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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">XsbkbGZLHNBm9L4G4JPnc4x</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2012001500005</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(12)09900600005</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2012005000110</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Original</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Terapia antirretroviral altamente eficaz para infec&#231;&#227;o pelo v&#237;rus da imunodefici&#234;ncia humana aumenta a rigidez a&#243;rtica</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Eira</surname>
            <given-names>Margareth</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Bensenor</surname>
            <given-names>Isabela M.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff04"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Dorea</surname>
            <given-names>Egidio Lima</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Cunha</surname>
            <given-names>Roberto S&#225;</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff03"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mill</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Geraldo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff03"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lotufo</surname>
            <given-names>Paulo A.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff04"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital Universit&#225;rio </institution>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff02">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto de Infectologia Em&#237;lio Ribas</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff04">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina </institution>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff03">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Esp&#237;rito Santo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">ES</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Esp&#237;rito Santo</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>12</month>
        <year>2012</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>99</volume>
      <issue>6</issue>
      <fpage>1100</fpage>
      <lpage>1107</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>22</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2011</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>02</day>
          <month>08</month>
          <year>2012</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>22</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2011</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>FUNDAMENTO: Sabe-se que a terapia antirretroviral altamente potente para Aids reconhecida aumenta o risco cardiovascular, mas os efeitos dos agentes antirretrovirais de acordo com o g&#234;nero ainda s&#227;o desconhecidos. OBJETIVO: O presente estudo avaliou o impacto do tratamento para o v&#237;rus da imunodefici&#234;ncia humana (HIV) na rigidez a&#243;rtica de acordo com o g&#234;nero. M&#201;TODOS: Foram recrutados 28 pacientes com Aids submetidos &#224; terapia antirretroviral altamente potente (HAART), 28 pacientes infectados pelo HIV virgens de tratamento, 44 pacientes com diabetes tipo 2, e 30 controles. A rigidez a&#243;rtica foi determinada pela medi&#231;&#227;o da Velocidade da Onda de Pulso (VOP), utilizando um equipamento autom&#225;tico validado e n&#227;o invasivo. RESULTADOS: Os resultados m&#233;dios brutos da VOP (e intervalo de confian&#231;a de 95%) para participantes nos grupos terapia antirretroviral potente, HIV virgem de tratamento, diab&#233;ticos, e controles foram 9,77 m/s (9,17-10,36), 9,00 m/s (8,37-9,63), 9,90 m/s (9,32-10,49) e 9,28 m/s (8,61-9,95), respectivamente, para os homens (p de tend&#234;ncia = 0,14) e 9,61 m/s (8,56-10,66), 8,45 m/s (7,51-9,39), 9,83 (9,21-10,44) e 7,79 m/s (6,99-8,58), respectivamente, para as mulheres (p valor de tend&#234;ncia &lt; 0,001). An&#225;lises post-hoc revelaram uma diferen&#231;a significativa entre os valores m&#233;dios de VOP no grupo com HAART e controles em mulheres (p &lt; 0,01). Ajustes para as demais covari&#225;veis potenciais, incluindo press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica e diabetes, n&#227;o alteraram esses resultados. Os achados indicam que o impacto do tratamento com HAART na rigidez a&#243;rtica foi amplificado nas mulheres com hipertens&#227;o, dislipidemia e s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica. CONCLUS&#195;O: Agentes antirretrovirais potentes utilizados no tratamento da infec&#231;&#227;o pelo HIV aumentam a rigidez da aorta, especialmente em mulheres com maior risco cardiovascular.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>Anti-Retrovirais</kwd>
        <kwd>S&#237;ndrome de Imunodefici&#234;ncia Adquirida</kwd>
        <kwd>Infec&#231;&#245;es por HIV</kwd>
        <kwd>Rigidez Arterial</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>30</day>
        <month>11</month>
        <year>2012</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>Terapia antirretroviral altamente eficaz para infec&#231;&#227;o pelo v&#237;rus da imunodefici&#234;ncia humana aumenta a rigidez a&#243;rtica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Margareth Eira<sup>II</sup>; Isabela M. Bensenor<sup>I, IV</sup>; Egidio Lima Dorea<sup>I</sup>; Roberto S&#225; Cunha<sup>III</sup>; Jos&#233; Geraldo Mill<sup>III</sup>; Paulo A. Lotufo<sup>I, IV</sup></bold>
    </p>
    <p><sup>I</sup>Hospital Universit&#225;rio da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil </p>
    <p><sup>II</sup>Instituto de Infectologia Em&#237;lio Ribas, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil </p>
    <p><sup>III</sup>Universidade Federal do Esp&#237;rito Santo, Esp&#237;rito Santo, ES - Brasil </p>
    <p><sup>IV</sup>Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESUMO</bold>
    </p>
    <p><bold>FUNDAMENTO:</bold><bold>Sabe-se que a </bold>terapia antirretroviral altamente potente para Aids reconhecida aumenta o risco cardiovascular, mas os efeitos dos agentes antirretrovirais de acordo com o g&#234;nero ainda s&#227;o desconhecidos. </p>
    <p><bold>OBJETIVO: </bold>O presente estudo avaliou o impacto do tratamento para o v&#237;rus da imunodefici&#234;ncia humana (HIV) na rigidez a&#243;rtica de acordo com o g&#234;nero. </p>
    <p><bold>M&#201;TODOS:</bold> Foram recrutados 28 pacientes com Aids submetidos &#224; terapia antirretroviral altamente potente (HAART), 28 pacientes infectados pelo HIV virgens de tratamento, 44 pacientes com diabetes tipo 2, e 30 controles. A rigidez a&#243;rtica foi determinada pela medi&#231;&#227;o da Velocidade da Onda de Pulso (VOP), utilizando um equipamento autom&#225;tico validado e n&#227;o invasivo. </p>
    <p><bold>RESULTADOS: </bold>Os resultados m&#233;dios brutos da VOP (e intervalo de confian&#231;a de 95%) para participantes nos grupos terapia antirretroviral potente, HIV virgem de tratamento, diab&#233;ticos, e controles foram 9,77 m/s (9,17-10,36), 9,00 m/s (8,37-9,63), 9,90 m/s (9,32-10,49) e 9,28 m/s (8,61-9,95), respectivamente, para os homens (p de tend&#234;ncia = 0,14) e 9,61 m/s (8,56-10,66), 8,45 m/s (7,51-9,39), 9,83 (9,21-10,44) e 7,79 m/s (6,99-8,58), respectivamente, para as mulheres (p valor de tend&#234;ncia &lt; 0,001). An&#225;lises post-hoc revelaram uma diferen&#231;a significativa entre os valores m&#233;dios de VOP no grupo com HAART e controles em mulheres (p &lt; 0,01). Ajustes para as demais covari&#225;veis potenciais, incluindo press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica e diabetes, n&#227;o alteraram esses resultados. Os achados indicam que o impacto do tratamento com HAART na rigidez a&#243;rtica foi amplificado nas mulheres com hipertens&#227;o, dislipidemia e s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica. </p>
    <p><bold>CONCLUS&#195;O: </bold>Agentes antirretrovirais potentes utilizados no tratamento da infec&#231;&#227;o pelo HIV aumentam a rigidez da aorta, especialmente em mulheres com maior risco cardiovascular. (Arq Bras Cardiol. 2012; [online].ahead print, PP.0-0)</p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave: </bold>Anti-Retrovirais; S&#237;ndrome de Imunodefici&#234;ncia Adquirida / terapia; Infec&#231;&#245;es por HIV / complica&#231;&#245;es; Rigidez Arterial / efeitos de drogas.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A terapia antirretroviral altamente potente (HAART) para infec&#231;&#227;o pelo v&#237;rus da imunodefici&#234;ncia humana (HIV) mudou drasticamente a sobrevida dos pacientes<sup>1</sup>. No entanto, o tratamento pode ser associado com uma maior incid&#234;ncia de infarto do mioc&#225;rdio mediada por um perfil adverso de fatores de risco cardiovasculares<sup>2-9</sup> e outras condi&#231;&#245;es, tais como grande rigidez arterial, que podem ser afetados pela infec&#231;&#227;o pelo HIV ou o seu tratamento<sup>10,11</sup>.</p>
    <p>Envelhecimento, diabetes, hipertens&#227;o e insufici&#234;ncia renal foram independentemente associados com aumento da rigidez a&#243;rtica medido pela Velocidade da Onda de Pulso (VOP)<sup>12</sup>, e indiv&#237;duos com valores mais elevados t&#234;m o dobro do risco de um evento cardiovascular, morte e mortalidade por todas as causas<sup>13,14</sup>.</p>
    <p>Alguns estudos t&#234;m abordado o efeito da infec&#231;&#227;o pelo HIV ou o seu tratamento com HAART sobre o aumento da rigidez arterial a&#243;rtica mostrando uma rela&#231;&#227;o positiva<sup>15-22</sup>. N&#227;o foram encontradas diferen&#231;as na VOP em uma coorte de mulheres em Ruanda ao comparar mulheres infectadas pelo HIV submetidas &#224; HAART e sem uso de HAART<sup>23</sup>.</p>
    <p>Todos os estudos descritos aqui s&#227;o heterog&#234;neos, considerando a popula&#231;&#227;o estudada, o tempo desde a infec&#231;&#227;o, a dura&#231;&#227;o do tratamento e o dispositivo usado para medir a VOP. Apenas seis estudos analisaram mulheres<sup>16,17,21-23</sup>, totalizando 39 mulheres, porque o grupo de mulheres em Ruanda ainda n&#227;o tivera uma exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; HAART de longo prazo para permitir compara&#231;&#245;es<sup>23</sup>. A busca de diferen&#231;as de g&#234;nero &#233; justificada por um grande registro de infarto do mioc&#225;rdio nos Estados Unidos que encontrou um risco de 40% para homens HIV-positivos comparados a homens sem HIV, em contraste com um risco tr&#234;s vezes maior para mulheres infectadas pelo HIV em compara&#231;&#227;o com aqueles sem o v&#237;rus<sup>24</sup>.</p>
    <p>No Brasil, a mortalidade em decorr&#234;ncia de Aids diminuiu significativamente desde 1997, quando HAART tornou-se dispon&#237;vel gratuitamente no Sistema &#218;nico de Sa&#250;de (SUS). Durante a &#250;ltima d&#233;cada, o perfil dos brasileiros infectados passou de homens urbanos de classe m&#233;dia / alta classe para mulheres pobres<sup>25</sup>.</p>
    <p>Recrutamos uma amostra de indiv&#237;duos infectados pelo HIV submetidos &#224; HAART sem infec&#231;&#245;es oportunistas e sem doen&#231;a cardiovascular pr&#233;via para verificar o impacto do tratamento do HIV na rigidez a&#243;rtica de acordo com o g&#234;nero. Comparamos esses indiv&#237;duos com pacientes portadores de diabetes tipo 2, pois esses tamb&#233;m apresentam um maior risco cardiovascular.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>M&#233;todos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O estudo AGATA (Avalia&#231;&#227;o Geral da ATerosclerose em Adultos) &#233; um estudo transversal, concebido para avaliar o impacto da infec&#231;&#227;o por HIV e do seu tratamento sobre o sistema cardiovascular.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Sujeitos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>No ambulat&#243;rio de um hospital universit&#225;rio em S&#227;o Paulo, Brasil, foram identificados 56 pacientes consecutivos com infec&#231;&#227;o pelo HIV, 28 usando HAART e 28 pacientes com diagn&#243;stico recente de infec&#231;&#227;o pelo HIV, mas sem receber HAART. As causas de infec&#231;&#227;o foram contato heterossexual (40,3%), contato homossexual (45,6%), uso de drogas injet&#225;veis (12,3%) e desconhecida (1,8%). Nenhum dos pacientes tinha infec&#231;&#245;es oportunistas atuais ou recentes ou hepatite B ou C. Quarenta e quatro pacientes com diabetes tipo 2 foram recrutados consecutivamente no ambulat&#243;rio de nosso hospital. Trinta controles foram convidados a partir de um exame de sa&#250;de peri&#243;dico no local de trabalho no mesmo hospital e pareados por idade (10 anos) e g&#234;nero com os dois grupos de HIV.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Crit&#233;rios de inclus&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Os crit&#233;rios de inclus&#227;o foram idade variando de 20 a 69 anos, pelo menos, 12 meses de seguimento e boa ades&#227;o ao tratamento com HAART e tratamento da diabetes tipo 2. Os crit&#233;rios de exclus&#227;o foram doen&#231;a arterial coronariana (hist&#243;ria de infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, angina inst&#225;vel, revasculariza&#231;&#227;o coronariana), eletrocardiograma sugestivo de infarto do mioc&#225;rdio anterior, hist&#243;ria de doen&#231;a cerebrovascular, doen&#231;a arterial perif&#233;rica, diabetes tipo 1, clearance de creatinina &lt; 40 mL/min/1.73 m<sup>2</sup>, prescri&#231;&#227;o de estatinas ou fibratos.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Avalia&#231;&#227;o de par&#226;metros</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Todos os participantes foram avaliados no per&#237;odo da manh&#227;, ap&#243;s um jejum de 12 horas. Peso, altura e circunfer&#234;ncia da cintura foram medidos pelas t&#233;cnicas-padr&#227;o. A press&#227;o arterial foi medida utilizando um esfigmoman&#244;metro oscilom&#233;trico (Omron 705CP) com t&#233;cnicas padr&#227;o. Todos os participantes, exceto aqueles que relataram diagn&#243;stico de diabetes tipo 2, foram submetidos a um teste de toler&#226;ncia a glicose.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Velocidade da Onda de Pulso</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A VOP foi medida utilizando um equipamento Complior-SP (Artech Medical, Fran&#231;a). Os transdutores foram colocados sobre as art&#233;rias femorais e a f&#250;rcula. A VOP foi calculada dividindo-se a dist&#226;ncia f&#250;rcula-femoral pela diferen&#231;a no tempo de tr&#226;nsito das ondas de pulso digitalmente gravadas na art&#233;ria car&#243;tida e femoral direita (taxa de amostragem de 500 Hz). As medi&#231;&#245;es da VOP foram interpretadas por dois pesquisadores (RSC/JGM) cegos para o estado do participante.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fatores de risco </bold>
    </p>
    <p>Um participante foi classificado como hipertenso com base em autorrelato de diagn&#243;stico m&#233;dico, tratamento, a press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica medida no consult&#243;rio m&#233;dico <underline>&gt;</underline> 140 mmHg ou diast&#243;lica <underline>&gt;</underline> 90 mmHg<sup>13</sup>; como diab&#233;tico, com base no autorrelato de diagn&#243;stico m&#233;dico, tratamento atual, ou teste de toler&#226;ncia a glicose positivo (n&#237;veis de glicose &gt; 200 mg/dL ap&#243;s duas horas); como dislipid&#234;mico com base no autorrelato de diagn&#243;stico m&#233;dico ou LDL-colesterol <underline>&gt;</underline> 130 mg/dL. N&#227;o aplicamos pontos de corte de press&#227;o arterial espec&#237;ficos para diab&#233;ticos, e a s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica foi definida de acordo com crit&#233;rios-padr&#227;o<sup>26</sup>. A taxa de filtra&#231;&#227;o glomerular foi calculada a partir da creatinina s&#233;rica aplicando-se a f&#243;rmula de CKD-Epi<sup>27</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Analise estat&#237;stica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Os dados s&#227;o expressos como m&#233;dia e intervalo de confian&#231;a de 95% (IC95%). As an&#225;lises estat&#237;sticas foram realizadas utilizando o software SPSS 16.0. O teste de qui-quadrado foi utilizado para comparar as vari&#225;veis categ&#243;ricas. O coeficiente de correla&#231;&#227;o de Spearman foi utilizado para analisar a associa&#231;&#227;o entre a VOP e outras vari&#225;veis. As vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas foram expressas como m&#233;dia e erro padr&#227;o da m&#233;dia (SEM) e comparadas utilizando Modelos Lineares Generalizados com um teste <italic>post hoc</italic> de diferen&#231;as quadradas m&#237;nimas para compara&#231;&#245;es m&#250;ltiplas. Os valores de VOP s&#227;o mostrados ap&#243;s ajuste para idade usando um modelo linear generalizado.</p>
    <p>Todas as an&#225;lises foram ajustadas primeiramente para idade e sexo, e em segundo lugar para press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica. O modelo multivariado completo foi ajustado para idade, sexo, press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica, toler&#226;ncia a glicose, circunfer&#234;ncia da cintura, taxa de filtra&#231;&#227;o glomerular e triglic&#233;rides (log) para todos os participantes, e de forma diferente para homens e mulheres de acordo com a an&#225;lise univariada. Devido ao fato de a VOP apresentar forte desvio &#224; direita, modelos lineares generalizados usando m&#225;xima otimiza&#231;&#227;o de probabilidade foram constru&#237;dos para avaliar a associa&#231;&#227;o entre fatores de risco e VOP. Apresentamos as estimativas do exponencial do par&#226;metro &#946; dos valores de VOP calculados pelo teste de Wald com IC 95%.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Quest&#245;es &#233;ticas</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Esse estudo foi aprovado pelo Conselho de &#201;tica Institucional dos dois hospitais, e todos os participantes assinaram o termo de consentimento livre e informado.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Resultados</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O tempo m&#233;dio desde o diagn&#243;stico da infec&#231;&#227;o pelo HIV foi maior para os pacientes HAART do que os pacientes virgens de tratamento de HIV (10,4 &#177; 3,7 <italic>vs</italic>. 6,5 &#177; 4,8 anos, p &lt; 0,001). A m&#233;dia e o desvio padr&#227;o de tempo (DP) de exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; HAART foram de 7,7 (3,4) anos. Os valores m&#233;dios (DP) do nadir da contagem de linf&#243;citos CD4+T foi 207 (190) c&#233;lulas/mm<sup>3</sup> para o grupo HAART e 448 (176) c&#233;lulas/mm<sup>3</sup> para o grupo virgem de tratamento de HIV; as contagens atuais das c&#233;lulas CD4+ foram 701 (400 ) c&#233;lulas/mm<sup>3</sup> para o grupo HAART e 609 (307) c&#233;lulas/mm<sup>3</sup> para pacientes virgens de tratamento do HIV. A mediana (DP) de maior carga viral durante o curso da infec&#231;&#227;o foi de 3,741 (10,312) c&#243;pias / mL para o grupo HAART e 16,430 (27,151) c&#243;pias/mL para o grupo sem tratamento. A maioria dos indiv&#237;duos recebendo HAART tinha uma carga viral bem controlada (&lt; 50 c&#243;pias/mL) em compara&#231;&#227;o com nenhuma no grupo de pacientes virgens de tratamento do HIV (p &lt; 0,0001). Nenhuma diferen&#231;a foi encontrada entre os grupos em rela&#231;&#227;o aos valores da prote&#237;na C-reativa. Quatro pacientes no grupo HAART e um paciente no grupo virgem de tratamento foram identificados como tendo diabetes tipo 2.</p>
    <p>As caracter&#237;sticas gerais dos pacientes s&#227;o mostradas na <xref ref-type="table" rid="aop812tab1">tabela 1</xref>. Os pacientes diab&#233;ticos eram mais velhos em compara&#231;&#227;o com doentes infectados com HIV e controles. Homens com diabetes e controles tinham maior IMC e circunfer&#234;ncia da cintura maior em compara&#231;&#227;o com pacientes infectados pelo HIV; apenas as mulheres com diabetes tiveram maior &#237;ndice de massa corporal do que o grupo HAART. A press&#227;o arterial elevada foi mais comum entre os diab&#233;ticos de ambos os sexos, mas a press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica m&#233;dia foi maior apenas entre os homens com diabetes. A fun&#231;&#227;o renal estava prejudicada apenas nas mulheres diab&#233;ticas.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="aop812tab1">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-99-06-1100-00110-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>A <xref ref-type="table" rid="aop812tab2">tabela 2</xref> apresenta os coeficientes de correla&#231;&#227;o de Spearman para as vari&#225;veis associadas com VOP. As vari&#225;veis associadas com VOP para ambos os sexos foram: idade, press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica, circunfer&#234;ncia da cintura e glicemia de jejum. Para as mulheres, uma correla&#231;&#227;o foi identificada entre VOP e hemoglobina glicada e taxa de filtra&#231;&#227;o glomerular.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="aop812tab2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-99-06-1100-00110-gt02.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>Uma tend&#234;ncia ascendente das m&#233;dias brutas para VOP &#233; mostrada na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="aop812fig1">figura 1</xref>. A <xref ref-type="table" rid="aop812tab3">tabela 3</xref> mostra os valores brutos de VOP para todos os participantes de acordo com o g&#234;nero; a raz&#227;o de chances (<italic>odds ratio</italic>) para cada categoria foi calculada utilizando o grupo controle como refer&#234;ncia. A adi&#231;&#227;o de outras vari&#225;veis associadas com a VOP (<xref ref-type="table" rid="aop812tab2">Tabela 2</xref>) n&#227;o alterou as m&#233;dias anteriores ajustadas por idade para VOP. Uma diferen&#231;a importante entre os sexos foi observada no padr&#227;o da VOP m&#233;dia de acordo com a categoria. Entre os homens, nenhuma diferen&#231;a foi detectada entre os grupos. Em contraste, entre as mulheres, uma tend&#234;ncia ascendente significativa foi observada com valores mais elevados para as mulheres com diabetes e aqueles recebendo HAART. A an&#225;lise <italic>post-hoc</italic> revelou uma diferen&#231;a significativa na VOP m&#233;dia entre os participantes tratados com HAART e controles. Os resultados foram semelhantes quando foram exclu&#237;dos todos os participantes com diabetes da an&#225;lise.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="aop812fig1">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-99-06-1100-00110-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="aop812tab3">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-99-06-1100-00110-gt03.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>Finalmente, analisou-se o efeito da modifica&#231;&#227;o de outros fatores de risco associados com a rigidez da aorta (<xref ref-type="table" rid="aop812tab4">Tabela 4</xref>). O impacto da HAART na VOP foi mais pronunciado entre os caucasianos em compara&#231;&#227;o com os n&#227;o caucasianos, e entre n&#227;o fumantes em compara&#231;&#227;o aos ex fumantes e fumantes. A presen&#231;a de hipertens&#227;o aumentou significativamente os valores m&#233;dios da VOP para pacientes submetidos &#224; HAART e diab&#233;ticos em compara&#231;&#227;o com indiv&#237;duos sem hipertens&#227;o. A taxa de filtra&#231;&#227;o glomerular &lt; 80 mL/ min foi fator de confus&#227;o do efeito da HAART na VOP. A s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica alterou a associa&#231;&#227;o do grupo HAART comparado aos controles e ao grupo virgem de tratamento.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="aop812tab4">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-99-06-1100-00110-gt04.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Discuss&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Os resultados mostraram VOP aumentada em pacientes infectados pelo HIV submetidos &#224; HAART, especialmente entre as mulheres. Pacientes com HIV virgens de tratamento n&#227;o apresentaram VOP significativamente maior em compara&#231;&#227;o com os controles. Esses resultados sugerem que a HAART, e n&#227;o a infec&#231;&#227;o por HIV, est&#225; associada com aumento da rigidez arterial. Os valores m&#233;dios de VOP em pacientes infectados pelo HIV submetidos &#224; HAART foram semelhantes aos valores obtidos para os diab&#233;ticos de ambos os sexos. A presen&#231;a de s&#237;ndrome de hipertens&#227;o, dislipidemia, ou s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica amplificou a associa&#231;&#227;o entre HAART e VOP.</p>
    <p>Sabe-se que a rigidez arterial &#233; um importante preditor da hipertens&#227;o e eventos cardiovasculares. A VOP &#233; medida utilizando uma t&#233;cnica n&#227;o invasiva, reprodut&#237;vel e dispon&#237;vel em estudos epidemiol&#243;gicos<sup>11-15</sup>. Valores mais altos de VOP indicam rigidez arterial aumentada indicativa de comprometimento da elasticidade da parede da art&#233;ria, o que pode ser associado a futuros eventos cardiovasculares<sup>14-16</sup>. Os resultados obtidos mostram valores mais altos de VOP em pacientes submetidos &#224; HAART, confirmando dados anteriores; no entanto, esse &#233; o primeiro estudo a mostrar um impacto significativo entre as mulheres.</p>
    <p>Poucos estudos avaliaram grandes grupos de pacientes virgens de tratamento do HIV. Nossos resultados sugerem que o tratamento de doentes infectados com HIV com HAART tem um impacto maior sobre a VOP do que a infec&#231;&#227;o por HIV em si. Esses dados enfatizam o efeito da HAART na patog&#234;nese da rigidez arterial, em contraste com resultados publicado anteriormente<sup>5,19,22</sup>. van Wijk e cols.<sup>5</sup> avaliaram a VOP em 37 pacientes infectados pelo HIV, 14 diab&#233;ticos e 13 controles, encontrando aumento da VOP apenas em diab&#233;ticos tipo 2. O estudo tamb&#233;m mostrou uma correla&#231;&#227;o entre a dura&#231;&#227;o da HAART e aumento da VOP e os par&#226;metros inflamat&#243;rios. Os autores conclu&#237;ram que tanto a infec&#231;&#227;o por HIV quanto a HAART est&#227;o envolvidos na progress&#227;o da rigidez arterial e altera&#231;&#245;es ateroscler&#243;ticas. Quanto &#224; correla&#231;&#227;o da VOP com a dura&#231;&#227;o da HAART, apresentamos resultados semelhantes<sup>5</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em nosso estudo, no entanto, os pacientes infectados pelo HIV estavam usando HAART em m&#233;dia h&#225; oito anos em compara&#231;&#227;o com 4,5 anos em outro estudo. Possivelmente, a maior dura&#231;&#227;o da HAART em nosso estudo demonstrou melhor o seu impacto na VOP. Uma diferen&#231;a &#233; que n&#243;s n&#227;o encontramos nenhuma associa&#231;&#227;o entre VOP e prote&#237;na C-reativa, mesmo apresentando uma propor&#231;&#227;o semelhante de participantes com carga viral &lt; 50 c&#243;pias / mL.</p>
    <p>Schillaci e cols.<sup>22</sup> mostraram aumento da rigidez a&#243;rtica em indiv&#237;duos infectados pelo HIV na aus&#234;ncia de terapia antirretroviral. Em nosso estudo, os indiv&#237;duos eram mais velhos, com um IMC maior e incluiu mais mulheres do que o estudo Peruggia, e os pacientes com HIV virgens de tratamento apresentaram valores de VOP muito id&#234;nticos &#224; dos controles. A avalia&#231;&#227;o da rigidez arterial utilizando tonometria de aplana&#231;&#227;o entre as mulheres infectadas pelo HIV de Ruanda (com ou sem HAART) n&#227;o apresentaram diferen&#231;as na reflex&#227;o de onda arterial entre os grupos<sup>23</sup>. No entanto, a dura&#231;&#227;o do tratamento foi menor e as mulheres, aparentemente, tinham menos fatores de risco cardiovasculares que as mulheres em nossa coorte. Analisando as vari&#225;veis associadas ao aumento na VOP, idade e press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica foram fatores presentes em todos os grupos. Em estudos anteriores, a dura&#231;&#227;o da HAART estava associada com uma VOP maior, mas isso n&#227;o foi confirmado em nossa an&#225;lise.</p>
    <p>O achado mais relevante no estudo foi que os valores de VOP, na presen&#231;a de infec&#231;&#227;o pelo HIV e tratamento com HAART, eram diferentes de acordo com o g&#234;nero. Foram analisadas 24 mulheres, enquanto todos os estudos publicados anteriormente analisaram apenas 39 mulheres<sup>16,17,21,22</sup>, devido ao fato de o grupo de mulheres em Ruanda ainda n&#227;o ter uma exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; HAART de longo prazo para permitir compara&#231;&#245;es<sup>20</sup>. &#201; importante notar que embora o n&#250;mero de mulheres seja menor em compara&#231;&#227;o com o n&#250;mero de homens, fomos capazes de mostrar diferen&#231;as no efeito da HAART na rigidez a&#243;rtica. N&#227;o observamos outros fatores que poderiam explicar as diferen&#231;as de g&#234;nero.</p>
    <p>Altera&#231;&#245;es hormonais podem ser investigadas por meio de estudos com animais. Um estudo realizado em ratos LDL-nulos examinou os efeitos de ritonavir e amprenavir sobre o ac&#250;mulo de colesterol nos macr&#243;fagos, considerando que as f&#234;meas tinham n&#237;veis menores do que os machos. O efeito protetor foi perdido ap&#243;s a remo&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica do receptor de estrog&#234;nio alfa<sup>28</sup>.</p>
    <p>A diferen&#231;a significante na m&#233;dia da VOP entre os participantes com s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica em nossa amostra foi diferente em compara&#231;&#227;o a resultados anteriores<sup>5</sup>. Embora f&#244;ssemos capazes de classificar os indiv&#237;duos de acordo com a toler&#226;ncia a glicose como normal ou comprometida, n&#227;o detectamos uma VOP maior entre os pacientes recebendo HAART com intoler&#226;ncia a glicose. Observamos, tamb&#233;m, um impacto da dislipidemia como aumento na VOP no grupo HAART. Esses dados contradizem um pequeno ensaio cl&#237;nico que n&#227;o relatou nenhuma altera&#231;&#227;o na rigidez a&#243;rtica em indiv&#237;duos usando pravastatina, comparados com placebo<sup>29</sup>.</p>
    <p>Essa an&#225;lise tem v&#225;rios pontos fortes. A maioria dos estudos incluiu apenas homens, enquanto n&#243;s temos uma propor&#231;&#227;o adequada de mulheres em todos os grupos. O diagn&#243;stico de diabetes foi baseado em um teste de toler&#226;ncia a glicose, o padr&#227;o de refer&#234;ncia para o diagn&#243;stico de diabetes tipo 2 em estudos epidemiol&#243;gicos. O n&#250;mero de pacientes virgens de tratamento de HIV foi maior em compara&#231;&#227;o com estudos anteriores. As limita&#231;&#245;es se devem ao desenho transversal e propor&#231;&#227;o de homens no grupo controle com &#237;ndice de massa corporal &gt; 25 kg/m<sup>2</sup>.</p>
    <p>Embora esses resultados tenham sido diferentes quando comparados com a popula&#231;&#227;o em geral, eles s&#227;o representativos dos homens nesse local de trabalho, e a m&#233;dia assim&#233;trica do &#237;ndice de massa corporal observada no grupo controle n&#227;o obscureceu a compara&#231;&#227;o da VOP entre os grupos HAART e controle.</p>
    <p>Concluindo, nossos resultados sugerem que o aumento da rigidez arterial em pacientes infectados pelo HIV est&#225; associado mais com o uso da HAART do que com a pr&#243;pria infec&#231;&#227;o pelo HIV, especialmente entre as mulheres.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O presente estudo foi financiado por FAPESP.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de tese de doutorado de Margareth Eira pela Faculdade de Medicina da USP.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="end" fn-type="corresp">
        <p>Correspond&#234;ncia:</p>
        <p> Paulo A. Lotufo &#149; </p>
        <p>Av Lineur Prestes, 2565, Cidade Universit&#225;ria. CEP 05508-000, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p><email xlink:href="palotufo@cardiol.br">palotufo@cardiol.br</email>, </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="palotufo@hu.usp.br">palotufo@hu.usp.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Artigo recebido em 22/11/11; revisado em 22/11/11; aceito em 02/08/12.</p>
  </body>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Articles</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Potent antiretroviral therapy for human immunodeficiency virus infection increases aortic stiffness</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>BACKGROUND: Highly active antiretroviral therapy for AIDS is known to increase cardiovascular risk, but the effects of potent antiretroviral agents according to gender are unknown. OBJECTIVE: The present study evaluated the impact of HIV infection treatment on aortic stiffness according to gender. METHODS: From university-affiliated hospitals, we recruited 28 AIDS patients undergoing highly active antiretroviral treatment (HAART), 28 treatment-na&#239;ve HIV-infected patients, 44 patients with type 2 diabetes, and 30 controls. Aortic stiffness was determined by measuring pulse wave velocity (PWV) using a validated and non-invasive automatic device. RESULTS: The crude mean PWV values and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) for HAART, diabetics, and controls were 9.77 m/s (95% CI 9.17-10.36), , 9.00 m/s (95% CI 8.37-9.63), 9.90 m/s (95% CI 9.32-10.49), and 9.28 m/s (95% CI 8.61-9.95), respectively, for men (P-value for trend = 0.14), and 9.61 m/s (95% CI 8.56-10.66), 8.45 m/s (95% CI 7.51-9.39), 9.83 (95% CI 9.21-10.44), and 7.79 m/s (95% CI 6.99-8.58), respectively, for women (P-value for trend &lt;0.001). Post-hoc analysis revealed a significant difference between the mean PWV values in the HAART group and controls in women (P-value &lt;0.01). After adjusting for other potential covariates, including systolic blood pressure and diabetes, these results did not change. The findings indicate that the impact of HAART treatment on aortic stiffness was amplified in women with hypertension, dyslipidemia, and metabolic syndrome. CONCLUSION: Potent anti-retroviral agents used in the treatment of HIV infection increases aortic stiffness, mainly among women with higher cardiovascular risk.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Anti Retroviral Agents</kwd>
        <kwd>Acquired Immunosyndrome</kwd>
        <kwd>HIV Infections</kwd>
        <kwd>Vascular Stiffness</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <fn id="top-body2">
          <label>
            <bold>Potent antiretroviral therapy for human immunodeficiency virus infection increases aortic stiffness</bold>
          </label>
          <p>
            <bold>Margareth Eira<sup>II</sup>; Isabela M. Bensenor<sup>I, IV</sup>; Egidio Lima Dorea<sup>I</sup>; Roberto S&#225; Cunha<sup>III</sup>; Jos&#233; Geraldo Mill<sup>III</sup>; Paulo A. Lotufo<sup>I, IV</sup></bold>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p><sup>I</sup>Hospital Universit&#225;rio da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil</p>
      <p><sup>II</sup>Instituto de Infectologia Em&#237;lio Ribas, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil</p>
      <p><sup>III</sup>Universidade Federal do Esp&#237;rito Santo, Esp&#237;rito Santo, ES - Brazil</p>
      <p><sup>IV</sup>Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil</p>
      <p>Mailing Address</p>
      <p>
        <bold>ABSTRACT</bold>
      </p>
      <p><bold>BACKGROUND: </bold>Highly active antiretroviral therapy for AIDS is known to increase cardiovascular risk, but the effects of potent antiretroviral agents according to gender are unknown.</p>
      <p><bold>OBJECTIVE: </bold>The present study evaluated the impact of HIV infection treatment on aortic stiffness according to gender.</p>
      <p><bold>METHODS:</bold> From university-affiliated hospitals, we recruited 28 AIDS patients undergoing highly active antiretroviral treatment (HAART), 28 treatment-na&#239;ve HIV-infected patients, 44 patients with type 2 diabetes, and 30 controls. Aortic stiffness was determined by measuring pulse wave velocity (PWV) using a validated and non-invasive automatic device.</p>
      <p><bold>RESULTS:</bold> The crude mean PWV values and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) for HAART, diabetics, and controls were 9.77 m/s (95% CI 9.17-10.36), , 9.00 m/s (95% CI 8.37-9.63), 9.90 m/s (95% CI 9.32-10.49), and 9.28 m/s (95% CI 8.61-9.95), respectively, for men (P-value for trend = 0.14), and 9.61 m/s (95% CI 8.56-10.66), 8.45 m/s (95% CI 7.51-9.39), 9.83 (95% CI 9.21-10.44), and 7.79 m/s (95% CI 6.99-8.58), respectively, for women (P-value for trend &lt;0.001). Post-hoc analysis revealed a significant difference between the mean PWV values in the HAART group and controls in women (P-value &lt;0.01). After adjusting for other potential covariates, including systolic blood pressure and diabetes, these results did not change. The findings indicate that the impact of HAART treatment on aortic stiffness was amplified in women with hypertension, dyslipidemia, and metabolic syndrome.</p>
      <p><bold>CONCLUSION:</bold> Potent anti-retroviral agents used in the treatment of HIV infection increases aortic stiffness, mainly among women with higher cardiovascular risk. (Arq Bras Cardiol. 2012; [online].ahead print, PP.0-0)</p>
      <p><bold>Keywords:</bold> Anti Retroviral Agents; Acquired Immunosyndrome / therapy; HIV Infections / complications; Vascular Stiffness / drug effects.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Highly active antiretroviral treatment (HAART) of HIV infection dramatically changed patient survival<sup>1</sup>. However, the treatment may be associated with a higher incidence of myocardial infarction mediated by an adverse cardiovascular risk factor profile<sup>2-9</sup> and other conditions, such as high arterial stiffness, which could be affected by HIV infection or its treatment<sup>10, 11</sup>.</p>
      <p>Age, diabetes, hypertension, and kidney failure have been independently associated with increased aortic stiffness measured by pulse wave velocity (PWV)<sup> 12</sup>; and subjects with higher values have double the risk of a cardiovascular event, death, and all-cause mortality<sup>13, 14</sup>.</p>
      <p>Some studies have addressed the effect of HIV infection or its treatment with HAART on arterial stiffness and aortic augmentation showing a positive association<sup>15-22</sup>. No differences were found in PWV in a cohort of women in Rwanda when comparing HIV-infected women undergoing HAART and others not using HAART<sup>23</sup>.</p>
      <p>All studies described above are heterogeneous considering the population studied, time since infection, duration of treatment, and device used to measure PWV. Only six studies analyzed women<sup>16,17, 21-23</sup>, totaling 39 females, as the cohort of women in Rwanda did not have a long HAART exposure to permit comparisons<sup>23</sup>. The search for gender differences is justified by a large registry of myocardial infarction in the United States that found a risk of 40% for HIV-positive men compared to HIV-free men, in contrast to a three-fold risk for HIV-infected women compared to HIV-free females<sup>24</sup>.</p>
      <p>In Brazil, AIDS mortality has decreased significantly since 1997 when HAART became available at the public health system free of costs. During the past decade, the profile of infected Brazilians has shifted from urban middle/upper class men to poor women<sup>25</sup>.</p>
      <p>We recruited a sample of HIV-infected subjects undergoing HAART without opportunistic infections and previous cardiovascular disease to verify the impact of HIV treatment on aortic stiffness according to gender. We compared these subjects with type 2 diabetes patients as they also present a higher cardiovascular risk.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Methods</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The AGATA (from the Portuguese, "<bold>A</bold>valia&#231;&#227;o <bold>G</bold>eral da <bold>AT</bold>erosclerose em Adultos" General Evaluation of Atherosclerosis in Adults) is a cross-sectional study designed to evaluate the impact of HIV infection and its treatment on the cardiovascular system.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Subjects</bold>
      </p>
      <p>At the outpatient clinic of a university-affiliated hospital in S&#227;o Paulo, Brazil, we identified 56 consecutive patients with HIV infection, 28 using HAART and 28 patients with a recent diagnosis of HIV infection but not using HAART. Causes of infection were heterosexual contact (40.3%), homosexual contact (45.6%), injection drug use (12.3%), and unknown (1.8%). None of the patients had current or recent opportunistic infections or hepatitis B or C. Forty-four patients with type 2 diabetes were recruited consecutively from the outpatient clinic of our hospital. Thirty controls were invited from a worksite for periodic health examinations in the same hospital and matched for age (10-year) and sex with both HIV groups.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Enrollment Criteria</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Inclusion criteria were age ranging from 20 to 69 years, at least 12 months of follow-up, and good compliance with HAART and type 2 diabetes treatment. Exclusion criteria were coronary heart disease (history of myocardial infarction, unstable angina, coronary revascularization), an electrocardiogram suggestive of past myocardial infarction, past history of cerebrovascular disease, peripheral artery disease, type 1 diabetes, creatinine clearance under 40 ml/min/1.73 m<sup>2</sup>, and use of prescribed statins or fibrates.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Parameter Evaluation</bold>
      </p>
      <p>All participants were examined in the morning after a 12-hour fasting. Weight, height, and waist circumference were measured using standard techniques. Resting blood pressure was measured using an oscillometric sphygmomanometer (Omron 705CP) with standard techniques. All participants, except those who reported a diagnosis of type 2 diabetes, were submitted to a glucose tolerance test.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Pulse Wave Velocity (PWV)</bold>
      </p>
      <p>PWV was measured using a Complior-SP (Artech Medical, France). The transducers were placed over the suprasternal notch and femoral arteries. PWV was calculated by dividing the suprasternal notch -femoral distance by the difference in the transit time of the pulse waves digitally recorded in the carotid and right femoral artery (sampling rate 500 Hz). The PWV measurements were read by two researchers (RSC/JGM) blinded to the status of the participant.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Risk Factors</bold>
      </p>
      <p>A participant was classified as hypertensive based on self-reported medical diagnosis, current treatment, office systolic blood pressure <underline>&gt;</underline> 140 mmHg, or diastolic <underline>&gt;</underline> 90 mmHg<sup>13</sup>; as diabetic based on self-reported medical diagnosis, current treatment, or a positive glucose tolerance test (glucose levels &gt; 200 mg/dl after two hours); as dyslipidemic based on self-reported medical diagnosis or a LDL-cholesterol <underline>&gt;</underline> 130 mg/dl. We did not apply specific blood pressure cut-offs for diabetics, and metabolic syndrome was defined according to standard criteria<sup>26</sup>. Glomerular filtration rate was calculated from serum creatinine applying the CKD-Epi formula<sup>27</sup></p>
      <p>
        <bold>Statistical Analysis</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Data are expressed as mean and 95% confidence interval (95% CI). Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS 16.0. Chi-square was used to compare categorical variables. The Spearman correlation coefficient was used to examine the association between PWV and other variables. Continuous variables were expressed as mean and standard error of the mean (SEM) and compared using Generalized Linear Models with a <italic>post hoc</italic> test of least square differences for multiple comparisons. PWV values were shown after adjusting for age using a generalized linear model.</p>
      <p>All analyses were adjusted firstly for age and sex, and secondly for systolic blood pressure. The full multivariate model was adjusted for age, sex, systolic blood pressure, glucose tolerance, waist circumference, glomerular filtration rate, and triglycerides (log) for all participants, and differently for men and women according to the univariate analysis. Because PWV was highly right-skewed, generalized linear models using maximum likelihood optimization were constructed to assess the association between risk factors and PWV. We present the exponential beta-parameter estimates of PWV values calculated by the Wald test with 95% CI.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Ethical Issues</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This study was approved by the Institutional Review Boards of the two hospitals, and all participants provided written informed consent.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Results</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The mean time since diagnosis of HIV infection was greater for HAART patients than treatment-na&#239;ve HIV patients (10.4&#177;3.7 vs. 6.5&#177;4.8 years, <italic>p</italic>&lt;0.001). The mean and standard deviation (SD) time of exposure to HAART was 7.7 (3.4) years. The mean (SD) nadir of CD4+ T-lymphocyte count was 207 (190) cells/mm<sup>3</sup> for the HAART group and 448(176) cells/mm<sup>3</sup> for the treatment-na&#239;ve HIV-group; the current CD4+ cell count was 701(400) cells/mm<sup>3 </sup>for the HAART group and 609(307) cells/mm<sup>3</sup> for treatment-na&#239;ve HIV patients. The median (SD) highest viral load during the course of infection was 3,741 (10,312) copies/ml for the HAART group and 16,430 (27,151) copies/ml for the treatment-na&#239;ve group. Most of the HAART subjects had a well-controlled viral load (&lt;50 copies/mL) compared to none in the treatment-na&#239;ve HIV group (<italic>p</italic>&lt;0.0001). No difference was found between the groups regarding C-reactive protein values. Four patients in the HAART group and one patient in the treatment-na&#239;ve group were identified as type 2 diabetics.</p>
      <p>The general characteristics of the subjects are shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop812tab1-body2">Table 1</xref>. Diabetic patients were older compared to HIV-infected patients and controls. Men with diabetes and controls had higher BMI and greater waist circumference compared to HIV-infected patients; only women with diabetes had a higher mean body mass index than the HAART group. High blood pressure was more common among diabetics in both sexes, but the mean systolic blood pressure was higher only among men with diabetes. Kidney function was impaired only in diabetic women.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_aop812tab1-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-99-06-1100-00110-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop812tab2-body2">Table 2</xref> shows Spearman's correlation coefficients for variables associated with PWV. The variables associated with PWV for both sexes were age, systolic blood pressure, waist circumference, and fasting blood glucose. For women, a correlation was identified between PWV and glycated hemoglobin and the glomerular filtration rate. An upward trend of the crude means for PWV is shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_aop812fig1-body2">Figure 1</xref>. <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop812tab3-body2">Table 3</xref> shows the crude values of PWV for all participants according to gender; the odds ratio for each category was calculated using the control group as the reference.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_aop812tab2-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-99-06-1100-00110-gt02-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_aop812fig1-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-99-06-1100-00110-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_aop812tab3-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-99-06-1100-00110-gt03-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>Adding other variables associated with PWV (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop812tab2-body2">Table 2</xref>) did not change the previous age-adjusted means for PWV. An important difference was observed between sexes in the pattern of mean PWV according to category. Among men, no differences were detectable between the groups. In contrast, among women, a significant upward trend was observed with higher values for women with diabetes and those undergoing HAART. <italic>Post-hoc</italic> analysis revealed a significant difference in the mean PWV between participants receiving HAART and controls. The results were similar when we excluded all participants with diabetes from the analysis.</p>
      <p>Finally, we analyzed the effect modification of other risk factors associated with aortic stiffness (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop812tab4-body2">Table 4</xref>). The impact of HAART on PWV was more pronounced among Caucasians compared to Non-Caucasians, and among nonsmokers compared to ex- and current smokers. The presence of hypertension significantly increased the mean values of PWV for patients undergoing HAART and diabetics compared to subjects without hypertension. A glomerular filtration rate &lt; 80 ml/min blurred the effect of HAART on PWV. Metabolic syndrome altered the association of the HAART group compared to controls and the treatment-na&#239;ve group.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_aop812tab4-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-99-06-1100-00110-gt04-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Discussion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The results indicated increased PWV in HIV-infected patients undergoing HAART, mainly among women. HIV treatment-na&#239;ve patients did not have significantly higher PWV compared to controls. These results suggest that HAART, and not the HIV infection, is associated with increased arterial stiffness. The mean PWV values in HIV-infected patients undergoing HAART were similar to the values obtained for diabetics of both sexes. The presence of hypertension, dyslipidemia, or metabolic syndrome amplified the association between HAART and PWV.</p>
      <p>Arterial stiffness has been recognized as a relevant predictor of hypertension and cardiovascular events. PWV is measured using a non-invasive, reproducible technique available in epidemiological studies<sup>11-15</sup>. Higher PWV values suggest augmented arterial stiffness indicative of impaired elasticity of the artery wall that can be linked to future cardiovascular events<sup>14-16</sup>. Our results showing higher PWV values in patients undergoing HAART confirm previous data; however, this is the first study to show a significant impact among women.</p>
      <p>Few studies have evaluated large groups of treatment-na&#239;ve HIV patients. Our results suggest that the treatment of HIV-infected patients with HAART has a greater impact on PWV than HIV infection itself. These data highlight the effect of HAART on the pathogenesis of arterial stiffness, in contrast with previously published results<sup>5, 19, 22</sup>. Wijk et al.<sup>5</sup> evaluated PWV in 37 HIV-infected patients, 14 diabetics, and 13 controls, finding increased PWV only among type 2 diabetics. <sup>5</sup> The study also showed a correlation between the duration of HAART and increased PWV and inflammatory parameters. The authors concluded that both HIV infection and HAART are involved in the progression of arterial stiffness and atherosclerotic changes. Regarding the correlation of PWV with the duration of HAART, we showed similar results.<sup>5</sup></p>
      <p>However, in our study, the HIV-infected patients had been using HAART for a mean of 8 years compared to 4.5 years in the other study. Possibly, the longer duration of HAART in our study better demonstrated the impact on PWV. One difference is that we did not find any association between PWV and C-reactive protein, even with a similar proportion of participants with viral load &lt; 50 copies/ml.</p>
      <p>Schillaci et al. showed increased aortic stiffness in HIV-infected subjects in the absence of antiretroviral therapy<sup>22</sup>. In our study, subjects were older, with a higher BMI and included more women than the Peruggia study, and HIV-infected treatment-na&#239;ve patients had PWV values very similar to controls. The assessment of arterial stiffness using applanation tonometry among HIV-infected Rwandan women (with or without HAART) did not show any differences in arterial wave reflection among the groups<sup>23</sup>. However, the duration of treatment was shorter and the women apparently had fewer cardiovascular risk factors than the women in our cohort. Analyzing the variables associated with increased PWV, age and systolic blood pressure were factors present in all groups. In previous studies, the duration of HAART was associated with greater PWV, but this was not confirmed in our analysis.</p>
      <p>The most relevant finding in the present study was that PWV values in the presence of HIV infection and HAART treatment were different according to gender. We analyzed 24 women, whereas all previously published studies analyzed only 39 females<sup>16-17, 21, 22</sup>, as the cohort of women in Rwanda did not have a long HAART exposure to permit comparisons<sup>20</sup>. Importantly, although the number of women was lower compared to the number of men, we were able to show differences regarding the effect of HAART on aortic stiffness. We did not find other factors that could explain the sex differences.</p>
      <p>Hormonal changes could be investigated using animal studies. A study in LDL-null mice examined the effects of ritonavir and amprenavir on cholesterol accumulation in macrophages, showing that females had lowers levels than males. The protective effect was lost after genetically removing estrogen receptor-alpha<sup>28</sup>.</p>
      <p>The significant difference in mean PWV among participants with metabolic syndrome in our sample was different from previous results<sup>5</sup>. Although we were able to classify subjects according to glucose tolerance as normal or impaired, we did not detect a higher PWV among HAART patients with impaired glucose tolerance. We also observed the impact of dyslipidemia as increased PWV in the HAART group. These data disagree with a small clinical trial that did not report any aortic stiffness alterations in subjects using pravastatin compared to placebo<sup>29</sup>.</p>
      <p>This analysis has several strengths. Most studies included only men, whereas we have an adequate proportion of women in all groups. The diagnosis of diabetes was based on an oral glucose tolerance test, a gold standard for type 2 diabetes diagnosis in epidemiological studies. The number of treatment-na&#239;ve HIV patients was higher compared to previous studies. The limitations are due to the cross-sectional design and proportion of males in the control group with body mass index &gt; 25 kg/m<sup>2</sup>.</p>
      <p>Although these results were different compared to the general population, they are representative of men in this worksite facility, and the skewed mean body mass index observed in the control group did not blur the comparison of PWV between HAART and control groups.</p>
      <p>Concluding, our results suggest that increased arterial stiffness in HIV-infected patients is associated more with the use of HAART than HIV infection itself, especially among women.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
      </p>
      <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This study was funded by FAPESP.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Study Association</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This article is part of the thesis of doctoral submitted by Margareth Eira, from Faculdade de Medicina da USP.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
</article>
