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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">QRnVjp3g77kfyrBFmHGHDyD</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2012001400013</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(12)09900513</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2012005000098</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio ap&#243;s opera&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o card&#237;acas</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Gualandro</surname>
            <given-names>Danielle Menosi</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Calderaro</surname>
            <given-names>Daniela</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Yu</surname>
            <given-names>Pai Ching</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Caramelli</surname>
            <given-names>Bruno</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="state">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina </institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>11</month>
        <year>2012</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>99</volume>
      <issue>5</issue>
      <fpage>1060</fpage>
      <lpage>1067</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>14</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2012</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>24</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2012</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>14</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2012</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>Em todo o mundo, s&#227;o realizadas mais de 230 milh&#245;es de opera&#231;&#245;es por ano e as complica&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas s&#227;o as causas mais comuns de morbidade e mortalidade p&#243;s-operat&#243;rias. Com o aumento da expectativa de vida da popula&#231;&#227;o mundial, um n&#250;mero crescente de pacientes com m&#250;ltiplas comorbidades tem sido submetido a opera&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o card&#237;acas. Em consequ&#234;ncia, &#233; esperado um aumento de complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares associadas a tais procedimentos e o infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio (IAM) perioperat&#243;rio poder&#225; se tornar um problema frequente. No Brasil, o n&#250;mero de opera&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o card&#237;acas tamb&#233;m est&#225; aumentando, sendo realizadas aproximadamente tr&#234;s milh&#245;es de cirurgias por ano. Apesar dos avan&#231;os nas t&#233;cnicas cir&#250;rgicas e anest&#233;sicas, a mortalidade e o custo relacionados a estes procedimentos tamb&#233;m est&#227;o aumentando, sendo fundamental o desenvolvimento de estrat&#233;gias para a redu&#231;&#227;o da mortalidade. A ocorr&#234;ncia de um IAM perioperat&#243;rio prolonga a necessidade de terapia intensiva, a estadia hospitalar, aumenta o custo da interna&#231;&#227;o e diminui a sobrevida a longo prazo. Esta revis&#227;o aborda a fisiopatologia, a incid&#234;ncia, o diagn&#243;stico e o tratamento do IAM perioperat&#243;rio, baseado nas evid&#234;ncias atuais.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>Infarto do Mioc&#225;rdio</kwd>
        <kwd>cirurgia</kwd>
        <kwd>complica&#231;&#245;es</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>09</day>
        <month>11</month>
        <year>2012</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>Infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio ap&#243;s opera&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o card&#237;acas</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Danielle Menosi Gualandro; Daniela Calderaro; Pai Ching Yu; Bruno Caramelli</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o (InCor) do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="corresp">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESUMO</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Em todo o mundo, s&#227;o realizadas mais de 230 milh&#245;es de opera&#231;&#245;es por ano e as complica&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas s&#227;o as causas mais comuns de morbidade e mortalidade p&#243;s-operat&#243;rias. Com o aumento da expectativa de vida da popula&#231;&#227;o mundial, um n&#250;mero crescente de pacientes com m&#250;ltiplas comorbidades tem sido submetido a opera&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o card&#237;acas. Em consequ&#234;ncia, &#233; esperado um aumento de complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares associadas a tais procedimentos e o infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio (IAM) perioperat&#243;rio poder&#225; se tornar um problema frequente. </p>
    <p> No Brasil, o n&#250;mero de opera&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o card&#237;acas tamb&#233;m est&#225; aumentando, sendo realizadas aproximadamente tr&#234;s milh&#245;es de cirurgias por ano. Apesar dos avan&#231;os nas t&#233;cnicas cir&#250;rgicas e anest&#233;sicas, a mortalidade e o custo relacionados a estes procedimentos tamb&#233;m est&#227;o aumentando, sendo fundamental o desenvolvimento de estrat&#233;gias para a redu&#231;&#227;o da mortalidade. A ocorr&#234;ncia de um IAM perioperat&#243;rio prolonga a necessidade de terapia intensiva, a estadia hospitalar, aumenta o custo da interna&#231;&#227;o e diminui a sobrevida a longo prazo. </p>
    <p> Esta revis&#227;o aborda a fisiopatologia, a incid&#234;ncia, o diagn&#243;stico e o tratamento do IAM perioperat&#243;rio, baseado nas evid&#234;ncias atuais.</p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold> Infarto do Mioc&#225;rdio / cirurgia / complica&#231;&#245;es</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Mundialmente, s&#227;o realizadas mais de 230 milh&#245;es de opera&#231;&#245;es por ano e as complica&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas s&#227;o as causas mais comuns de morbidade e mortalidade p&#243;s-operat&#243;rias<sup>1</sup>. Com o aumento da expectativa de vida da popula&#231;&#227;o mundial, um n&#250;mero crescente de pacientes com m&#250;ltiplas comorbidades tem sido submetido a opera&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o card&#237;acas. Em consequ&#234;ncia, &#233; esperado um aumento de complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares associadas a tais procedimentos<sup>2</sup> e o infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio (IAM) perioperat&#243;rio poder&#225; se tornar um problema frequente<sup>1,3</sup>. No Brasil, o n&#250;mero de opera&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o card&#237;acas tamb&#233;m est&#225; aumentando, sendo realizadas aproximadamente tr&#234;s milh&#245;es de cirurgias por ano<sup>4</sup>.</p>
    <p>Apesar dos avan&#231;os nas t&#233;cnicas cir&#250;rgicas e anest&#233;sicas, a mortalidade e o custo relacionados a esses procedimentos tamb&#233;m est&#227;o aumentando, sendo fundamental o desenvolvimento de estrat&#233;gias para a redu&#231;&#227;o da mortalidade<sup>4</sup>. A ocorr&#234;ncia de um IAM perioperat&#243;rio prolonga a necessidade de terapia intensiva, a estadia hospitalar, aumenta o custo da interna&#231;&#227;o e diminui a sobrevida a longo prazo<sup>3,5-9</sup>.</p>
    <p>Desde a d&#233;cada de 70, diversos algoritmos t&#234;m sido utilizados para a estimativa do risco cardiovascular relacionado a opera&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o card&#237;acas, como os algoritmos de Goldman<sup>10</sup>, da ASA (<italic>American Society of Anesthesiology</italic>)<sup>11</sup>, de Detsky modificado<sup>12</sup> e, mais recentemente, o &#237;ndice card&#237;aco revisado de Lee<sup>13</sup> e o estudo multic&#234;ntrico de avalia&#231;&#227;o perioperat&#243;ria (EMAPO)<sup>14</sup>. Baseados em tais algoritmos, fluxogramas<sup>15,16</sup> foram criados para avalia&#231;&#227;o perioperat&#243;ria, na tentativa n&#227;o somente de estabelecer o risco card&#237;aco, mas tamb&#233;m de guiar a solicita&#231;&#227;o de testes n&#227;o invasivos para a detec&#231;&#227;o de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica, a indica&#231;&#227;o de m&#233;todos de monitoriza&#231;&#227;o de eventos cardiovasculares e de estrat&#233;gias de preven&#231;&#227;o de complica&#231;&#245;es com medica&#231;&#245;es ou revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica.</p>
    <p>Apesar do crescente n&#250;mero de estudos sobre medicina perioperat&#243;ria, a maioria deles est&#225; focada na estratifica&#231;&#227;o do risco para tentar predizer a ocorr&#234;ncia dos eventos cardiovasculares<sup>17</sup>, na busca por marcadores relacionados ao maior risco cir&#250;rgico<sup>18-30</sup>, na monitoriza&#231;&#227;o para tentar realizar a detec&#231;&#227;o precoce do IAM<sup>7,31-36</sup> e nas estrat&#233;gias para reduzir o seu risco, como a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de medica&#231;&#245;es (estatinas<sup>37-44</sup>, betabloqueadores<sup>44-51</sup>, clonidina<sup>52,53</sup>) ou, at&#233; mesmo, a revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica pr&#233;-operat&#243;ria<sup>54, 55</sup>. Existem poucas evid&#234;ncias sobre a fisiopatologia, o diagn&#243;stico e o tratamento do IAM perioperat&#243;rio<sup>56,57</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fisiopatologia</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Dois mecanismos distintos podem levar ao IAM perioperat&#243;rio: a instabiliza&#231;&#227;o de placas de aterosclerose com ruptura e trombose ou altera&#231;&#245;es na rela&#231;&#227;o oferta/consumo de oxig&#234;nio do mioc&#225;rdio em pacientes com doen&#231;a arterial coron&#225;ria (DAC) cr&#244;nica e estenoses significativas<sup>1</sup>. No IAM espont&#226;neo, ocorre a ruptura de uma placa vulner&#225;vel, causada por um aumento na for&#231;a de cisalhamento na luz do vaso ou por um processo inflamat&#243;rio dentro da placa. A placa vulner&#225;vel &#233; constitu&#237;da por uma capa fibrosa fina e um grande conte&#250;do de macr&#243;fagos e l&#237;pides no centro. Com a ruptura da capa fibrosa, a exposi&#231;&#227;o dos l&#237;pides leva &#224; agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria e, consequentemente, &#224; trombose no local, com redu&#231;&#227;o parcial ou total da luz do vaso, desencadeando isquemia e infarto do mioc&#225;rdio<sup>56,58</sup>. O estresse emocional e o exerc&#237;cio extenuante podem causar a ruptura da placa.</p>
    <p>No perioperat&#243;rio, uma s&#233;rie de fatores pode contribuir para a instabiliza&#231;&#227;o de placas de aterosclerose. Os n&#237;veis de catecolaminas e o cortisol aumentam ap&#243;s a opera&#231;&#227;o e podem permanecer elevados por dias. Eles aumentam com a dor, anemia e hipotermia, podendo levar &#224; vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o nas art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias e &#224; instabiliza&#231;&#227;o de placas. A taquicardia e hipertens&#227;o s&#227;o comuns no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio e podem aumentar a for&#231;a de cisalhamento nos vasos, levando &#224; ruptura de placas vulner&#225;veis. Al&#233;m disto, ocorrem aumento nas subst&#226;ncias pr&#243;-coagulantes (fibrinog&#234;nio e fator de vonWillebrand), diminui&#231;&#227;o nos fatores anticoagulantes (prote&#237;na C, antitrombina III e alfa2macroglobulina) e aumento da agregabilidade plaquet&#225;ria<sup>1</sup>. Os aumentos da atividade pr&#243;-coagulante e antifibrinol&#237;tica induzidos pela opera&#231;&#227;o podem desencadear trombose coron&#225;ria em pacientes com DAC e velocidade reduzida do fluxo coronariano, mesmo na aus&#234;ncia de ruptura de placa<sup>57</sup>.</p>
    <p>Por outro lado, a taquicardia, a hipertens&#227;o arterial, a hipotens&#227;o (devido a sangramento, hipovolemia ou vasodilata&#231;&#227;o), a anemia ou a hipoxemia podem levar a um IAM devido ao desequil&#237;brio na rela&#231;&#227;o oferta/consumo de oxig&#234;nio em pacientes com les&#245;es coronarianas obstrutivas, mas est&#225;veis<sup>1</sup>. A frequente combina&#231;&#227;o de aumento da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e infradesnivelamento do segmento ST, detectada na monitoriza&#231;&#227;o com holter precedendo o evento, &#233; um fato que sugere que a isquemia prolongada pode ser a causa do IAM perioperat&#243;rio e n&#227;o a trombose<sup>57</sup>.</p>
    <p>Entretanto, as evid&#234;ncias em estudos cl&#237;nicos s&#227;o escassas. Em 1996, Dawood e cols.<sup>59</sup> realizaram o primeiro estudo para determinar a patologia do IAM perioperat&#243;rio. Foram estudadas as art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias e o aspecto da placa de aterosclerose em 42 pacientes que morreram de IAM ocorrido no intraoperat&#243;rio ou em at&#233; 30 dias do p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio. A presen&#231;a de ruptura de placa, hemorragia na placa ou trombo foi avaliada. Os achados foram comparados com os de pacientes que morreram at&#233; 21 dias ap&#243;s o IAM e n&#227;o haviam sido submetidos a nenhum procedimento cir&#250;rgico nos &#250;ltimos tr&#234;s meses. Vinte e tr&#234;s pacientes (55%) com IAM perioperat&#243;rio e 10 pacientes (40%) com IAM espont&#226;neo apresentavam uma ou mais dessas caracter&#237;sticas (p = 0,31). Os autores conclu&#237;ram que o mecanismo do IAM perioperat&#243;rio fatal seria o mesmo do IAM espont&#226;neo, isto &#233;, a ruptura de uma placa de aterosclerose levando &#224; trombose e &#224; obstru&#231;&#227;o da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria<sup>59</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em 1999, Cohen e cols.<sup>60</sup> confirmaram esses achados em outro estudo anatomopatol&#243;gico com 26 pacientes que morreram de IAM perioperat&#243;rio, encontrando evid&#234;ncia de ruptura de placa em 12 pacientes (46%). A compara&#231;&#227;o das caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas (idade, sexo, hist&#243;ria de DAC, hist&#243;ria de IAM, uso de betabloqueadores, morte s&#250;bita, IAM cl&#237;nico) dos pacientes com e sem ruptura de placa n&#227;o revelou diferen&#231;a entre os grupos. Por&#233;m, pacientes com ruptura de placa tinham um maior intervalo entre a opera&#231;&#227;o e a morte (7,8 &#177; 4,4 dias x 4,4 &#177; 4,8 dias; p = 0,047). Em 19% dos casos o aspecto patol&#243;gico do IAM foi circunferencial, possivelmente relacionado a altera&#231;&#245;es na rela&#231;&#227;o oferta/consumo de oxig&#234;nio. Entretanto, mesmo em tal situa&#231;&#227;o, a ruptura de placa n&#227;o pode ser exclu&#237;da como mecanismo do IAM. Prova disso &#233; que um desses pacientes tinha tamb&#233;m evid&#234;ncia de ruptura de placa.</p>
    <p>Esses fatos sugerem que, para maximizar a efic&#225;cia das estrat&#233;gias para redu&#231;&#227;o de risco de IAM, devemos considerar os dois mecanismos como poss&#237;veis alvos terap&#234;uticos<sup>60</sup>. Considerando que a maior parte dos IAM perioperat&#243;rios ocorre na aus&#234;ncia de supradesnivelamento do segmento ST ao eletrocardiograma (ECG), parece contradit&#243;rio que o exame anatomopatol&#243;gico revele que a maior parte dos IAM seja transmural<sup>57</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em um estudo interessante, Poldermans e cols.<sup>61</sup> avaliaram a rela&#231;&#227;o entre a localiza&#231;&#227;o do IAM (na necropsia) ap&#243;s opera&#231;&#245;es vasculares e o local da isquemia determinado pelo ecocardiograma com estresse com dobutamina pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio. Pacientes que realizaram ecocardiograma com estresse com dobutamina no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio de opera&#231;&#245;es vasculares e morreram at&#233; 30 dias ap&#243;s o procedimento foram inclu&#237;dos no estudo. Os pacientes que haviam sido submetidos &#224; revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica pr&#233;-operat&#243;ria ap&#243;s o ecocardiograma foram exclu&#237;dos. Dos 32 pacientes que preencheram os crit&#233;rios de inclus&#227;o, 22 (66%) apresentaram evid&#234;ncias de IAM na necropsia. Desta amostra, cinco pacientes tinham ecocardiograma negativo para isquemia e, em 9 (56%) dos 16 restantes, a evid&#234;ncia patol&#243;gica do IAM se encontrava em um territ&#243;rio coron&#225;rio no qual n&#227;o havia sido demonstrada isquemia. Os autores conclu&#237;ram que o ecocardiograma com estresse com dobutamina positivo para isquemia identificou pacientes com maior risco de IAM e especularam que sua falha em identificar a regi&#227;o espec&#237;fica em risco pode ser explicada pela ocorr&#234;ncia de ruptura e instabiliza&#231;&#227;o de placas menos obstrutivas e que n&#227;o causavam redu&#231;&#227;o ao fluxo<sup>61</sup>.</p>
    <p>Apesar de esses estudos anatomopatol&#243;gicos indicarem que o principal mecanismo para o IAM perioperat&#243;rio fatal seja a instabiliza&#231;&#227;o e ruptura da placa de aterosclerose, eles s&#227;o retrospectivos e inclu&#237;ram um pequeno n&#250;mero de pacientes. Ellis e cols.<sup>62</sup> tentaram determinar a causa do IAM perioperat&#243;rio em pacientes que sobreviveram a tais eventos em um estudo retrospectivo com 21 pacientes que sofreram IAM perioperat&#243;rio e 42 controles que foram submetidos a opera&#231;&#245;es vasculares e realizaram cineangiocoronariografia pr&#233;-operat&#243;ria. As caracter&#237;sticas angiogr&#225;ficas (n&#250;mero, local e aspecto das les&#245;es) foram comparadas entre pacientes com e sem IAM perioperat&#243;rio para tentar estabelecer quais les&#245;es causaram o IAM. Os autores conclu&#237;ram que a maioria dos IAM perioperat&#243;rios ocorre devido &#224; insufici&#234;ncia de circula&#231;&#227;o colateral para territ&#243;rios com art&#233;ria oclu&#237;da e um n&#250;mero menor ocorre sem obstru&#231;&#245;es significantes<sup>62</sup>. Por&#233;m, esse estudo tem limita&#231;&#245;es metodol&#243;gicas s&#233;rias, uma vez que a cineangiocoronariografia foi realizada no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio (antes do evento), n&#227;o sendo repetida ap&#243;s o evento. Al&#233;m disso, os pacientes com les&#245;es importantes podem ter realizado revasculariza&#231;&#227;o antes da opera&#231;&#227;o, sendo muito dif&#237;cil determinar uma rela&#231;&#227;o de causa-efeito entre as les&#245;es encontradas e o IAM perioperat&#243;rio.</p>
    <p>No primeiro estudo cl&#237;nico que avaliou a fisiopatologia do IAM perioperat&#243;rio em pacientes que sobreviveram a estes eventos, comparamos as caracter&#237;sticas angiogr&#225;ficas de 120 pacientes com s&#237;ndromes coronarianas agudas (SCA) perioperat&#243;rias, 120 pacientes com SCA espont&#226;neas e 240 pacientes com doen&#231;a arterial coron&#225;ria cr&#244;nica. Os pacientes com SCA perioperat&#243;ria apresentaram menos les&#245;es complexas e do tipo II de Ambrose do que os pacientes com SCA espont&#226;neas, por&#233;m, maior quantidade de les&#245;es deste tipo do que pacientes com DAC cr&#244;nica (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="aop09812gra01">Gr&#225;fico 1</xref>). Portanto, demonstramos que pacientes com SCA perioperat&#243;ria, em aproximadamente 50% dos casos, apresentam sinais de instabiliza&#231;&#227;o de placa como mecanismo fisiopatol&#243;gico, caracterizando um IAM tipo 1. Cabe ressaltar que, nos pacientes do grupo SCA perioperat&#243;ria, o tempo entre o evento e a cineangiocoronariografia foi maior que nos pacientes do grupo SCA espont&#226;nea (5,5 &#177; 8,0 dias x 1,3 &#177; 1,4; p &lt; 0,001, respectivamente), o que pode ter subestimado a presen&#231;a de ruptura de placa no grupo perioperat&#243;rio<sup>63</sup>.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="aop09812gra01">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-99-05-1060-00098-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Incid&#234;ncia</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Os dados sobre incid&#234;ncia, evolu&#231;&#227;o e mortalidade do IAM perioperat&#243;rio tamb&#233;m s&#227;o controversos. A incid&#234;ncia de IAM perioperat&#243;rio em pacientes de baixo risco sem hist&#243;ria de DAC &#233; 0,3 a 3%, por&#233;m pode chegar a 33% em pacientes de alto risco com hist&#243;ria de DAC<sup>9,55,64</sup>. Essa grande varia&#231;&#227;o na incid&#234;ncia do IAM perioperat&#243;rio pode ser explicada n&#227;o somente por depender do tipo de popula&#231;&#227;o avaliada e do tipo de opera&#231;&#227;o realizada<sup>65</sup>, mas tamb&#233;m porque os crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos adotados pelos estudos n&#227;o s&#227;o uniformes. Al&#233;m disto, o IAM perioperat&#243;rio pode passar despercebido se estrat&#233;gias de monitoriza&#231;&#227;o com eletrocardiograma seriado e dosagem de troponina no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio n&#227;o forem realizadas. Pacientes que ser&#227;o submetidos a opera&#231;&#245;es vasculares t&#234;m maior risco para desenvolver IAM perioperat&#243;rio, uma vez que j&#225; t&#234;m aterosclerose conhecida<sup>3</sup>. Em um estudo da d&#233;cada de 80, no qual a cineangiocoronariografia foi realizada em mil pacientes que seriam submetidos a opera&#231;&#245;es vasculares, os autores constataram que 91% dos pacientes eram portadores de DAC<sup>66</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em 577 pacientes idosos submetidos a opera&#231;&#245;es vasculares, a incid&#234;ncia de IAM perioperat&#243;rio foi de 9,7%<sup>42</sup> e em 570 pacientes submetidos &#224; corre&#231;&#227;o de aneurisma de aorta abdominal, foi de 8,9%<sup>43</sup>. Em estudos brasileiros com pacientes que foram submetidos a opera&#231;&#245;es vasculares arteriais, a incid&#234;ncia de IAM perioperat&#243;rio variou de 9 a 11%<sup>37,67</sup>. Mesmo a realiza&#231;&#227;o de procedimentos endovasculares para corre&#231;&#227;o de aneurisma de aorta apresenta uma incid&#234;ncia de IAM de 7%<sup>68</sup>. Por outro lado, quando s&#227;o avaliadas popula&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o selecionadas, a incid&#234;ncia parece ser bem menor, variando entre 0,27% a 1,8%<sup>5,69,70</sup>. Cabe ressaltar que tais incid&#234;ncias podem estar subestimadas devido ao car&#225;ter retrospectivo desses estudos, dos diferentes crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos utilizados e da aus&#234;ncia de monitoriza&#231;&#227;o para busca ativa de eventos.</p>
    <p>Os estudos prospectivos tamb&#233;m mostram uma incid&#234;ncia vari&#225;vel, embora de modo geral, mais elevada que as dos estudos retrospectivos.</p>
    <p>Em 1986, Detsky e cols.<sup>12</sup> avaliaram uma popula&#231;&#227;o de 455 pacientes acima de 40 anos, submetidos a opera&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o card&#237;acas e encontraram uma incid&#234;ncia de IAM de 3,1%. Em 1990, Shah e cols.<sup>71</sup> avaliaram 275 pacientes com antecedente de IAM pr&#233;vio submetidos a opera&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o card&#237;acas e encontraram uma incid&#234;ncia de IAM p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio de 4,7%, sendo que esta incid&#234;ncia era de 10,9% no subgrupo submetido a opera&#231;&#245;es vasculares. O crit&#233;rio de IAM baseava-se na presen&#231;a de dor tor&#225;cica ou de altera&#231;&#245;es eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas associadas a eleva&#231;&#245;es na fra&#231;&#227;o MB da creatinofosfoquinase (CKMB). Kumar e cols.<sup>65</sup> estudaram 1.121 pacientes com DAC e encontraram uma incid&#234;ncia de IAM de 2,8%, realizando dosagens seriadas de CKMB e eletrocardiograma nos primeiros tr&#234;s dias do p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio. Com o aparecimento das troponinas, elas passaram a ser o marcador de necrose mioc&#225;rdica de escolha para diagn&#243;stico do IAM e estudos prospectivos que utilizaram a monitoriza&#231;&#227;o com ECG e troponina no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio encontraram incid&#234;ncias de IAM entre 3,6 e 5,6%<sup>44,50,72,73</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Quadro cl&#237;nico e diagn&#243;stico</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O risco de IAM &#233; maior nos primeiros tr&#234;s dias do p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio, sendo que a maioria dos eventos ocorre no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio imediato ou no dia seguinte<sup>3,57,58</sup>. No estudo de Kikura e cols.<sup>69</sup>, a maioria dos eventos (57,4%) ocorreu no dia da opera&#231;&#227;o ou no primeiro dia de p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio. Quanto &#224; classifica&#231;&#227;o do IAM, 91 pacientes (74,6%) apresentaram IAM sem supradesnivelamento do segmento ST e 31 pacientes (25,4%) apresentaram IAM com supradesnivelamento do segmento ST. Os autores conclu&#237;ram que os pacientes com IAM perioperat&#243;rio s&#227;o geralmente homens, submetidos &#224; opera&#231;&#227;o de alto risco, t&#234;m hist&#243;ria de DAC e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e um Risco Card&#237;aco Revisado de Lee mais alto<sup>69</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em 120 pacientes com s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria, demonstramos que 71,7% dos pacientes apresentaram o evento nas primeiras 72 horas, sendo que 19 (15,8%) pacientes apresentaram angina inst&#225;vel, 94 (78,3%) IAM sem supra de ST e 7 (5,8%) IAM com supra ST<sup>63</sup>. Devereaux e cols.<sup>73</sup> tamb&#233;m demonstraram que, em 415 pacientes com IAM perioperat&#243;rio, 74,1% dos eventos ocorreu nas primeiras 48 horas e apenas 10,6% dos pacientes apresentaram IAM com supra de ST.</p>
    <p>Quanto aos sintomas, no estudo de Devereaux e cols.<sup>73</sup>, apenas 34,7% dos pacientes apresentaram algum sintoma de isquemia. No nosso estudo, 40,7% dos pacientes apresentaram dor tor&#225;cica<sup>63</sup>. Portanto, a maior parte dos casos de IAM ocorre nos primeiros dias de p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio, &#233; assintom&#225;tico e sem supradesnivelamento do segmento ST<sup>56,57,63,73</sup>. A mortalidade intra-hospitalar do IAM perioperat&#243;rio pode variar entre 11 e 25% e &#233; maior nos pacientes com maior eleva&#231;&#227;o de troponina<sup>1,5,8,63,73</sup>.</p>
    <p> O diagn&#243;stico do IAM perioperat&#243;rio &#233; dif&#237;cil porque em 50 a 61% dos casos a dor tor&#225;cica caracter&#237;stica est&#225; ausente em virtude de seda&#231;&#227;o e de altera&#231;&#245;es cognitivas ou &#233; atribu&#237;da &#224; ferida cir&#250;rgica<sup>10</sup>. Al&#233;m disto, podem ocorrer altera&#231;&#245;es no segmento ST inespec&#237;ficas relacionadas a dist&#250;rbios eletrol&#237;ticos, hipotermia, pericardite ou trauma tor&#225;cico, hiperventila&#231;&#227;o, efeito de drogas ou mudan&#231;as de dec&#250;bito.</p>
    <p>Quanto aos marcadores de necrose mioc&#225;rdica, a CKMB &#233; pouco sens&#237;vel e pouco espec&#237;fica no perioperat&#243;rio, onde ocorrem les&#227;o do m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico e frequentes eleva&#231;&#245;es da creatinofosfoquinase (CPK). J&#225; o aumento da troponina &#233; indicativo de les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica, mas nem sempre &#233; resultado de les&#245;es coronarianas, causando isquemia e necrose. A troponina pode estar elevada em situa&#231;&#245;es como tromboembolismo pulmonar, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca descompensada, sepse, miocardite, insufici&#234;ncia renal, choque ou pericardite, que podem ocorrer no perioperat&#243;rio<sup>3,74</sup>. A defini&#231;&#227;o do IAM perioperat&#243;rio tamb&#233;m &#233; dif&#237;cil porque a maioria dos IAMs ocorre sem dor tor&#225;cica, as altera&#231;&#245;es eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas podem ser transit&#243;rias e passarem despercebidas e v&#225;rias situa&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas podem alterar os marcadores de necrose mioc&#225;rdica. Portanto, geralmente o IAM &#233; reconhecido tardiamente, o que explica a alta morbimortalidade observada.</p>
    <p>Em 2007, foi publicada a defini&#231;&#227;o universal de infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio, quando foram revistos crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos de IAM e foi proposta uma classifica&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica para o mesmo. Nesta classifica&#231;&#227;o, o IAM foi dividido em cinco tipos, permitindo que estrat&#233;gias de tratamento espec&#237;ficas para cada grupo sejam desenvolvidas, uma vez que existem mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos diferentes para cada tipo<sup>75</sup>. Em nossa opini&#227;o, o IAM que ocorre ap&#243;s uma opera&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o card&#237;aca n&#227;o foi contemplado nessa classifica&#231;&#227;o<sup>76</sup>. O conhecimento m&#233;dico da fisiopatologia do IAM evoluiu muito nas &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas, o que n&#227;o ocorreu com o IAM perioperat&#243;rio. Atualmente, ainda n&#227;o se conhece exatamente a fisiopatologia do IAM ap&#243;s opera&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o card&#237;acas. As evid&#234;ncias sugerem que, em cerca de 50% dos casos, ele se enquadre no tipo 1<sup>63</sup>.</p>
    <p>O diagn&#243;stico do IAM perioperat&#243;rio deve ser feito quando ocorre a eleva&#231;&#227;o e queda dos marcadores de necrose mioc&#225;rdica (de prefer&#234;ncia troponina) com pelo menos um valor acima do percentil 99 do limite superior de refer&#234;ncia, associado a sintomas de isquemia ou altera&#231;&#245;es eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas indicativas de isquemia (altera&#231;&#245;es do segmento ST ou bloqueio de ramo esquerdo novo) ou desenvolvimento de ondas Q no ECG ou altera&#231;&#227;o de contratilidade segmentar nova ao ecocardiograma<sup>75</sup>. Nos futuros estudos de perioperat&#243;rio, esperamos que esses crit&#233;rios sejam aplicados, para que se possa ter uma melhor estimativa da incid&#234;ncia e evolu&#231;&#227;o do IAM perioperat&#243;rio.</p>
    <p>Al&#233;m disto, o IAM deve ser diferenciado da eleva&#231;&#227;o isolada de troponina, que &#233; uma entidade caracterizada pela eleva&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de troponina, sem manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas, sem altera&#231;&#245;es eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas, na aus&#234;ncia de outras situa&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas que expliquem esse aumento. Apesar da eleva&#231;&#227;o isolada de troponina tamb&#233;m ter implica&#231;&#245;es no progn&#243;stico a longo prazo, o paciente n&#227;o deve receber tratamento para IAM, mas sim uma estratifica&#231;&#227;o cardiol&#243;gica adicional antes da alta hospitalar<sup>32,36,77</sup>.</p>
    <p>Segundo os algoritmos de avalia&#231;&#227;o perioperat&#243;ria visando &#224; detec&#231;&#227;o precoce do IAM perioperat&#243;rio<sup>16</sup>, a monitoriza&#231;&#227;o com eletrocardiograma e com dosagem de troponina di&#225;ria at&#233; o terceiro dia do perioperat&#243;rio est&#225; indicada em pacientes de risco cardiovascular intermedi&#225;rio ou alto.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Tratamento</bold>
    </p>
    <p>N&#227;o existem estudos randomizados direcionados especificamente ao IAM perioperat&#243;rio. Geralmente, utilizam-se as diretrizes de tratamento das SCA espont&#226;neas, mas respeitando algumas considera&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas do ambiente perioperat&#243;rio<sup>16</sup>. Em primeiro lugar, devemos dividir as SCA perioperat&#243;rias em com ou sem supradesnivelamento do segmento ST.</p>
    <p>Em pacientes com supradesnivelamento do segmento ST, a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de trombol&#237;ticos est&#225; formalmente contraindicada devido ao proibitivo risco de sangramento<sup>78</sup>. O tratamento de escolha em tais casos &#233; a angioplastia prim&#225;ria, desde que o paciente n&#227;o apresente nenhum sangramento ativo que contraindique o uso do clopidogrel<sup>1,3,16</sup>. Berger e cols.<sup>79</sup> estudaram especificamente a evolu&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e o progn&#243;stico de 48 pacientes submetidos &#224; cineangiocoronariografia imediatamente ap&#243;s o IAM ocorrido at&#233; o s&#233;timo dia p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio, obtidos do banco de dados do servi&#231;o de hemodin&#226;mica. Trinta e tr&#234;s pacientes (68,8%) apresentavam supradesnivelamento do segmento ST, quatro bloqueio de ramo novo, oito infradesnivelamento do segmento ST e tr&#234;s outras altera&#231;&#245;es. Em 32 pacientes (66,7%), a art&#233;ria relacionada ao IAM estava totalmente oclu&#237;da e em 30 pacientes (62,5%) havia evid&#234;ncia de trombo. O tempo m&#233;dio entre o in&#237;cio dos sintomas e a cineangiocoronariografia foi de quatro horas. Quarenta e um pacientes (85,4%) foram submetidos &#224; angioplastia e tr&#234;s pacientes &#224; revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica cir&#250;rgica (6,25%). Dois pacientes (4,2%) apresentavam coron&#225;rias normais. Trinta e cinco pacientes (65%) sobreviveram at&#233; a alta hospitalar. O tempo m&#233;dio de interna&#231;&#227;o foi de 13 dias. Cabe ressaltar que, nesse estudo, somente pacientes em estado cl&#237;nico muito grave foram avaliados, com 21 pacientes apresentando choque cardiog&#234;nico e 12 pacientes com parada cardiorrespirat&#243;ria antes da cineangiocoronariografia. Os autores conclu&#237;ram que uma estrat&#233;gia invasiva imediata com angioplastia &#233; segura e pode reduzir a mortalidade de pacientes selecionados com IAM perioperat&#243;rio<sup>79</sup>.</p>
    <p>J&#225; para as SCA perioperat&#243;rias sem supradesnivelamento do segmento ST, extrapolando as recomenda&#231;&#245;es de tratamento de SCA espont&#226;nea<sup>80</sup>, utiliza-se a antiagrega&#231;&#227;o com &#225;cido acetilsalic&#237;lico (AAS) e clopidogrel e a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o com heparina n&#227;o fracionada ou de baixo peso molecular. Por&#233;m, deve-se sempre pesar o risco de sangramento e o benef&#237;cio da anticoagula&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>Apesar da aus&#234;ncia de estudos randomizados, no ambiente perioperat&#243;rio, em casos de maior risco de sangramento, &#233; prudente dar prefer&#234;ncia &#224; heparina n&#227;o fracionada, uma vez que seu efeito pode ser rapidamente revertido em casos de sangramento. O uso de inibidores da glicoprote&#237;na IIbIIIa n&#227;o est&#225; recomendado devido &#224; aus&#234;ncia de estudos sobre seguran&#231;a da sua utiliza&#231;&#227;o no perioperat&#243;rio.</p>
    <p>No nosso estudo com 120 pacientes com SCA p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria, 11 pacientes (9,2%) apresentaram sangramentos (seis sangramentos maiores, segundo a classifica&#231;&#227;o de TIMI, incluindo dois fatais e cinco menores) <italic>versus</italic> 10 pacientes (8,3%) pacientes com SCA espont&#226;nea (seis maiores e quatro menores, nenhum fatal; p = 0,09). Cabe ressaltar que somente tr&#234;s pacientes apresentaram sangramento relacionado ao s&#237;tio da opera&#231;&#227;o e cinco apresentaram sangramento do trato gastrointestinal.</p>
    <p>Apesar da diferen&#231;a entre os grupos n&#227;o ter sido significativa, o objetivo prim&#225;rio deste estudo n&#227;o era a avalia&#231;&#227;o de sangramento e o tamanho amostral foi pequeno para chegarmos a conclus&#245;es definitivas. Outro aspecto &#233; que a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o com heparina s&#243; era iniciada de comum acordo entre a equipe cl&#237;nica e cir&#250;rgica, sendo que 99,2% dos pacientes com IAM perioperat&#243;rio receberam aspirina e 65% receberam clopidogrel, mas apenas 86,7% dos pacientes receberam algum tipo de hepariniza&#231;&#227;o plena<sup>63</sup>. Portanto, a antiagrega&#231;&#227;o e anticoagula&#231;&#227;o no IAM perioperat&#243;rio deve ser feita com cautela e ap&#243;s uma discuss&#227;o interdisciplinar da rela&#231;&#227;o risco/benef&#237;cio.</p>
    <p> Al&#233;m disto, deve-se considerar a corre&#231;&#227;o de fatores secund&#225;rios, como anemia, dor, taquicardia e hipertens&#227;o<sup>3,16</sup>. O uso de betabloqueadores, estatinas, inibidores da enzima de convers&#227;o da angiotensina e bloqueadores da aldosterona deve respeitar as mesmas indica&#231;&#245;es do IAM espont&#226;neo<sup>80</sup>. Em pacientes hemodinamicamente est&#225;veis, pode-se tentar uma estrat&#233;gia conservadora em um primeiro momento, com corre&#231;&#227;o de todos os fatores secund&#225;rios e medica&#231;&#245;es e estratifica&#231;&#227;o invasiva antes da alta hospitalar. J&#225; em pacientes com crit&#233;rios de pior progn&#243;stico, deve-se realizar a estrat&#233;gia invasiva o mais precoce poss&#237;vel<sup>3,16</sup>.</p>
    <p>Existem evid&#234;ncias anatomopatol&#243;gicas e cl&#237;nicas que grande parte dos IAMs perioperat&#243;rios seria do tipo 1 e que, portanto, estes pacientes poderiam se beneficiar de antiagrega&#231;&#227;o, anticoagula&#231;&#227;o e estrat&#233;gia invasiva precoce, da mesma maneira que os pacientes com IAM espont&#226;neo<sup>59,60,63</sup>. Por outro lado, em alguns pacientes, a ruptura de placa n&#227;o foi detectada. Sendo assim, al&#233;m de incluir o uso de antiagregantes, anticoagulantes e a realiza&#231;&#227;o de estrat&#233;gia invasiva para revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica, o tratamento de IAM perioperat&#243;rio deve ser complementado com a corre&#231;&#227;o de causas secund&#225;rias, como anemia, hipertens&#227;o e taquicardia. Desse modo, esperamos poder reduzir a ocorr&#234;ncia e a grande morbimortalidade do IAM perioperat&#243;rio.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O presente estudo foi financiado parcialmente por FAPESP.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de tese de doutorado de Danielle Menosi Gualandro pela Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="corresp" fn-type="corresp">
        <label>
          <bold>Correspond&#234;ncia:</bold>
        </label>
        <p> Danielle Menosi Gualandro </p>
        <p> Rua Maranh&#227;o, 391, Higien&#243;polis </p>
        <p> CEP 01240 001, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p><email xlink:href="danigualandro@cardiol.br">danigualandro@cardiol.br</email>, </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="danielle.gualandro@incor.usp.br">danielle.gualandro@incor.usp.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Artigo recebido em 14/05/12; revisado em 14/05/12; aceito em 24/05/12</p>
  </body>
  <back>
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  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Acute myocardial infarction after noncardiac surgery</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>Over 230 million surgeries are performed annually worldwide, cardiac complications being the most common causes of postoperative morbidity and mortality. As life expectancy has extended worldwide, a growing number of patients with multiple comorbidities have undergone noncardiac surgeries. Consequently, cardiovascular complications associated with those procedures are expected to increase, and perioperative acute myocardial infarction (AMI) might become a frequent problem. In Brazil, the number of noncardiac surgical procedures has also increased, and approximately three million surgeries are performed annually. Despite advances in surgical and anesthetic techniques, mortality and costs related to those procedures have also increased, thus, requiring the development of strategies to reduce mortality4. The occurrence of perioperative AMI prolongs the need for intensive care and the hospital length of stay, increases the cost of hospitalization, and reduces long-term survival. This literature review approaches the pathophysiology, incidence, diagnosis and treatment of perioperative AMI based on current evidence.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Myocardial Infarction</kwd>
        <kwd>surgery</kwd>
        <kwd>complications</kwd>
        <kwd>Perioperative Care</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <fn id="inicio-body2">
          <label>
            <bold>Acute myocardial infarction after noncardiac surgery</bold>
          </label>
          <p>
            <bold>Danielle Menosi Gualandro; Daniela Calderaro; Pai Ching Yu; Bruno Caramelli</bold>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p>Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o (InCor) do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil</p>
      <p>Mailing Adress</p>
      <p>
        <bold>ABSTRACT</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Over 230 million surgeries are performed annually worldwide, cardiac complications being the most common causes of postoperative morbidity and mortality. As life expectancy has extended worldwide, a growing number of patients with multiple comorbidities have undergone noncardiac surgeries. Consequently, cardiovascular complications associated with those procedures are expected to increase, and perioperative acute myocardial infarction (AMI) might become a frequent problem.</p>
      <p> In Brazil, the number of noncardiac surgical procedures has also increased, and approximately three million surgeries are performed annually.</p>
      <p> Despite advances in surgical and anesthetic techniques, mortality and costs related to those procedures have also increased, thus, requiring the development of strategies to reduce mortality<sup>4</sup>. The occurrence of perioperative AMI prolongs the need for intensive care and the hospital length of stay, increases the cost of hospitalization, and reduces long-term survival.</p>
      <p> This literature review approaches the pathophysiology, incidence, diagnosis and treatment of perioperative AMI based on current evidence.</p>
      <p><bold>Keywords:</bold> Myocardial Infarction / surgery / complications; Perioperative Care</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Over 230 million surgeries are performed annually worldwide, cardiac complications being the most common causes of postoperative morbidity and mortality<sup>1</sup>. As life expectancy has extended worldwide, a growing number of patients with multiple comorbidities have undergone noncardiac surgeries. Consequently, cardiovascular complications associated with those procedures are expected to increase <sup>2</sup>, and perioperative acute myocardial infarction (AMI) might become a frequent problem<sup>1,3</sup>. In Brazil, the number of noncardiac surgical procedures has also increased, and approximately three million surgeries are performed annually<sup>4</sup>.</p>
      <p>Despite advances in surgical and anesthetic techniques, mortality and costs related to those procedures have also increased, thus, requiring the development of strategies to reduce mortality<sup>4</sup>. The occurrence of perioperative AMI prolongs the need for intensive care and the hospital length of stay, increases the cost of hospitalization, and reduces long-term survival<sup>3,5-9</sup>.</p>
      <p>Since the 1970s, several algorithms have been used to estimate the cardiovascular risk related to noncardiac surgical procedures, such as the Goldman multifactorial index<sup>10</sup>, the American Society of Anesthesiologists' (ASA) Physical Status Classification<sup>11</sup>, the modified Detsky index<sup>12</sup>, and, more recently, Lee's Revised Cardiac Risk Index<sup>13</sup> and the Multicenter Study of Perioperative Evaluation (EMAPO)<sup>14</sup>. Based on those algorithms, flowcharts<sup>15,16</sup> have been created for perioperative assessment, in an attempt not only to establish cardiac risk, but also to guide the indication of the following: non-invasive tests to detect myocardial ischemia; methods to monitor cardiovascular events; and strategies to prevent complications with medications or myocardial revascularization.</p>
      <p>Despite the increasing number of studies on perioperative medicine, most of them have focused on the following: risk stratification to predict the occurrence of cardiovascular events<sup>17</sup>; search for markers related to higher surgical risk<sup>18-30</sup>; monitoring for early detection of AMI<sup>7,31-36</sup>; and strategies to reduce the risk of AMI, such as medications (statins<sup>37-44</sup>, beta-blockers<sup>44-51</sup>, clonidine<sup>52,53</sup>) or even preoperative myocardial revascularization<sup>54,55</sup>. Evidence on the pathophysiology, diagnosis and treatment of perioperative AMI is scarce<sup>56,57</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Pathophysiology</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Two distinct mechanisms can lead to perioperative AMI: atherosclerotic plaque instability with rupture and thrombosis; and changes in the myocardial oxygen delivery/consumption ratio in patients with chronic coronary artery disease (CAD) and significant stenosis<sup>1</sup>. In spontaneous AMI, rupture of a vulnerable plaque is usually caused by an increase in luminal shear stress or by an inflammatory process inside the plaque. The vulnerable plaque is formed by a thin fibrous cap and a large amount of macrophages and lipids in the center. Rupture of the fibrous cap exposes the lipids, which leads to platelet aggregation, and, thus, local thrombosis with partial or total reduction in vascular lumen, triggering ischemia and myocardial infarction<sup>56,58</sup>. Emotional stress and extenuating exercise might cause plaque rupture.</p>
      <p>In the perioperative period, several factors can contribute to atherosclerotic plaque instability. The levels of catecholamines and cortisol increase after surgery and can remain high for days. Their increase result from pain, anemia, and hypothermia, and can lead to coronary vasoconstriction and plaque instability. Tachycardia and hypertension are common in the postoperative period and can increase vascular shear stress, leading to rupture of vulnerable plaques. In addition, the following occur: increased levels of procoagulant substances (fibrinogen and von Willebrand factor); reduced levels of anticoagulant factors (protein C, antithrombin III and alpha-2-macroglobulin); and increased platelet aggregation<sup>1</sup>. The increases in surgery-induced procoagulant and antifibrinolytic activities can trigger coronary thrombosis in patients with CAD and reduced coronary flow velocity, even in the absence of plaque rupture<sup>57</sup>.</p>
      <p>On the other hand, tachycardia, arterial hypertension, hypotension (due to bleeding, hypovolemia or vasodilation), anemia and hypoxemia can lead to AMI due to an imbalance in the oxygen delivery/consumption ratio in patients with obstructive, but stable, coronary lesions<sup>1</sup>. The frequent combination of increased heart rate and depression of the ST segment, detected during Holter monitoring before the event, suggests that prolonged ischemia rather than thrombosis can be the cause of perioperative AMI<sup>57</sup>.</p>
      <p>However, evidence from clinical studies is scarce. In 1996, Dawood et als.<sup>59</sup> carried out the first study to determine the pathology of perioperative AMI. The study assessed the coronary arteries and the atherosclerotic plaque aspect of 42 patients who had died from AMI occurring in the intraoperative period or within 30 days from surgery. The presence of plaque rupture, plaque hemorrhage or thrombus was assessed. The findings were compared with those of patients who died within the first 21 days following AMI and had not undergone any surgical procedure in the last three months. Twenty-three patients (55%) with perioperative AMI and ten patients (40%) with spontaneous AMI had at least one of those characteristics (p = 0.31). The authors have concluded that the mechanism of perioperative fatal AMI would be the same of spontaneous AMI, that is, rupture of an atherosclerotic plaque leading to thrombosis and coronary artery obstruction<sup>59</sup>.</p>
      <p>In 1999, Cohen et als.<sup>60</sup> confirmed those findings in another anatomical-pathological study with 26 patients who had died due to perioperative AMI, and they reported evidence of plaque rupture in 12 patients (46%). The comparison of the clinical characteristics (age, sex, history of CAD, history of AMI, use of beta-blockers, sudden death, clinical AMI) between patients with and without plaque rupture revealed no difference between the groups. However, the time interval between surgery and death in patients with plaque rupture was longer (7.8 &#177; 4.4 days versus 4.4 &#177; 4.8 days; p = 0.047). Regarding the anatomical-pathological aspect, in 19% of the cases the AMI was circumferential, possibly related to changes in the oxygen delivery/consumption ratio. However, even in that situation, plaque rupture could not be excluded as a mechanism of AMI, which can be proved by the fact that one of those patients also had evidence of plaque rupture.</p>
      <p>Those facts suggest that, to maximize the efficacy of the strategies to reduce the risk of AMI, both mechanisms should be considered as possible therapeutic targets<sup>60</sup>. Considering that most perioperative AMIs occur in the absence of ST-segment elevation on electrocardiogram (ECG), it seems contradictory that, according to the anatomical-pathological study, most AMIs are transmural<sup>57</sup>.</p>
      <p>In an interesting study, Poldermans et als.<sup>61</sup> have assessed the relationship between the AMI site (on autopsy) after vascular surgery and the ischemia site determined on preoperative stress dobutamine echocardiography. Patients undergoing stress dobutamine echocardiography prior to vascular surgery and dying in the first 30 days after the procedure were included in the study. Patients undergoing preoperative myocardial revascularization after echocardiography were excluded. Of the 32 patients meeting the inclusion criteria, 22 (66%) evidenced AMI on autopsy. Of that sample, five patients had a negative echocardiogram for ischemia, and, in 9 (56%) of the remaining 16, the pathological evidence of AMI was found in a coronary artery territory in which no ischemia had been demonstrated. The authors have concluded that a stress dobutamine echocardiogram positive for ischemia identified patients at higher risk for AMI, and have speculated that its failure in identifying the specific region at risk can be explained by the rupture and instability of less obstructive plaques that caused no flow reduction<sup>61</sup>.</p>
      <p>Although those anatomical-pathological studies indicate that the major mechanism of perioperative fatal AMI is atherosclerotic plaque instability and rupture, they are retrospective and have included a small number of patients. Ellis et als.<sup>62</sup> have attempted to determine the cause of perioperative AMI in patients surviving those events in a retrospective study with 21 patients experiencing perioperative AMI and 42 controls undergoing vascular surgeries and preoperative coronary angiography. The angiographic characteristics (number, site and aspect of the lesions) were compared between patients with and without perioperative AMI in an attempt to establish which lesions caused AMI. The authors have concluded that most perioperative AMI occur due to insufficiency of collateral circulation to territories with occluded arteries, while a smaller number occurs with no significant obstruction<sup>62</sup>. However, that study has severe methodological limitations, because coronary angiography was performed in the preoperative period and not repeated after surgery. In addition, patients with important lesions might have undergone myocardial revascularization prior to vascular surgery, making the determination of a cause-effect relationship between the lesions found and perioperative AMI very difficult.</p>
      <p>In the first clinical study assessing the pathophysiology of perioperative AMI in patients surviving those events, we compared the angiographic characteristics of 120 patients with perioperative acute coronary syndromes (ACS), 120 patients with spontaneous ACS, and 240 patients with stable CAD. Patients with perioperative ACS had fewer Ambrose's type II and complex lesions than patients with spontaneous ACS, but more lesions of that type than patients with stable CAD (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_aop09812fig01-body2">Figure 1</xref>). Thus, we have shown that approximately 50% of the patients with perioperative ACS have signs of plaque instability as the pathophysiological mechanism, characterizing type 1 AMI. It is worth noting that, in patients with perioperative ACS, the time between the event and coronary angiography was longer than in patients with spontaneous ACS (5.5 &#177; 8.0 days versus 1.3 &#177; 1.4; p &lt; 0.001, respectively), which might have underestimated the presence of plaque rupture in the perioperative group<sup>63</sup>.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_aop09812fig01-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-99-05-1060-00098-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Incidence</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Data on the incidence, outcome and mortality of perioperative AMI are also controversial. The incidence of perioperative AMI in low-risk patients with no history of CAD ranges from 0.3% to 3%, but can reach 33% in high-risk patients with history of CAD<sup>9,55,64</sup>. That large variation in the incidence of perioperative AMI can be explained not only by the type of the population assessed and the surgery performed<sup>65</sup>, but also by the lack of uniformity in the diagnostic criteria adopted by the studies. In addition, perioperative AMI can pass unnoticed if monitoring with serial electrocardiogram and postoperative measurement of troponin are not performed. Patients undergoing vascular surgeries are at higher risk for developing perioperative AMI, because they already have atherosclerosis<sup>3</sup>. In a study of the 1980s, in which coronary angiography was performed in thousand patients undergoing vascular surgeries, the authors reported that 91% of the patients had CAD<sup>66</sup>.</p>
      <p>In a study with 577 elderly patients undergoing vascular surgeries, the incidence of perioperative AMI was 9.7%<sup>42</sup>. In another study with 570 patients undergoing abdominal aortic aneurysm surgery, the incidence of perioperative AMI was 8.9%<sup>43</sup>. In Brazilian studies with patients undergoing arterial surgeries, the incidence of perioperative AMI has ranged from 9% to 11%<sup>37,67</sup>. Even endovascular procedures to repair abdominal aortic aneurysm have a 7% incidence of AMI<sup>68</sup>. On the other hand, when assessing non-selected populations, the incidence seems to be lower, ranging between 0.27% and 1.8%<sup>5,69,70</sup>. It is worth noting that such incidences might be underestimated due to the retrospective design of those studies, to the different diagnostic criteria used, and the lack of monitoring for the active search for events.</p>
      <p>Prospective studies have also shown a variable incidence, although usually higher than that of retrospective studies.</p>
      <p>In 1986, Detsky et als.<sup>12</sup>, assessing 455 patients over 40 years of age, who had undergone noncardiac surgeries, reported a 3.1% incidence of AMI. In 1990, Shah et als.<sup>71</sup>, assessing 275 patients with previous AMI who had undergone noncardiac surgeries, reported a 4.7% incidence of postoperative AMI, and that incidence was 10.9% in the subgroup undergoing vascular surgeries. The diagnostic criterion for AMI was based on the presence of chest pain or electrocardiographic abnormalities associated with elevations in the MB fraction of creatine phosphokinase (CK-MB). Kumar et als.<sup>65</sup>, studying 1,121 patients with CAD and performing serial measurements of CK-MB and ECG in the first three postoperative days, have reported a 2.8% incidence of AMI. After the appearance of troponins, they became the myocardial necrosis marker of choice for the diagnosis of AMI; prospective studies monitoring ECG and troponin in the postoperative period have reported AMI incidences between 3.6% and 5.6%<sup>44,50,72,73</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Clinical findings and diagnosis</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The risk of AMI is higher in the first three postoperative days, and most events occur in the immediate postoperative period or in the following day<sup>3,57,58</sup>. In the study by Kikura et als.<sup>69</sup>, most events (57.4%) have occurred on the day of surgery or on the first day after surgery. Regarding the classification of AMI, 91 patients (74.6%) had non-ST-segment elevation AMI, and 31 patients (25.4%) had ST-segment elevation AMI. Those authors have concluded that patients with perioperative AMI are usually men, who had undergone high-risk surgery, with history of CAD and heart failure, and higher Lee's Revised Cardiac Risk Index<sup>69</sup>.</p>
      <p>In our study with 120 patients with postoperative ACS, we have shown that 71.7% of the patients experienced the event in the first 72 hours as follows: 19 (15.8%) patients had unstable angina; 94 (78.3%) had non-ST-segment elevation AMI; and 7 (5.8%) had ST-segment elevation AMI<sup>63</sup>. Devereaux et als.<sup>73</sup> have also shown that, in 415 patients with perioperative AMI, 74.1% of the events occurred in the first 48 hours and only 10.6% of the patients had ST-segment elevation AMI.</p>
      <p>Regarding symptoms, in their study, Devereaux et als.<sup>73</sup> have reported symptoms of ischemia in only 34.7% of the patients. In our study, 40.7% of the patients complained of chest pain<sup>63</sup>. Thus, AMI occurs most often in the first postoperative days, is asymptomatic, and has no ST-segment elevation<sup>56,57,63,73</sup>. The in-hospital mortality rate of perioperative AMI can vary from 11% to 25%, being higher in patients with greater troponin elevation<sup>1,5,8,63,73</sup>.</p>
      <p> Diagnosing perioperative AMI is difficult, because in 50% to 61% of the cases the characteristic chest pain is either absent due to sedation and cognitive changes or is attributed to surgical wound<sup>10</sup>. In addition, unspecific changes in the ST segment related to electrolytic imbalance, hypothermia, pericarditis or chest trauma, hyperventilation, effect of drugs or changes in decubitus position can occur.</p>
      <p>Regarding the markers of myocardial necrosis, sensitivity and specificity of CK-MB are low in the perioperative period, in which skeletal muscle injury and frequent elevations in creatine phosphokinase (CPK) occur. On the other hand, increased troponin levels indicate myocardial injury, but not always result from coronary artery lesions causing ischemia and necrosis. Troponin levels can be elevated in the following situations that can occur in the perioperative period: pulmonary thromboembolism; decompensated heart failure; sepsis; myocarditis; renal failure; shock; and pericarditis<sup>3,74</sup>. In addition, defining perioperative AMI is difficult because most AMIs occur without chest pain, the ECG changes can be transient and pass unnoticed, and several clinical situations can change the myocardial necrosis markers. Thus, AMI is usually recognized late, explaining its high morbidity and mortality.</p>
      <p>In 2007, the universal definition of AMI was published, when diagnostic criteria of AMI were revised, and a clinical classification for AMI was proposed. In that classification, AMI was divided into five types, allowing the development of treatment strategies specific for each group, because there are different pathophysiological mechanisms for each type<sup>75</sup>. In our opinion, AMI occurring after a noncardiac operation was not contemplated in that classification<sup>76</sup>. The medical knowledge of the pathophysiology of AMI has evolved considerably in the last decades, but the same has not occurred with perioperative AMI. So far, the exact pathophysiology of AMI occurring after noncardiac surgery has not been completely clarified. Evidence suggests that, in approximately 50% of the cases, it falls into type 1 category<sup>63</sup>.</p>
      <p>Perioperative AMI should be diagnosed in the presence of an elevation and a decrease in myocardial necrosis markers (preferably troponin) with at least one measure over the 99th percentile of the upper reference value, associated with: symptoms of ischemia or ECG changes indicating ischemia (alterations of the ST segment or new left bundle-branch block); or development of Q wave on ECG; or new change in segmentary contractility on echocardiogram<sup>75</sup>. In future studies about perioperative AMI, we expect those criteria are used to provide a better estimate of the incidence and outcome of perioperative AMI.</p>
      <p>In addition, AMI should be differentiated from the isolated elevation of troponin, which is an entity characterized by elevated troponin levels with no clinical manifestations and no ECG changes, in the absence of other clinical situations that explain that increase. Although the isolated elevation of troponin also has implications on long-term prognosis, the patient should not receive treatment for AMI, but undergo additional cardiological stratification before hospital discharge<sup>32,36,77</sup>.</p>
      <p>According to the algorithms of perioperative assessment aimed at the early detection of perioperative AMI<sup>16</sup>, monitoring with ECG and daily troponin measurement up to the third postoperative day is indicated to patients at intermediate to high cardiovascular risk.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Treatment</bold>
      </p>
      <p>There are no randomized studies specifically directed at perioperative AMI. Usually, the guidelines for the treatment of spontaneous ACS are used, observing some specific considerations of the perioperative setting<sup>16</sup>. Perioperative ACS should be divided into two types: with and without ST-segment elevation.</p>
      <p>To patients with ST-segment elevation, the use of thrombolytic agents is formally contraindicated because of the risk of bleeding<sup>78</sup>. The treatment of choice in such cases is primary angioplasty, as long as the patient has no active bleeding that contraindicates the use of clopidogrel<sup>1,3,16</sup>. Berger et als.<sup>79</sup> have specifically studied the clinical outcome and prognosis of 48 patients undergoing coronary angiography immediately after AMI occurring up to the seventh postoperative day, obtained from the database of the catheterization laboratory. Thirty-three patients (68.8%) had ST-segment elevation, four patients had new bundle-branch block, eight had ST-segment depression, and three had other alterations. In 32 patients (66.7%), the culprit artery was completely occluded, and 30 patients (62.5%) showed evidence of thrombus. The mean time between symptom onset and coronary angiography was four hours. Forty-one patients (85.4%) underwent angioplasty and three patients underwent coronary bypass graft surgery (6.25%). Two patients (4.2%) showed normal coronary arteries. Thirty-five patients (65%) survived until hospital discharge. The mean hospital length of stay was 13 days. It is worth noting that, in that study, only severely ill patients were assessed as follows: 21 patients had had cardiogenic shock and 12 patients had had cardiorespiratory arrest prior to coronary angiography. Those authors have concluded that an immediate invasive strategy with angioplasty is safe and can reduce the mortality of selected patients with perioperative AMI<sup>79</sup>.</p>
      <p>In patients with perioperative ACS without ST-segment elevation, extrapolating the recommendations for the treatment of spontaneous ACS80, antiplatelet therapy with acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) and clopidogrel and anticoagulation with low molecular weight <bold>or</bold> unfractionated heparin are used. However, the benefit of anticoagulation should be always weighed against the risk of bleeding.</p>
      <p>Despite the lack of randomized studies in the perioperative setting, when the risk of bleeding is high, unfractionated heparin should be preferred because its effect can be rapidly reverted in cases of bleeding. The use of glycoprotein IIb IIIa inhibitors is not recommended due to the lack of studies on the safety of their use in the perioperative period.</p>
      <p>In our study, bleedings occurred as follows: of the 120 patients with postoperative ACS, 11 (9.2%) bled (six major bleedings according to the TIMI classification and including two fatal, and five minor bleedings); and of the 120 patients with spontaneous ACS, 10 (8.3%) bled (six major bleedings and four minor bleedings, none fatal; p = 0.09). It is worth noting that only three patients had bleedings related to the surgical site, and five patients had them related to the gastrointestinal tract.</p>
      <p>Although the groups did not differ significantly, the primary objective of this study was not the assessment of bleeding, and the sample size was small to reach definitive conclusions. Another aspect is that anticoagulation with heparin was initiated only when the clinical and surgical teams agreed upon it; 99.2% of the patients with perioperative AMI received ASA and 65% received clopidogrel, but only 86.7% of the patients received some type of full heparinization<sup>63</sup>. Thus, platelet antiaggregation and anticoagulation in perioperative AMI should be performed carefully and after an interdisciplinary discussion of the risk/benefit ratio.</p>
      <p> In addition, the correction of secondary factors, such as anemia, pain, tachycardia and hypertension, should be considered<sup>3,16</sup>. The use of beta-blockers, statins, angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitors and aldosterone blockers should respect the same indications for spontaneous AMI<sup>80</sup>. To hemodynamically stable patients, a conservative strategy can be attempted at first, with correction of all secondary factors and medications, and invasive stratification before hospital discharge. However, patients with a poor prognosis should undergo invasive strategy as early as possible<sup>3,16</sup>.</p>
      <p>There is anatomical-pathological and clinical evidence that a significant number of perioperative AMIs would be type 1. Thus, those patients could benefit from platelet antiaggregation, anticoagulation and early invasive strategy, just as patients with spontaneous AMI<sup>59,60,63</sup>. However, in some patients, plaque rupture was not detected. Thus, in addition to including the use of platelet antiaggregant drugs and anticoagulants, and performing invasive strategy for myocardial revascularization, the treatment of perioperative AMI should be complemented with the correction of the secondary factors, such as anemia, hypertension and tachycardia. Based on this, we hope to reduce the occurrence of perioperative AMI and its high morbidity and mortality.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
      </p>
      <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This study was partially funded by FAPESP</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Study Association</bold>
      </p>
      <p> This article is part of the PhD thesis submitted by Danielle Menosi Gualandro, from University of S&#227;o Paulo.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
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