&#225;vel dos &#243;rg&#227;os vitais, principalmente os rins e f&#237;gado.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Medidas para Redu&#231;&#227;o da Reospitaliza&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Tratamento otimizado da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca</title>
          <p>O cuidado hospitalar do paciente com IC deve ser visto como um <italic>continuum</italic>, com fases consecutivas (fase imediata, intermedi&#225;ria e pr&#233;-alta hospitalar), cada uma delas composta por diferentes metas de tratamento.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>
					</p>
          <p>A fase imediata se inicia na admiss&#227;o e tem como objetivos a estabiliza&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica (oxigena&#231;&#227;o perif&#233;rica, suporte ventilat&#243;rio e perfus&#227;o adequada), a melhora dos sintomas (principalmente dispneia), a redu&#231;&#227;o dos danos aos &#243;rg&#227;os alvo (mioc&#225;rdio, rins e f&#237;gado), a redu&#231;&#227;o do risco de complica&#231;&#245;es precoces e a redu&#231;&#227;o do tempo de perman&#234;ncia na unidade intensiva.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Com a estabiliza&#231;&#227;o do quadro e a melhora dos sintomas, o paciente &#233; transferido para a enfermaria, onde as pr&#243;ximas fases (intermedi&#225;ria e pr&#233;-alta hospitalar) s&#227;o iniciadas. Esse per&#237;odo constitui o in&#237;cio da transi&#231;&#227;o hospital-casa. O processo envolve a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de equipe multidisciplinar e as recomenda&#231;&#245;es devem aproveitar um momento de melhor receptividade do paciente e de seus familiares, para a implementa&#231;&#227;o de um plano de cuidados de longa dura&#231;&#227;o. Nessa fase, os seguintes objetivos devem ser priorizados:<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref> manuten&#231;&#227;o da estabiliza&#231;&#227;o do paciente com a otimiza&#231;&#227;o do tratamento; iniciar e titular as doses dos medicamentos que modificam a doen&#231;a; identifica&#231;&#227;o da etiologia de base da IC e comorbidades associadas; minimizar os estressores hospitalares; cuidadosa considera&#231;&#227;o para utiliza&#231;&#227;o de dispositivos nos pacientes adequados; otimiza&#231;&#227;o do estado hemodin&#226;mico (euvolemia); estratifica&#231;&#227;o do risco pr&#233;-alta com objetivo de identificar pacientes vulner&#225;veis e de alto risco; envolvimento do paciente, de seus familiares e cuidadores em um programa de educa&#231;&#227;o e cuidados da IC; e programa de reabilita&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Promo&#231;&#227;o do autocuidado</title>
          <p>A promo&#231;&#227;o do autocuidado &#233; definida como o encorajamento de um processo de tomada de decis&#227;o natural&#237;stica, que pacientes usam na escolha de comportamentos que mant&#234;m a estabilidade fisiol&#243;gica e a resposta para sintomas, assim que eles ocorrem. Ela pode ser uma grande aliada para os m&#233;dicos que cuidam de pacientes com IC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica de estudos randomizados sobre programas de cuidados multidisciplinares de pacientes com IC mostrou que o aumento de atividades de autocuidado dos pacientes reduziu de modo efetivo a hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por IC, (Raz&#227;o de Risco - RR = 0,66; Intervalo de Confian&#231;a de 95% &#8722; IC95% = 0,52- 0,83), e por todas as causas de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o (RR = 0,73; IC95% = 0,57-0,93), por&#233;m sem efeito na mortalidade (RR = 1,14; IC95% = 0,67-1,94).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Outra revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica de estudos randomizados, que focou especificamente em interven&#231;&#245;es de autocuidado (seis estudos com 857 pacientes), mostrou que as atividades de autocuidado reduziram a reospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por IC (<italic>Odds Ratio</italic> - OR = 0,44; IC95% = 0,27-0,71; p = 0,001) e a hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por todas as causas (OR = 0,59; IC95% = 0,44-0,80; p = 0,001), sem efeito significativo, no entanto, na mortalidade (OR = 0,93; IC95% = 0,57-1,51; p = 0,76).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref> Nessa revis&#227;o, os pacientes mantinham o papel prim&#225;rio no cuidado de sua condi&#231;&#227;o de sa&#250;de, que inclu&#237;a sess&#245;es educacionais ou um <italic>software</italic> educacional oferecendo informa&#231;&#245;es sobre sinais e sintomas de IC, import&#226;ncia do controle do peso di&#225;rio, restri&#231;&#245;es diet&#233;ticas e import&#226;ncia da ader&#234;ncia &#224; medica&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Monitoriza&#231;&#227;o por biomarcadores</title>
          <p>Evid&#234;ncias cient&#237;ficas sugerem que dosagens plasm&#225;ticas seriadas de pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos (Peptideo Natriur&#233;tico Cerebral &#8722; BNP e Por&#231;&#227;o N-Terminal do Pr&#243;-Horm&#244;nio do Pept&#237;deo Natriur&#233;tico do Tipo B &#8722; NT-proBNP) podem promover uma melhora significativa na redu&#231;&#227;o das interna&#231;&#245;es por IC. Recente metan&#225;lise, que incluiu 14 estudos com 3.004 pacientes com IC avaliou se o uso do BNP para guiar o tratamento reduziria o risco de reospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por IC. O estudo observou diminui&#231;&#227;o do risco da reospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por IC (RR = 0,79; IC95% = 0,63-0,98; p = 0,03), mas n&#227;o teve efeito no risco de morte (RR 0,94; IC95% = 0,81-1,08; p = 0,39) ou de reospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por todas as causas (RR = 0,97; IC95% = 0,89-1,07; p = 0,56). O estudo tamb&#233;m observou que mudan&#231;as nos valores dos n&#237;veis de BNP podem ter efeitos significativos nos resultados cl&#237;nicos dos pacientes com IC. A terapia guiada pelo BNP n&#227;o foi associada ao aumento do risco de efeitos adversos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Embora a estrat&#233;gia da utiliza&#231;&#227;o do BNP tenha efeitos ben&#233;ficos, com a diminui&#231;&#227;o da mortalidade de pacientes com idade menor que 75 anos, ela n&#227;o se mostrou eficaz nos pacientes com idade maior que 75 anos, que representam a maioria dos pacientes com IC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Recentemente a Diretriz Europeia de IC recomendou o emprego dos pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos como uma nova estrat&#233;gia na otimiza&#231;&#227;o do tratamento de pacientes na IC cr&#244;nica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Telemedicina</title>
          <p>A telemedicina &#233; um termo gen&#233;rico, que engloba diferentes situa&#231;&#245;es de controle dos pacientes utilizando telemonitoriza&#231;&#227;o e suporte telef&#244;nico estruturado. Dessa forma, faz-se uma monitoriza&#231;&#227;o remota &#224; dist&#226;ncia de marcadores como peso, frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, press&#227;o arterial, oximetria, eletrocardiograma e tamb&#233;m a press&#227;o arterial pulmonar, por meio de sofisticados dispositivos implant&#225;veis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>
					</p>
          <p>Uma metan&#225;lise avaliou 9.805 pacientes para demonstrar a efic&#225;cia da telemonitoriza&#231;&#227;o e do suporte telef&#244;nico estruturado em pacientes com IC. O estudo mostrou que a telemonitoriza&#231;&#227;o reduziu todas as causas de mortalidade (RR = 0,66; IC95% = 0,54-0,81; p &lt; 0,0001), e o suporte telef&#244;nico estruturado mostrou resultado similar, por&#233;m n&#227;o significativo (RR = 0,88; IC95% = 0,76-1,01; p = 0,08). Tanto a telemonitoriza&#231;&#227;o (RR = 0,79; IC95% = 0,67-0,94; p = 0,008), como o suporte telef&#244;nico (RR = 0,77; IC95% = 0,68-0,87; p &lt; 0,0001) reduziram as hospitaliza&#231;&#245;es relacionadas &#224; IC. Ambos os procedimentos melhoraram a qualidade vida e a classe funcional; reduziram custo; e foram bem aceitos pelos pacientes, com melhora no seguimento da prescri&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica e no autocuidado. Telemonitoramento e suporte telef&#244;nico estruturado s&#227;o interven&#231;&#245;es eficazes para melhorar resultados em pacientes com IC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>
					</p>
          <p>O emprego de um dispositivo implantado na art&#233;ria pulmonar de pacientes com IC avan&#231;ada recentemente foi aprovado pelo <italic>Food and Drug Administration</italic> (FDA) e demonstrou ser capaz de reduzir a morbimortalidade na IC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>
					</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclus&#245;es</title>
        <p>O cardiologista tem um importante papel na lideran&#231;a das a&#231;&#245;es que possam minimizar o risco de interna&#231;&#245;es por insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. Em diferentes cen&#225;rios, observamos que a interna&#231;&#227;o por insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca representa um problema importante de sa&#250;de p&#250;blica. A abordagem multidisciplinar associada &#224; implementa&#231;&#227;o de boas pr&#225;ticas embasadas em evid&#234;ncias cient&#237;ficas pode reduzir o risco de interna&#231;&#227;o. A aplica&#231;&#227;o dessas rotinas, que comprovadamente reduzem a interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar, deveria ser feita nos hospitais brasileiros.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn1">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
