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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">g53Ty68w53gjNKFJQgLChxv</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2012001400007</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(12)09900507</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2012005000095</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigos Originais</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Repolariza&#231;&#227;o ventricular em pacientes diab&#233;ticos: caracteriza&#231;&#227;o e implica&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Clemente</surname>
            <given-names>David</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pereira</surname>
            <given-names>Telmo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff03"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ribeiro</surname>
            <given-names>Susana</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="state"/>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Escola Superior de Tecnologia da Sa&#250;de de Coimbra</institution>
        <country country="PT">Portugal</country>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff02">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Santar&#233;m</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Unidade de Sa&#250;de Familiar de Samora Correia</institution>
        <country country="PT">Portugal</country>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff03">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="state"/>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Metodista de Angola</institution>
        <country country="AO">Angola</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>11</month>
        <year>2012</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>99</volume>
      <issue>5</issue>
      <fpage>1015</fpage>
      <lpage>1022</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>13</day>
          <month>01</month>
          <year>2012</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>31</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2012</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>21</day>
          <month>03</month>
          <year>2012</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>FUNDAMENTO: O diabetes mellitus &#233; uma doen&#231;a cr&#244;nica muito comum e ultimamente tem apresentado um consider&#225;vel aumento da preval&#234;ncia e incid&#234;ncia. Os diab&#233;ticos apresentam uma grande mortalidade cardiovascular na qual as arritmias ventriculares malignas parecem estar implicadas. OBJETIVO: Este trabalho prop&#245;e o estudo dos efeitos do diabetes nos par&#226;metros da repolariza&#231;&#227;o ventricular respons&#225;veis pelo aumento da suscetibilidade a arritmias ventriculares malignas e/ou morte s&#250;bita. M&#201;TODOS: Foi selecionado um grupo de 110 diab&#233;ticos e outro de 110 controles com a mesma distribui&#231;&#227;o de idade, sexo e ra&#231;a. Avaliaram-se os par&#226;metros da repolariza&#231;&#227;o ventricular QTm&#225;x, QTm&#233;d, QTm&#237;n, QTc m&#225;x, QTc m&#233;d, QTc m&#237;n, dispers&#227;o de QT e de QTc, intervalo Tpeak-Tend e jTpeak-jTend (D II, V2 e V5), dispers&#227;o de Tpeak-Tend e de jTpeak-jTend. A aquisi&#231;&#227;o do eletrocardiograma (ECG) foi efetuada pelo mesmo operador e a avalia&#231;&#227;o pelos mesmos observadores. Os intervalos QT foram corrigidos segundo a f&#243;rmula de Bazzet. RESULTADOS: Foram encontrados em diab&#233;ticos valores significativamente superiores aos controles de QTc m&#225;x (p &lt; 0,001), QTc m&#233;d (p &lt; 0,001), dispers&#227;o de QT (p &lt; 0,001), dispers&#227;o de QTc (p &lt; 0,001), dispers&#227;o de Tpeak-Tend (p &lt; 0,001) e dispers&#227;o de jTpeak-jTend (p &lt; 0,001). Em diab&#233;ticos verificaram-se valores prolongados do intervalo QTc (5,5%), dispers&#227;o de QT (0,9%), dispers&#227;o de QTc (0%), intervalo Tpeak-Tend (7,3%), intervalo jTpeak-jTend (6,4%), dispers&#227;o de Tpeak-Tend (16,4%) e dispers&#227;o de jTpeak-jTend (12,7%). Nos controles n&#227;o se verificaram valores prolongados de nenhum par&#226;metro. CONCLUS&#195;O: Conclu&#237;mos que o diabetes causa prolonga&#231;&#227;o e dispers&#227;o espacial da repolariza&#231;&#227;o, podendo contribuir para maior instabilidade el&#233;trica ventricular da qual as arritmias ventriculares malignas poder&#227;o ser a express&#227;o cl&#237;nica expect&#225;vel.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>Arritmias card&#237;acas</kwd>
        <kwd>diabetes mellitus</kwd>
        <kwd>eletrocardiografia</kwd>
        <kwd>morte s&#250;bita card&#237;aca</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>30</day>
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2012</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>Repolariza&#231;&#227;o ventricular em pacientes diab&#233;ticos: caracteriza&#231;&#227;o e implica&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas</p>
    <p>
      <bold>David Clemente<sup>I</sup>; Telmo Pereira<sup>II, IV</sup>; Susana Ribeiro<sup>III</sup></bold>
    </p>
    <p><sup>I</sup>Unidade de Cuidados de Sa&#250;de Personalizados de Salvaterra de Magos </p>
    <p><sup>II</sup>Escola Superior de Tecnologia da Sa&#250;de de Coimbra </p>
    <p><sup>III</sup>Unidade de Sa&#250;de Familiar de Samora Correia, Santar&#233;m - Portugal </p>
    <p><sup>IV</sup>Universidade Metodista de Angola - &#193;frica</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="back">Endere&#231;o para correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESUMO</bold>
    </p>
    <p><bold>FUNDAMENTO: </bold> O diabetes mellitus &#233; uma doen&#231;a cr&#244;nica muito comum e ultimamente tem apresentado um consider&#225;vel aumento da preval&#234;ncia e incid&#234;ncia. Os diab&#233;ticos apresentam uma grande mortalidade cardiovascular na qual as arritmias ventriculares malignas parecem estar implicadas. </p>
    <p><bold>OBJETIVO: </bold> Este trabalho prop&#245;e o estudo dos efeitos do diabetes nos par&#226;metros da repolariza&#231;&#227;o ventricular respons&#225;veis pelo aumento da suscetibilidade a arritmias ventriculares malignas e/ou morte s&#250;bita. </p>
    <p><bold>M&#201;TODOS: </bold> Foi selecionado um grupo de 110 diab&#233;ticos e outro de 110 controles com a mesma distribui&#231;&#227;o de idade, sexo e ra&#231;a. Avaliaram-se os par&#226;metros da repolariza&#231;&#227;o ventricular QT<sub>m&#225;x</sub>, QT<sub>m&#233;d</sub>, QT<sub>m&#237;n</sub>, QTc<sub>m&#225;x</sub>, QTc<sub>m&#233;d</sub>, QTc<sub>m&#237;n</sub>, dispers&#227;o de QT e de QTc, intervalo T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> e jT<sub>peak</sub>-jT<sub>end</sub> (D<sub>II</sub>, V<sub>2</sub> e V<sub>5</sub>), dispers&#227;o de T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> e de jT<sub>peak</sub>-jT<sub>end</sub>. A aquisi&#231;&#227;o do eletrocardiograma (ECG) foi efetuada pelo mesmo operador e a avalia&#231;&#227;o pelos mesmos observadores. Os intervalos QT foram corrigidos segundo a f&#243;rmula de Bazzet. </p>
    <p><bold>RESULTADOS: </bold> Foram encontrados em diab&#233;ticos valores significativamente superiores aos controles de QTc<sub>m&#225;x</sub> (p &lt; 0,001), QTc<sub>m&#233;d</sub> (p &lt; 0,001), dispers&#227;o de QT (p &lt; 0,001), dispers&#227;o de QTc (p &lt; 0,001), dispers&#227;o de T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> (p &lt; 0,001) e dispers&#227;o de jT<sub>peak</sub>-jT<sub>end</sub> (p &lt; 0,001). Em diab&#233;ticos verificaram-se valores prolongados do intervalo QTc (5,5%), dispers&#227;o de QT (0,9%), dispers&#227;o de QTc (0%), intervalo T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> (7,3%), intervalo jT<sub>peak</sub>-jT<sub>end</sub> (6,4%), dispers&#227;o de T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> (16,4%) e dispers&#227;o de jT<sub>peak</sub>-jT<sub>end</sub> (12,7%). Nos controles n&#227;o se verificaram valores prolongados de nenhum par&#226;metro. </p>
    <p><bold>CONCLUS&#195;O: </bold> Conclu&#237;mos que o diabetes causa prolonga&#231;&#227;o e dispers&#227;o espacial da repolariza&#231;&#227;o, podendo contribuir para maior instabilidade el&#233;trica ventricular da qual as arritmias ventriculares malignas poder&#227;o ser a express&#227;o cl&#237;nica expect&#225;vel.</p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave: </bold> Arritmias card&#237;acas; diabetes mellitus; eletrocardiografia; morte s&#250;bita card&#237;aca.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O <italic>diabetes mellitus</italic> &#233; uma das patologias cr&#244;nicas mais frequentes do mundo atingindo cerca de 6,4% da popula&#231;&#227;o mundial. A sua preval&#234;ncia continua aumentando de forma exponencial estimando-se que em 2030 atinja 7,7% da popula&#231;&#227;o adulta<sup>1</sup>. Os pacientes com <italic>diabetes mellitus</italic> apresentam uma elevada morbidade e mortalidade cardiovascular. Esse risco permanece elevado mesmo ap&#243;s a normaliza&#231;&#227;o dos fatores de risco cardiovasculares convencionais (hipertens&#227;o, dislipidemia, inatividade f&#237;sica, tabagismo etc.), o que sugere a exist&#234;ncia de outros mecanismos. A instabilidade el&#233;trica ventricular, manifestada nas altera&#231;&#245;es do intervalo QT, parece ser outro mecanismo importante<sup>2</sup>.</p>
    <p>O diabetes est&#225; associado &#224; maior prolonga&#231;&#227;o e dispers&#227;o espacial da repolariza&#231;&#227;o ventricular que v&#227;o conduzir &#224; maior heterogeneidade regional da repolariza&#231;&#227;o em virtude das diferen&#231;as na dura&#231;&#227;o do potencial de a&#231;&#227;o, constituindo o substrato para o aparecimento de arritmias ventriculares malignas, podendo resultar em morte s&#250;bita<sup>3-5</sup>.</p>
    <p>Para a identifica&#231;&#227;o dos indiv&#237;duos de maior risco t&#234;m-se desenvolvido v&#225;rios marcadores com capacidade de predizer o risco arritmog&#234;nico por meio dos par&#226;metros da repolariza&#231;&#227;o ventricular do eletrocardiograma simples de 12 deriva&#231;&#245;es. Alguns desses marcadores j&#225; se encontram bem fundamentados em diversos estudos, no entanto, existem outros que carecem de uma investiga&#231;&#227;o mais aprofundada<sup>6</sup>.</p>
    <p>O principal objetivo deste trabalho foi estudar o efeito do diabetes nos par&#226;metros da repolariza&#231;&#227;o ventricular respons&#225;vel por um aumento da suscetibilidade a arritmias ventriculares malignas e/ou morte s&#250;bita. Foi efetuada uma an&#225;lise comparativa, entre diab&#233;ticos e controles, do intervalo QT e QTc, dispers&#227;o de QT e de QTc, intervalo T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> e jT<sub>peak</sub>-jT<sub>end</sub> e a dispers&#227;o de T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> e de jT<sub>peak</sub>-jT<sub>end</sub>. Finalmente, foi realizada uma an&#225;lise correlacional entre algumas vari&#225;veis e os par&#226;metros da repolariza&#231;&#227;o anteriormente referidos.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>M&#233;todos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Amostra</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Realizou-se um estudo transversal, com base em uma amostra de 220 indiv&#237;duos, dos quais 110 eram diab&#233;ticos e 110 indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis (clinica e laboratorialmente), selecionados por emparelhamento. Dos 110 indiv&#237;duos com a enfermidade, 106 tinham diabetes tipo 2, e 4 diabetes tipo 1.</p>
    <p>A coleta dos dados foi realizada no Servi&#231;o de Cardiopneumologia das Unidades de Cuidados de Sa&#250;de Personalizados (UCSP) de Salvaterra de Magos e de Marinhais, em Portugal.</p>
    <p>Os crit&#233;rios de inclus&#227;o englobaram todos os indiv&#237;duos com diagn&#243;stico de <italic>diabetes mellitus</italic>, no entanto, exclu&#237;ram-se todos os que apresentavam fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial cr&#244;nica, <italic>flutter</italic> atrial, bloqueio completo de ramo direito/esquerdo, s&#237;ndromes de pr&#233;-excita&#231;&#227;o, portadores de marca-passos, pacientes toxicodependentes e em di&#225;lise. Foram igualmente exclu&#237;dos os pacientes medicados com f&#225;rmacos relacionados com a prolonga&#231;&#227;o do intervalo QT conforme o sugerido pela European Society of Cardiology (ESC)<sup>7</sup>.</p>
    <p>O trabalho respeita a Declara&#231;&#227;o de Helsinki e a pesquisa foi aprovada pela comiss&#227;o de &#233;tica das UCSP envolvidas. Todos os indiv&#237;duos do estudo assinaram o consentimento livre e esclarecido.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Procedimento</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Para a obten&#231;&#227;o da amostra, inicialmente, adquiriu-se a lista dos indiv&#237;duos diab&#233;ticos inscritos em Salvaterra de Magos e estabeleceram-se os crit&#233;rios de exclus&#227;o.</p>
    <p>Foi realizado um ECG simples de 12 deriva&#231;&#245;es em todos os pacientes diab&#233;ticos. O ECG foi realizado sempre com o paciente em dec&#250;bito dorsal, em repouso, a uma velocidade de 50 mm/s e voltagem de 10 mm/mV. Para a aquisi&#231;&#227;o do ECG foi utilizado o eletrocardi&#243;grafo Cardioline - Delta 1 Plus<sup>&#174;</sup> na UCSP de Salvaterra de Magos e o eletrocardi&#243;grafo Nihon Kohden Ecaps 12 - ECG 8119K<sup>&#174;</sup> na UCSP de Marinhais. Para o grupo controle foram realizados tamb&#233;m eletrocardiogramas simples de 12 deriva&#231;&#245;es sob as mesmas condi&#231;&#245;es e medi&#231;&#245;es utilizadas para os diab&#233;ticos. Os indiv&#237;duos do grupo controle tinham obrigatoriamente de ter um ECG normal e serem saud&#225;veis na avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e no exame f&#237;sico, sem qualquer patologia condicionante da repolariza&#231;&#227;o ventricular. Para esse efeito, foi realizada uma consulta do processo cl&#237;nico e somente um ECG dos indiv&#237;duos que satisfizeram as condi&#231;&#245;es pretendidas. A sele&#231;&#227;o do grupo controle foi feita por emparelhamento, permitindo um ajustamento dos dois grupos &#224; idade, sexo e etnia.</p>
    <p>Para a an&#225;lise dos ECG, fez-se uma medi&#231;&#227;o manual dos valores utilizando um paqu&#237;metro digital com intervalo de medi&#231;&#227;o de 0-150 mm, resolu&#231;&#227;o de 0,01 mm e precis&#227;o de 0-100 &#177; 0,02 mm. O valor obtido foi convertido posteriormente em mil&#233;simos de segundo (ms). Considerou-se o pico da onda T o ponto mais elevado, e o final da onda T, o ponto de retorno &#224; linha de base. O final da onda T foi obtido atrav&#233;s do ponto de intersec&#231;&#227;o da linha tangente da por&#231;&#227;o terminal da onda T com a linha isoel&#233;trica. Sempre que a onda U estava presente, o final da onda T foi considerado o ponto mais baixo entre a onda T e a onda U. As deriva&#231;&#245;es em que n&#227;o foi poss&#237;vel definir o final da onda T pela sua baixa voltagem foram descartadas.</p>
    <p>A medi&#231;&#227;o do intervalo QT correspondente ao intervalo que vai do in&#237;cio do QRS at&#233; o fim da onda T foi efetuada em todas as 12 deriva&#231;&#245;es, e escolheu-se o maior e o menor intervalo medido. A dispers&#227;o do intervalo QT foi obtida pela diferen&#231;a entre o maior e menor intervalo QT encontrado nas 12 deriva&#231;&#245;es do eletrocardiograma.</p>
    <p>A medi&#231;&#227;o do QT<sub>peak</sub> correspondente ao intervalo que vai do in&#237;cio do QRS at&#233; ao pico da onda T foi efetuada nas deriva&#231;&#245;es D<sub>II</sub>, V<sub>2</sub> e V<sub>5</sub>. A medi&#231;&#227;o QT<sub>end</sub> correspondente ao intervalo que vai do in&#237;cio do QRS at&#233; ao final da onda T tamb&#233;m foi efetuada nas mesmas deriva&#231;&#245;es D<sub>II</sub>, V<sub>2</sub> e V<sub>5</sub>. O intervalo T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> foi obtido pela diferen&#231;a entre o QT<sub>end</sub> e o QT<sub>peak</sub>.</p>
    <p>O intervalo QT foi tamb&#233;m corrigido segundo a f&#243;rmula de Bazett que consiste na divis&#227;o do intervalo QT medido pela raiz quadrada do intervalo R-R (QTc = QT/&#8730;R-R), fornecendo assim o valor do intervalo QT ajustado para a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca.</p>
    <p>A dispers&#227;o de QTc foi obtida pela diferen&#231;a entre o QTc maior e o menor das 12 deriva&#231;&#245;es do ECG.</p>
    <p>De acordo com os <italic>guidelines</italic> internacionalmente admitidos, o intervalo QTc foi considerado prolongado quando superior a 440 ms no caso dos pacientes do sexo masculino e superior a 460 ms no caso dos pacientes do sexo feminino<sup>8</sup>. A dispers&#227;o de QT foi considerada prolongada quando superior a 65 ms conforme outros estudos desenvolvidos anteriormente<sup>9,10</sup>.</p>
    <p>A medi&#231;&#227;o do jT<sub>peak</sub> correspondente ao intervalo que vai do ponto j at&#233; ao pico da onda T foi efetuada nas deriva&#231;&#245;es D<sub>II</sub>, V<sub>2</sub> e V<sub>5</sub>. A medi&#231;&#227;o jT<sub>end</sub> correspondente ao intervalo que vai do ponto j at&#233; o final da onda T tamb&#233;m foi efetuada nas mesmas deriva&#231;&#245;es D<sub>II</sub>, V<sub>2</sub> e V<sub>5</sub>. O intervalo jT<sub>peak</sub>-jT<sub>end</sub> foi obtido pela diferen&#231;a entre o jT<sub>end</sub> e o jT<sub>peak</sub>.</p>
    <p>A dispers&#227;o do intervalo T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> foi obtida pela diferen&#231;a entre o maior e o menor intervalo das deriva&#231;&#245;es D<sub>II</sub>, V<sub>2</sub> e V<sub>5</sub>.</p>
    <p>O intervalo T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> foi considerado prolongado quando superior a 100 ms, e a dispers&#227;o de T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> foi considerada prolongada quando superior a 20 ms conforme o sugerido por outros estudos<sup>11,12</sup>.</p>
    <p>O ECG foi realizado sempre pelo mesmo operador, e as medi&#231;&#245;es citadas anteriormente foram feitas por dois observadores independentes. Em caso de discord&#226;ncia nos valores obtidos, as medi&#231;&#245;es foram repetidas por um terceiro observador com experi&#234;ncia na an&#225;lise eletrocardiogr&#225;fica preconizada.</p>
    <p>O &#237;ndice de massa corporal (IMC) foi dividido em v&#225;rias classes conforme o proposto pela Organiza&#231;&#227;o Mundial de Sa&#250;de (OMS)<sup>13</sup>. A hipertens&#227;o arterial foi dividida em v&#225;rias classes conforme as recomenda&#231;&#245;es da European Society of Cardiology (ESC) e European Society of Hypertension (ESH)<sup>14</sup>. Os valores de refer&#234;ncia dos par&#226;metros bioqu&#237;micos utilizados neste estudo foram os recomendados pelo Massachusetts General Hospital<sup>15</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>An&#225;lise Estat&#237;stica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Os dados recolhidos foram introduzidos no programa SPSS para Windows, vers&#227;o 18.0 onde foi efetuada a sua an&#225;lise estat&#237;stica.</p>
    <p>A distribui&#231;&#227;o das vari&#225;veis foi testada quanto &#224; normalidade pelo teste de Kolmogorov-Smirnov, e quanto &#224; heterogeneidade das vari&#226;ncias pelo teste de Levene. Foi efetuada uma an&#225;lise descritiva simples para a caracteriza&#231;&#227;o geral da amostra e distribui&#231;&#227;o das vari&#225;veis.</p>
    <p>As diferen&#231;as entre os dois grupos foram analisadas por meio do Teste <italic>t</italic> de Student para amostras independentes. Os dados categ&#243;ricos foram analisados por meio do teste do qui-quadrado (X<sup>2</sup>). As correla&#231;&#245;es entre as vari&#225;veis foram analisadas pelo coeficiente de Pearson (r).</p>
    <p>As vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas foram apresentadas pela m&#233;dia &#177; desvio-padr&#227;o e as vari&#225;veis categ&#243;ricas foram apresentadas em frequ&#234;ncia (%).</p>
    <p>Um valor de p &lt; 0,05 foi considerado estatisticamente significativo para um intervalo de confian&#231;a de 95%.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Resultados</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Caracteriza&#231;&#227;o da Amostra</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A amostra utilizada para este estudo envolveu o mesmo n&#250;mero de diab&#233;ticos (n = 110) e de controles (n = 110). Todos os indiv&#237;duos da amostra eram caucasianos. Em ambos os grupos verificou-se um ligeiro predom&#237;nio de indiv&#237;duos do sexo masculino, embora sem diferen&#231;as estatisticamente significativas (p = 0,063). A propor&#231;&#227;o de homens em ambos os grupos foi de 54,5% e de mulheres foi de 45,5%. Como esperado, n&#227;o se encontraram diferen&#231;as estatisticamente significativas na idade entre o grupo de diab&#233;ticos e o grupo controle (idade m&#233;dia de 67,35 &#177; 9,20 anos <italic>versus</italic> 65,99 &#177; 8,99 anos respectivamente, p = 0,260).</p>
    <p>O grupo dos diab&#233;ticos apresentou um valor m&#233;dio do IMC significativamente superior que o grupo-controle (28,38 &#177; 3,69 kg/m<sup>2</sup><italic>versus</italic> 26,77 &#177; 3,13 kg/m<sup>2</sup>, p = 0,001). Em ambos os casos, o valor m&#233;dio do IMC situa-se acima do limite superior de normalidade proposto pela OMS. Os valores do IMC depois de classificados segundo o grau de obesidade foram comparados entre diab&#233;ticos e controles. Os resultados mostraram que a maior percentagem de diab&#233;ticos e controles possui pr&#233;-obesidade (47,3% e 60,7%, respectivamente), com uma redu&#231;&#227;o na propor&#231;&#227;o de indiv&#237;duos para classes crescentes de IMC em ambos os grupos. Nos tr&#234;s graus de obesidade, os diab&#233;ticos est&#227;o sempre em maior percentagem, e nas categorias peso abaixo do normal, peso normal e pr&#233;-obesidade, s&#227;o os controles que est&#227;o em maior percentagem. As diferen&#231;as na distribui&#231;&#227;o dos indiv&#237;duos em cada grupo por classes de IMC foram significativas, com os diab&#233;ticos a revelarem maior propor&#231;&#227;o relativa de pacientes com peso acima do limite superior da normalidade.</p>
    <p>Quanto ao tipo de diabetes identificado nos pacientes inclu&#237;dos no grupo de diab&#233;ticos, a maioria possui diabetes do tipo 2 (96,4%), tendo os restantes diabetes do tipo 1 (3,6%). A idade m&#233;dia de diagn&#243;stico da doen&#231;a foi 55,10 &#177; 12,38 anos, e a dura&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dia da doen&#231;a &#233; atualmente de 12,25 &#177; 9,59 anos.</p>
    <p>Relativamente aos valores tensionais, o grupo de diab&#233;ticos possui um valor m&#233;dio de press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica de 141,76 &#177; 14,11 mmHg e um valor m&#233;dio de press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica de 78,05 &#177; 10,25 mmHg. O valor m&#233;dio da press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica est&#225; ligeiramente acima do limite superior de normalidade, no entanto, o valor m&#233;dio da tens&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica est&#225; dentro do normal. Os controles tinham todos os valores de press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica dentro da normalidade. Com a classifica&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial nos v&#225;rios graus de hipertens&#227;o, observou-se que a maior percentagem de diab&#233;ticos tinha uma press&#227;o arterial situada no n&#237;vel de hipertens&#227;o arterial de grau 1 (48,2%). A percentagem de diab&#233;ticos vai diminuindo para n&#237;veis superiores de hipertens&#227;o (15,5% no grau 2 para 0,9% no grau 3). A propor&#231;&#227;o de diab&#233;ticos com valores tensionais hipertensivos foi superior &#224; propor&#231;&#227;o de diab&#233;ticos com press&#245;es arteriais normais (64,6% <italic>versus</italic> 35,5%, respectivamente).</p>
    <p>Quanto aos par&#226;metros bioqu&#237;micos, no grupo dos diab&#233;ticos observou-se uma glucose com um valor m&#233;dio de 153,72 &#177; 55,63 mg/dL, uma HbA1<sub>c</sub> com um valor m&#233;dio de 7,11 &#177; 1,56%, colesterol HDL com um valor m&#233;dio de 49,99 &#177; 12,98 mg/dL, colesterol total com um valor m&#233;dio de 180,45 &#177; 38,55 mg/dL, triglicer&#237;deos com um valor m&#233;dio de 153,15 &#177; 118,49 mg/dL e finalmente uma creatinina com um valor m&#233;dio de 1,07 &#177; 0,42 mg/dL. Os valores m&#233;dios da glicose e do HbA1<sub>c</sub> est&#227;o ligeiramente aumentados, contudo, os outros par&#226;metros est&#227;o em m&#233;dia dentro da normalidade. Os controles tinham todos os par&#226;metros bioqu&#237;micos com valores normais.</p>
    <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o aos h&#225;bitos de consumo nocivos, 16,4% dos diab&#233;ticos tinha o h&#225;bito da ingest&#227;o de &#225;lcool seguido de 7,3% com h&#225;bito de tabagismo ativo. Nenhum dos diab&#233;ticos consumia drogas.</p>
    <p>A complica&#231;&#227;o com maior propor&#231;&#227;o de diab&#233;ticos foi o acidente vascular cerebral (AVC) (12,7%), seguida pela cegueira (4,5%), enfarte do mioc&#225;rdio e insufici&#234;ncia renal terminal (1,8% em cada) e amputa&#231;&#227;o acima do tornozelo (0,9%). A patologia mais frequentemente associada ao diabetes foi a hipertens&#227;o arterial (76,4%), seguida da dislipidemia (61,8%), da neuropatia (49,1%), retinopatia (42,7%), da nefropatia (31,8%), da doen&#231;a coronariana (14,5%) e finalmente da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (3,6%).</p>
    <p>
      <bold>An&#225;lise Comparativa</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Efetuou-se uma an&#225;lise comparativa entre o grupo de diab&#233;ticos e controles relativamente aos intervalos QT e QTc, dispers&#227;o de QT e QTc, intervalos T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> e jT<sub>peak</sub>-jT<sub>end</sub> e dispers&#227;o de T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> e jT<sub>peak</sub>-jT<sub>end</sub>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Intervalo QT e QTc</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref> apresenta a compara&#231;&#227;o dos valores m&#233;dios dos intervalos m&#225;ximos, m&#237;nimos e m&#233;dios de QT e QTc entre diab&#233;ticos e controles. Os resultados mostraram que a m&#233;dia do intervalo QT<sub>m&#225;x</sub> e do intervalo QT<sub>m&#233;d</sub> &#233; superior nos diab&#233;ticos quando comparados com os controles, embora sem diferen&#231;as significativas (p = 0,103 e p = 0,874 respectivamente). A m&#233;dia do intervalo QT<sub>m&#237;n</sub> &#233; inferior nos diab&#233;ticos quando comparados com os controles, no entanto, tamb&#233;m n&#227;o se verificaram diferen&#231;as significativas (p = 0,161). Quando o intervalo QT foi corrigido para a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, encontraram-se m&#233;dias dos intervalos QTc<sub>m&#225;x</sub>, QTc<sub>m&#233;d</sub> e QTc<sub>m&#237;n</sub> nos diab&#233;ticos superiores aos dos controles, no entanto, as diferen&#231;as significativas entre os diab&#233;ticos e controles foram encontradas apenas no QTc<sub>m&#225;x</sub> e no QTc<sub>m&#233;d</sub> (p &lt; 0,001 para ambos). Neste estudo, encontraram-se apenas 5,5% dos diab&#233;ticos com um intervalo QTc prolongado, no entanto, nenhum dos controles tinha um intervalo QTc prolongado.</p>
    <table-wrap id="t1">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-99-05-1015-00095-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>
      <bold>Dispers&#227;o de QT e QTc</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref> apresenta a compara&#231;&#227;o das m&#233;dias da dispers&#227;o de QT e do QTc entre diab&#233;ticos e controles. Os resultados mostraram que os diab&#233;ticos t&#234;m uma m&#233;dia da dispers&#227;o de QT significativamente maior do que os controles (27,49 &#177; 10,10 ms <italic>versus</italic> 15,73 &#177; 4,18 ms, p &lt; 0,001). Utilizando a dispers&#227;o de QT corrigida para a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, observam-se que as diferen&#231;as se mant&#234;m superiores nos diab&#233;ticos quando comparados com os controles (29,92 &#177; 10,57 ms <italic>versus</italic> 16,68 &#177; 4,48 ms, p &lt; 0,001). A dispers&#227;o de QT prolongada, encontrou-se em apenas 0,9% dos diab&#233;ticos, por&#233;m n&#227;o foi encontrado nenhum controle com uma dispers&#227;o de QT prolongada. A dispers&#227;o de QTc prolongado n&#227;o foi encontrada em nenhum diab&#233;tico ou controle.</p>
    <fig id="f1">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-99-05-1015-00095-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>
      <bold>Intervalo T<sub>peak-</sub>T<sub>end</sub> e jT<sub>peak-</sub>jT<sub>end</sub></bold>
    </p>
    <p>Quanto &#224; compara&#231;&#227;o dos intervalos T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> e jT<sub>peak</sub>-jT<sub>end</sub>, a <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref> resume os resultados em diab&#233;ticos e controles. Como se pode observar, n&#227;o se encontraram diferen&#231;as estatisticamente significativas em nenhuma das compara&#231;&#245;es realizadas. Comparando a frequ&#234;ncia de indiv&#237;duos com um intervalo T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> prolongado, ou seja, acima do <italic>cut-off</italic> assumido para o estudo, os resultados mostraram que 7,3% dos diab&#233;ticos tinham um intervalo T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> prolongado, n&#227;o se verificando essa situa&#231;&#227;o em nenhum dos controles. O intervalo jT<sub>peak</sub>-jT<sub>end</sub> prolongado foi observado em 6,4% dos diab&#233;ticos, n&#227;o havendo nenhum indiv&#237;duo do grupo controle com esse intervalo aumentado.</p>
    <table-wrap id="t2">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-99-05-1015-00095-gt02.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>
      <bold>Dispers&#227;o de T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> e jT<sub>peak</sub>-jT<sub>end</sub></bold>
    </p>
    <p>A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref> apresenta a compara&#231;&#227;o das m&#233;dias da dispers&#227;o de T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> e de jT<sub>peak</sub>-jT<sub>end</sub> entre diab&#233;ticos e controles. Os resultados mostraram que os diab&#233;ticos t&#234;m uma m&#233;dia da dispers&#227;o de T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> significativamente maior do que os controles (13,05 &#177; 9,36 ms <italic>versus</italic> 5,07 &#177; 3,26 ms, p &lt; 0,001). Utilizando a dispers&#227;o de jT<sub>peak</sub>-jT<sub>end</sub> observam-se que as diferen&#231;as se mant&#234;m superiores nos diab&#233;ticos quando comparados com os controles (12,70 &#177; 10,28 ms <italic>versus</italic> 5,13 &#177; 4,05 ms, p &lt; 0,001). Neste estudo, encontraram-se apenas 16,4% dos diab&#233;ticos com dispers&#227;o de T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> prolongada, por&#233;m nenhum controle tinha uma dispers&#227;o de T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> prolongada. A dispers&#227;o do intervalo jT<sub>peak</sub>-jT<sub>end</sub> prolongada foi observada em 12,7% dos diab&#233;ticos, contudo n&#227;o foi observado em nenhum dos controles.</p>
    <fig id="f2">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-99-05-1015-00095-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>
      <bold>An&#225;lise Correlacional</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Foram estudadas as correla&#231;&#245;es entre sexo, idade, &#237;ndice de massa corporal, dura&#231;&#227;o do diabetes, press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica, glicose, HbA1<sub>c</sub>, colesterol total e HDL, triglicer&#237;deos e creatinina, bem como eventos cardiovasculares pr&#233;vios como o AVC, o enfarte do mioc&#225;rdio, a angina est&#225;vel e inst&#225;vel, com os diferentes par&#226;metros eletrocardiogr&#225;ficos. Da an&#225;lise bivariada e multivariada n&#227;o se verificaram correla&#231;&#245;es significativas entre as vari&#225;veis.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Discuss&#227;o e Conclus&#245;es</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O intervalo QT &#233; o par&#226;metro eletrocardiogr&#225;fico mais usado na avalia&#231;&#227;o da repolariza&#231;&#227;o e o seu prolongamento &#233; associado ao maior risco de arritmog&#234;nese. Por isso, no nosso estudo achamos importante a avalia&#231;&#227;o deste par&#226;metro no diabetes, tendo em vista avaliar o risco potencial nesses indiv&#237;duos. Quando comparamos o intervalo QT entre os diab&#233;ticos e controles, n&#227;o foram encontradas diferen&#231;as significativas, no entanto, o intervalo QT n&#227;o tem em conta a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca pelo que n&#227;o deve ser dada relev&#226;ncia cl&#237;nica a esses resultados. Todavia, quando fizemos a corre&#231;&#227;o do intervalo QT &#224; frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca por meio da f&#243;rmula de Bazzet, encontramos diferen&#231;as significativas entre diab&#233;ticos e controles, sendo o intervalo QTc<sub>m&#225;x</sub> e QTc<sub>m&#233;d</sub>, significativamente superiores nos diab&#233;ticos. Foram v&#225;rios os estudos encontrados que analisaram o intervalo QTc<sub>m&#225;x</sub> em diab&#233;ticos e n&#227;o diab&#233;ticos. A maioria desses estudos obteve resultados semelhantes aos encontrados no nosso estudo. Alguns estudos encontraram um intervalo QTc<sub>m&#225;x</sub> significativamente superior em diab&#233;ticos quando comparados com os n&#227;o diab&#233;ticos<sup>16-23</sup>. Foi encontrado apenas um estudo que analisou o intervalo QTc<sub>m&#233;d</sub> e com resultados id&#234;nticos aos nossos, apresentando um intervalo QTc<sub>m&#233;d</sub> significativamente superior em diab&#233;ticos quando comparados com os controles. Neste estudo n&#227;o se encontraram diferen&#231;as significativas no intervalo QTc<sub>m&#237;n</sub> tal como aconteceu no presente estudo<sup>17</sup>.</p>
    <p>A dispers&#227;o de QT &#233; um par&#226;metro representativo da dispers&#227;o espacial da repolariza&#231;&#227;o e avalia as heterogeneidades da repolariza&#231;&#227;o, sendo utilizado como um &#237;ndice de instabilidade el&#233;trica e como marcador de risco arritmog&#234;nico. No nosso estudo, quando comparamos os diab&#233;ticos com os controles, observamos diferen&#231;as significativas na dispers&#227;o de QT. A dispers&#227;o de QT encontrada era significativamente superior nos diab&#233;ticos em compara&#231;&#227;o com os controles. Quando essa dispers&#227;o foi avaliada com corre&#231;&#227;o de acordo com a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, os resultados foram id&#234;nticos, sugerindo que a dispers&#227;o de QTc &#233; um par&#226;metro que n&#227;o acrescenta &#224; dispers&#227;o de QT uma maior relev&#226;ncia cl&#237;nica na estratifica&#231;&#227;o do risco dos diab&#233;ticos. As pequenas diferen&#231;as entre a dispers&#227;o de QT e a dispers&#227;o de QTc devem-se provavelmente &#224; imprecis&#227;o da corre&#231;&#227;o dos valores de acordo com a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, pois quanto maior a dispers&#227;o de QT maior &#233; a diferen&#231;a entre os dois e vice-versa. Foram v&#225;rios os estudos encontrados que descobriram uma dispers&#227;o de QT significativamente superior em diab&#233;ticos quando comparados com os controles<sup>16-20,24-25</sup>. Outros encontraram uma dispers&#227;o de QTc tamb&#233;m significativamente superior em diab&#233;ticos quando comparado aos controles<sup>16-18,23,25,27,29,30</sup> . No entanto, um estudo n&#227;o encontrou diferen&#231;as significativas na dispers&#227;o de QT entre diab&#233;ticos e controles<sup>31</sup>.</p>
    <p>O intervalo T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> &#233; um par&#226;metro representativo da dispers&#227;o transmural da repolariza&#231;&#227;o, pois seu prolongamento est&#225; associado a um maior risco arritmog&#234;nico. Neste estudo, os intervalos T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> e o jT<sub>peak</sub>-jT<sub>end</sub> dos diab&#233;ticos eram semelhantes ao dos controles, n&#227;o havendo diferen&#231;as significativas. Um dos motivos que podem ter levado a esses resultados pode ter sido a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de apenas tr&#234;s deriva&#231;&#245;es (D<sub>II</sub>, V<sub>2</sub> e V<sub>5</sub>), que, embora forne&#231;am uma avalia&#231;&#227;o sensivelmente ortogonal (XYZ), podem n&#227;o ser suficientes para a avalia&#231;&#227;o da dispers&#227;o transmural, representada pelo intervalo T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub>.</p>
    <p>A dispers&#227;o de T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> ou do jT<sub>peak</sub>-jT<sub>end</sub> caracteriza tamb&#233;m a varia&#231;&#227;o regional da dispers&#227;o transmural, e o seu prolongamento est&#225; associado tamb&#233;m a um maior risco arritmog&#234;nico, sendo utilizados como marcadores de risco de arritmog&#234;nese. Contudo, n&#227;o foi encontrado nenhum estudo sobre a dispers&#227;o desses intervalos em diab&#233;ticos. Apesar de os valores m&#233;dios serem semelhantes nas deriva&#231;&#245;es D<sub>II</sub>, V<sub>2</sub> e V<sub>5</sub>, nosso estudo mostrou que os diab&#233;ticos tinham uma dispers&#227;o de T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> e de jT<sub>peak</sub>-jT<sub>end</sub> significativamente superiores &#224; dos controles.</p>
    <p>Gupta et al.,<sup>32</sup> investigou um novo marcador de risco que n&#227;o foi analisado no nosso estudo, a rela&#231;&#227;o T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub>/QT, que apresentou valores aumentados em pacientes com eventos arr&#237;tmicos que possuem s&#237;ndrome de Brugada, QT curto ou QT longo, assim como em pacientes com doen&#231;a card&#237;aca org&#226;nica, como &#233; o caso do enfarte do mioc&#225;rdio<sup>32</sup>. Uma investiga&#231;&#227;o futura da utilidade desse par&#226;metro na identifica&#231;&#227;o dos diab&#233;ticos de maior risco de arritmog&#234;nese seria uma mais-valia<sup>33</sup>.</p>
    <p>Essas altera&#231;&#245;es da repolariza&#231;&#227;o ventricular em diab&#233;ticos s&#227;o causadas por v&#225;rias condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas e/ou patol&#243;gicas associadas ao diabetes, como &#233; o caso da hipertens&#227;o arterial<sup>34</sup>, dislipidemias<sup>35</sup>, hiperglicemia<sup>2</sup>, hipoglicemia<sup>36</sup>, doen&#231;a coronariana<sup>37</sup>, neuropatia<sup>18</sup>, nefropatia<sup>38</sup>, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca<sup>39</sup> etc. Estas s&#227;o respons&#225;veis pelo aparecimento de desordens metab&#243;licas, dist&#250;rbios eletrol&#237;ticos, desequil&#237;brios do sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo, altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais, fibrose mioc&#225;rdica conduzindo a mais tempo de repolariza&#231;&#227;o e/ou dispers&#227;o.</p>
    <p>Apesar de os par&#226;metros da repolariza&#231;&#227;o serem significativamente superiores em diab&#233;ticos em rela&#231;&#227;o aos controles, a porcentagem de diab&#233;ticos com valores acima do normal &#233; relativamente pequena para qualquer um dos par&#226;metros. O fato de haver poucos diab&#233;ticos com valores anormais nos v&#225;rios par&#226;metros da repolariza&#231;&#227;o indica que esses indiv&#237;duos poder&#227;o estar em patamares de risco arr&#237;tmico relativamente baixo, atestando uma boa orienta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica desses pacientes por parte dos cl&#237;nicos assistentes envolvidos. No entanto, n&#227;o deixa de ser relevante a identifica&#231;&#227;o de diferen&#231;as significativas em rela&#231;&#227;o ao grupo controle em diversos dos par&#226;metros analisados, indicando que a repolariza&#231;&#227;o nesses pacientes, mesmo que bem controlados em termos terap&#234;uticos, &#233; mais heterog&#234;nea do que o observado em indiv&#237;duos n&#227;o diab&#233;ticos. Por outro lado, vale a pena ressaltar que uma grande parte dos diab&#233;ticos avaliados tinham uma dura&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a ainda relativamente curta, pois os efeitos da doen&#231;a poder&#227;o n&#227;o estar ainda suficientemente estabelecidos para produzirem maior prolongamento dos par&#226;metros da repolariza&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>Outro fato de grande import&#226;ncia &#233; a influ&#234;ncia da medica&#231;&#227;o nos v&#225;rios par&#226;metros eletrocardiogr&#225;ficos, existindo in&#250;meros f&#225;rmacos que causam prolongamento e/ou dispers&#227;o da repolariza&#231;&#227;o. Neste estudo foram exclu&#237;dos os indiv&#237;duos com medica&#231;&#227;o mais frequentemente relacionada com altera&#231;&#245;es da repolariza&#231;&#227;o, no entanto, n&#227;o podemos ter a absoluta certeza que todos os outros medicamentos estejam isentos de influenciar a repolariza&#231;&#227;o. De fato, um estudo desenvolvido por Costa et al.<sup>33</sup> analisou a influ&#234;ncia da metformina, medicamento muito usado em diab&#233;ticos para controle da glicemia, no intervalo QT e na dispers&#227;o de QT em ratos diab&#233;ticos. Os resultados demonstraram que em doses baixas e intermedi&#225;rias de metformina n&#227;o havia altera&#231;&#245;es significativas nos par&#226;metros eletrocardiogr&#225;ficos, o que n&#227;o acontecia quando a dose era elevada<sup>33</sup>. Embora n&#227;o estudados em humanos, n&#227;o deixa de ser plaus&#237;vel que a sua consequ&#234;ncia possa ser id&#234;ntica em diab&#233;ticos humanos, assim como encontrado laboratorialmente nos ratos diab&#233;ticos. Esse aspecto adquire particular relev&#226;ncia no presente estudo atendendo ao fato de que a maioria dos pacientes inclu&#237;dos estava medicada com a metformina.</p>
    <p>Al&#233;m disso, neste estudo observou-se uma diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significante no IMC entre os diab&#233;ticos e controles. Contudo, n&#227;o se encontraram correla&#231;&#245;es significantes entre o IMC e os par&#226;metros da repolariza&#231;&#227;o, o que nos levou a concluir que a obesidade n&#227;o teve influ&#234;ncia significativa nos v&#225;rios par&#226;metros da repolariza&#231;&#227;o avaliados. Por outro lado, nos diab&#233;ticos, a tens&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica, tens&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica, glucose, HbA1<sub>c</sub>, colesterol total, colesterol HDL, triglicer&#237;deos e creatinina tamb&#233;m n&#227;o parecem influenciar significativamente os par&#226;metros da repolariza&#231;&#227;o avaliados, dado que n&#227;o se verificaram correla&#231;&#245;es significativas entre eles. Esses resultados podem n&#227;o ter relev&#226;ncia cl&#237;nica, pois foram obtidos de uma medi&#231;&#227;o pontual.</p>
    <p>Este trabalho n&#227;o esteve isento de limita&#231;&#245;es. Assim, uma amostra com maior dimens&#227;o aumentaria seguramente a pot&#234;ncia estat&#237;stica do estudo, e provavelmente algumas diferen&#231;as se tornariam, por isso mesmo, mais expressivas. Por outro lado, a medi&#231;&#227;o manual dos intervalos sem o apoio de nenhuma tecnologia que seria importante para uma medi&#231;&#227;o mais rigorosa pode tamb&#233;m constituir um aspecto a acautelar. A exatid&#227;o e a reprodutibilidade das medi&#231;&#245;es dos par&#226;metros da repolariza&#231;&#227;o est&#227;o limitadas por dificuldades na identifica&#231;&#227;o do final da onda T em alguns casos. Outro dos problemas encontrados foi a falta de um consenso quanto aos valores normais dos v&#225;rios par&#226;metros eletrocardiogr&#225;ficos. Outro inconveniente foi o registro eletrocardiogr&#225;fico realizado em grupos de 3 deriva&#231;&#245;es simult&#226;neas, sendo que um registro em 12 deriva&#231;&#245;es simult&#226;neas permitiria uma medi&#231;&#227;o mais rigorosa dos v&#225;rios par&#226;metros da repolariza&#231;&#227;o no mesmo ciclo card&#237;aco.</p>
    <p>N&#227;o obstante algumas limita&#231;&#245;es metodol&#243;gicas, este trabalho demonstrou claramente uma rela&#231;&#227;o do diabetes com as altera&#231;&#245;es em um conjunto de par&#226;metros eletrofisiol&#243;gicos que indiciam uma repolariza&#231;&#227;o com tempos mais elevados e mais heterog&#234;nea nestes pacientes, em compara&#231;&#227;o com indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis. Esse aspecto poder&#225; estar envolvido numa vulnerabilidade maior desses pacientes a arritmias card&#237;acas, e, assim, a an&#225;lise desses novos marcadores de risco arritmog&#234;nico poder&#225; ser importante para melhor estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco dos diab&#233;ticos, aspecto que carece de confirma&#231;&#227;o em estudos prospectivos de maiores dimens&#245;es.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de tese de mestrado de David da Silva Clemente pela Escola Superior de Cardiologia da Sa&#250;de de Coimbra.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="back" fn-type="corresp">
        <p>Endere&#231;o para correspond&#234;ncia:</p>
        <p> David da Silva Clemente </p>
        <p> Urbaniza&#231;&#227;o das Milheiras </p>
        <p> Rua C, Lote 110 R/C Distrito de Santar&#233;m </p>
        <p> CEP 2080-001, Santar&#233;m, Portugal </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="david_s_clemente@hotmail.com">david_s_clemente@hotmail.com</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Artigo recebido em 13/01/12 </p>
    <p> Revisado em 21/03/12 </p>
    <p> Aceito em 31/07/12</p>
  </body>
  <back>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Articles</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Ventricular repolarization in diabetic patients: characterization and clinical implications</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>BACKGROUND: Diabetes mellitus is a chronic and very common condition, and there has been lately a considerable increase in its prevalence and incidence. Diabetic patients have increased cardiovascular mortality, in which malignant ventricular arrhythmias seem to be implicated. OBJECTIVE: To study the effects of diabetes on ventricular repolarization parameters responsible for an increased susceptibility to malignant ventricular arrhythmias and/or sudden death. METHODS: We selected a group of 110 diabetic patients and a group of 110 controls with the same distribution of age, gender and race. We evaluated the following parameters of ventricular repolarization: QTmax, QTmean, QTmin, QTc max, QTc mean, QTc min, QT and QTc dispersions, Tpeak-Tend and jTpeak-jTend intervals (D II, V2 and V5), Tpeak-Tend and jTpeak-jTend dispersions. The electrocardiograms (ECG) were performed by the same operator and reviewed by the same observers. QT intervals were corrected according to Bazzet's formula. RESULTS: We found significantly higher values of QTc max (p &lt; 0.001), QTc mean (p &lt; 0.001), QT dispersion (p &lt; 0.001), QTc dispersion (p &lt; 0.001), Tpeak-Tend dispersion ( p &lt; 0.001), and jTpeak-jTend dispersion (p &lt; 0.001) in diabetic patients than in controls. In diabetic patients, we observed prolonged values of QTc interval (5.5%), QT dispersion (0.9%), QTc dispersion (0%), Tpeak-Tend interval (7.3%), jTpeak-jTend interval (6.4%), Tpeak-Tend dispersion (16.4%), and jTpeak-jTend dispersion (12.7%). In the controls there were no prolonged values of any of the parameters. CONCLUSION: We concluded that diabetes causes prolongation and spatial dispersion of repolarization, and it may contribute to a greater ventricular electrical instability, whose expected clinical expression may be malignant ventricular arrhythmias.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Arrhythmias cardiac</kwd>
        <kwd>diabetes mellitus</kwd>
        <kwd>electrocardiography</kwd>
        <kwd>death</kwd>
        <kwd>sudden</kwd>
        <kwd>cardiac</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p><undefined id="top-body2"/>Ventricular repolarization in diabetic patients: characterization and clinical implications</p>
      <p>
        <bold>David Clemente<sup>I</sup>; Telmo Pereira<sup>II, IV</sup>; Susana Ribeiro<sup>III</sup></bold>
      </p>
      <p><sup>I</sup>Unidade de Cuidados de Sa&#250;de Personalizados de Salvaterra de Magos</p>
      <p><sup>II</sup>Escola Superior de Tecnologia da Sa&#250;de de Coimbra</p>
      <p><sup>III</sup>Unidade de Sa&#250;de Familiar de Samora Correia, Santar&#233;m - Portugal</p>
      <p><sup>IV</sup>Universidade Metodista de Angola - &#193;frica</p>
      <p>Mailing Address</p>
      <p>
        <bold>ABSTRACT</bold>
      </p>
      <p><bold>BACKGROUND: </bold> Diabetes mellitus is a chronic and very common condition, and there has been lately a considerable increase in its prevalence and incidence. Diabetic patients have increased cardiovascular mortality, in which malignant ventricular arrhythmias seem to be implicated.</p>
      <p><bold>OBJECTIVE: </bold> To study the effects of diabetes on ventricular repolarization parameters responsible for an increased susceptibility to malignant ventricular arrhythmias and/or sudden death.</p>
      <p><bold>METHODS: </bold> We selected a group of 110 diabetic patients and a group of 110 controls with the same distribution of age, gender and race. We evaluated the following parameters of ventricular repolarization: QT<sub>max</sub>, QT<sub>mean</sub>, QT<sub>min</sub>, QTc<sub>max</sub>, QTc<sub>mean</sub>, QTc<sub>min</sub>, QT and QTc dispersions, T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> and jT<sub>peak</sub>-jT<sub>end</sub> intervals (D<sub>II</sub>, V<sub>2</sub> and V<sub>5</sub>), T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> and jT<sub>peak</sub>-jT<sub>end</sub> dispersions. The electrocardiograms (ECG) were performed by the same operator and reviewed by the same observers. QT intervals were corrected according to Bazzet's formula.</p>
      <p><bold>RESULTS: </bold> We found significantly higher values of QTc<sub>max</sub> (p &lt; 0.001), QTc<sub>mean</sub> (p &lt; 0.001), QT dispersion (p &lt; 0.001), QTc dispersion (p &lt; 0.001), T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> dispersion ( p &lt; 0.001), and jT<sub>peak</sub>-jT<sub>end</sub> dispersion (p &lt; 0.001) in diabetic patients than in controls. In diabetic patients, we observed prolonged values of QTc interval (5.5%), QT dispersion (0.9%), QTc dispersion (0%), T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> interval (7.3%), jT<sub>peak</sub>-jT<sub>end</sub> interval (6.4%), T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> dispersion (16.4%), and jT<sub>peak</sub>-jT<sub>end</sub> dispersion (12.7%). In the controls there were no prolonged values of any of the parameters.</p>
      <p><bold>CONCLUSION: </bold> We concluded that diabetes causes prolongation and spatial dispersion of repolarization, and it may contribute to a greater ventricular electrical instability, whose expected clinical expression may be malignant ventricular arrhythmias.</p>
      <p><bold>Keywords:</bold> Arrhythmias cardiac; diabetes mellitus; electrocardiography; death; sudden; cardiac.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Methods</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sample</bold>
      </p>
      <p>We conducted a cross-sectional study based on a sample of 220 individuals, of whom 110 were diabetic and 110 healthy individuals (by clinical and laboratory evaluation) selected for pairing. Of the 110 individuals with the disease, 106 had type 2 diabetes, and 4 had type 1 diabetes.</p>
      <p>Data collection was performed at the Department of Cardiology of the Personalized Healthcare Units (UCSP) of Salvaterra de Magos and of Marinhais, in Portugal.</p>
      <p>Inclusion criteria encompassed all individuals diagnosed with diabetes mellitus; however, we excluded all patients with chronic atrial fibrillation, atrial flutter, left/right bundle branch block, pre-excitation syndromes, patients with pacemakers, drug addicts, and dialysis patients. We also excluded patients treated with drugs that prolong the QT interval, as suggested by the European Society of Cardiology (ESC)<sup>7</sup>.</p>
      <p>The study is in compliance with the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the ethics committees of all UCSPs involved. All study subjects signed an informed consent form.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Procedure</bold>
      </p>
      <p>To obtain the sample, we initially accessed the list of diabetic patients enrolled in Salvaterra de Magos, and the exclusion criteria were established.</p>
      <p>We conducted a simple 12-lead ECG in all diabetic patients. The ECG was always performed with the patient supine, at rest, at a paper speed of 50 mm/s and voltage of 10 mm/mV. To make the ECGs we used the electrocardiograph Cardioline - Delta 1 Plus<sup>&#174;</sup>, in the UCSP of Salvaterra de Magos, and the electrocardiograph Nihon Kohden Ecaps 12-ECG 8119K<sup>&#174;</sup>, in the UCSP of Marinhais. For the control group we also conducted simple 12-lead electrocardiograms under the same conditions and measurements used for the diabetic patients. The control subjects were required to have a normal ECG and to be healthy in the clinical assessment and the physical examination, with no pathologic processes that might affect ventricular repolarization. To this end, we conducted a consultation of the clinical process and only one ECG of the individuals that met the desired criteria. The control group was selected by pairing, allowing an adjustment of the two groups for age, gender, and ethnicity.</p>
      <p>For the analysis of the ECG, we performed a manual measurement of the values using a digital caliper with measuring range of 0-150 mm, 0.01 mm resolution, and 0-100 &#177; 0.02 mm accuracy. The value obtained was converted to milliseconds (ms). We considered the T-wave peak as the steepest point, and the T-wave end as the point of return to the baseline. The T-wave end was obtained by the intersection point of the tangent line of the terminal portion of the T-wave with the isoelectric line. When the U-wave was present, the T-wave end was considered as the nadir between the T-wave and the U-wave. The derivations in which it was not possible to define the T-wave end due to low voltage were discarded.</p>
      <p>Measurement of the QT interval (the interval from the start of the QRS complex to the end of the T-wave) was performed in all 12 leads, and the longest and the shortest intervals measured were selected. QT interval dispersion was obtained by the difference between the maximum and the minimum QT intervals found in the 12-lead electrocardiogram.</p>
      <p>Measurement of the QT<sub>peak</sub> (the interval from the start of the QRS complex to the peak of the T-wave) was conducted in D<sub>II</sub>, V<sub>2</sub>, and V<sub>5</sub> leads. Measurement of the QT<sub>end</sub> (the interval from the start of the QRS complex to the end of the T-wave) was also conducted in D<sub>II</sub>, V<sub>2</sub>, and V<sub>5</sub> leads. The T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> interval was obtained by the difference between the QT<sub>end</sub> and the QT<sub>peak</sub>.</p>
      <p>The QT interval was also corrected according to Bazett's formula which consists in dividing the measured QT by the square root of the RR interval (QTc = QT/&#8730; RR), thus providing the QT interval value adjusted for heart rate.</p>
      <p>The QTc dispersion was obtained by the difference between the highest and the lowest values of QTc in the 12 leads of the ECG.</p>
      <p>According to internationally accepted guidelines, the QTc interval was considered prolonged when higher than 440 ms for male patients, and higher than 460 ms for female patients<sup>8</sup>. The QT dispersion was considered prolonged when higher than 65 ms, according to other previously conducted studies<sup>9,10</sup>.</p>
      <p>Measurement of the jT<sub>peak</sub> (the interval from J point to the peak of the T-wave) was conducted in D<sub>II</sub>, V<sub>2</sub>, and V<sub>5</sub> leads. Measurement of the jT<sub>end</sub> (the interval from the start of the QRS complex to the end of the T-wave) was also conducted in D<sub>II</sub>, V<sub>2</sub>, and V<sub>5</sub> leads. The jT<sub>peak</sub>-jT<sub>end</sub> interval was obtained by the difference between the jT<sub>end</sub> and the jT<sub>peak</sub>.</p>
      <p>The T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> interval dispersion was obtained by the difference between the largest and the smallest intervals in D<sub>II</sub>, V<sub>2</sub> and V<sub>5</sub> leads.</p>
      <p>The Tpeak-Tend interval was considered prolonged when greater than 100 ms, and the Tpeak-Tend dispersion was considered prolonged when higher than 20 ms, as suggested by other studies<sup>11,12</sup>.</p>
      <p>The ECG was performed by the same operator, and the aforementioned measurements were made by two independent observers. In case of disagreement on the values obtained, the measurements were repeated by a third observer with expertise in electrocardiographic analysis.</p>
      <p>The body mass index (BMI) was divided into several classes as proposed by the World Health Organization (WHO)<sup>13</sup>. Hypertension was divided into several classes according to the recommendations of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and the European Society of Hypertension (ESH)<sup>14</sup>. Reference values for biochemical parameters used in this study were those recommended by the Massachusetts General Hospital<sup>15</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Statistical Analysis</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The collected data were entered in the software SPSS for Windows, version 18.0, which performed a statistical analysis.</p>
      <p>The distribution of variables was tested for normality using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, and the heterogeneity of variances was evaluated by Levene's test. A simple descriptive analysis was performed for the general characterization of the sample and distribution of variables.</p>
      <p>Differences between groups were analyzed using the Student t test for independent samples. Categorical data were analyzed using the chi-square (X<sup>2</sup>) test. The correlations between variables were analyzed using Pearson's correlation coeficient (r).</p>
      <p>Continuous variables were presented as mean &#177; standard deviation, and categorical variables were presented as frequency (%).</p>
      <p>A p value &lt;0.05 was considered statistically significant for a confidence interval of 95%.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Results</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Samplec Characterization</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The sample used for this study involved the same number of diabetic patients (n = 110) and controls (n = 110). All individuals in the sample were Caucasian. In both groups there was a slight predominance of males, but no statistically significant differences (p = 0.063) were observed. The proportion of men in both groups was 54.5%, and 45.5% for women. As expected, there were no statistically significant differences in age between the diabetic group and the control group (mean age 67.35 &#177; 9.20 years versus 65.99 &#177; 8.99 years, respectively, p = 0.260).</p>
      <p>The diabetic group had a mean BMI significantly higher than the control group (28.38 &#177; 3.69 kg/m<sup>2</sup> versus 26.77 &#177; 3.13 kg/ m<sup>2</sup>, p = 0.001). In both cases, the average BMI was above the upper limit of normality suggested by WHO. BMI values classified according to the degree of obesity were compared between diabetic patients and controls. The results showed that a high percentage of diabetic patients and controls had pre-obesity (47.3% and 60.7% respectively), with a reduction in the proportion of individuals as the BMI increased in both groups. In the three degrees of obesity, there was always a higher percentage of diabetic patients, and in underweight, normal weight and pre-obesity categories, there were greater proportions of controls. The differences in the distribution of individuals in each group by BMI classes were significant, and in the diabetic group there was a greater relative proportion of patients with weight above the upper limit of normal.</p>
      <p>Regarding the type of diabetes identified in patients included in the diabetic group, most had type 2 diabetes (96.4%), and the others had type 1 diabetes (3.6%). The mean age at diagnosis was 55.10 &#177; 12.38 years, and currently the mean duration of the disease is 12.25 &#177; 9.59 years.</p>
      <p>With regard to blood pressure values, the diabetic group had an average systolic blood pressure of 141.76 &#177; 14.11 mmHg, and a mean diastolic blood pressure of 78.05 &#177; 10.25 mmHg. The average systolic blood pressure was slightly above the upper normal limit; however, the average diastolic blood pressure was within normal range. All controls had values of systolic and diastolic blood pressure within normal limits. With the classification of blood pressure in the various degrees of hypertension, it was observed that the largest percentage of diabetic patients had blood pressure situated at the level of grade 1 hypertension (48.2%). The percentage of diabetic patients gradually decreased in higher grades of hypertension (15.5% in grade 2 to 0.9% in grade 3). The proportion of diabetic patients with hypertensive blood pressure values was greater than the proportion of diabetic patients with normal blood pressure values (64.6% versus 35.5%, respectively).</p>
      <p>Regarding biochemical parameters, the diabetic group had an average glucose value of 153.72 &#177; 55.63 mg/dL, an average HbA1<sub>c</sub> value of 7.11 &#177; 1.56%, an average HDL cholesterol value of 49.99 &#177; 12.98 mg/dL, an average total cholesterol value of 180.45 &#177; 38.55 mg/dL, an average triglycerides value of 153.15 &#177; 118.49 mg/dL, and an average creatinine value of 1.07 &#177; 0.42 mg/dL. The average values of glucose and HbA1c were slightly increased, but the other parameters were normal. All controls had normal biochemical parameters.</p>
      <p>Regarding harmful habits, 16.4% of diabetic patients had a habit of drinking alcohol, and 7.3% had an active smoking habit. None of the diabetic patients consumed drugs.</p>
      <p>The complication with the highest proportion of diabetic patients was cerebrovascular accident (CVA) (12.7%), followed by blindness (4.5%), myocardial infarction and terminal renal failure (1.8% each), and amputation above the ankle (0.9%). The disease most often associated with diabetes was hypertension (76.4%), followed by dyslipidemia (61.8%), neuropathy (49.1%), retinopathy (42.7%), nephropathy (31, 8%), coronary heart disease (14.5%), and heart failure (3.6%).</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Comparative Analysis</bold>
      </p>
      <p>We conducted a comparative analysis between diabetic patients and controls, of the following parameters: QT and QTc intervals, QT and QTc dispersions, Tpeak-Tend and jTpeak-jTend intervals, and Tpeak-Tend and jTpeak-jTend dispersions.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>QT and QTc intervals</bold>
      </p>
      <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t1-body2">Table 1</xref> shows the comparison of the mean values of the maximum, minimum and mean QT and QTc intervals between diabetic patients and controls. The results showed that the mean QT<sub>max</sub> and QT<sub>mean</sub> intervals are higher in diabetics when compared with controls, though with no significant differences (p = 0.103 and p = 0.874 respectively). The average QT<sub>min</sub> interval was lower in diabetic patients compared with controls, but also with no significant differences (p = 0.161). When the QT interval was corrected for heart rate, the mean QTc<sub>max</sub>, QTc<sub>mean</sub> and QT<sub>cmin</sub> intervals were higher in diabetics than in controls however, significant differences between diabetic patients and controls were found only in QTc<sub>max</sub> and QTc<sub>mean</sub> (p &lt;0.001 for both). In this study, we found only 5.5% of diabetic patients with a prolonged QTc interval; however, none of the controls had a prolonged QTc interval.</p>
      <table-wrap id="t1-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-99-05-1015-00095-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>
        <bold>Dispersion of QT and QTc</bold>
      </p>
      <p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1-body2">Figure 1</xref> shows the comparison of the mean QT and QTc dispersions between diabetics and controls. The results showed that diabetics have a significantly higher mean QT dispersion than controls (27.49 &#177; 10.10 versus 15.73 &#177; 4.18 ms ms, p &lt;0.001). Using the QT dispersion corrected for heart rate, we observed that the differences remained higher in diabetic patients when compared with controls (29.92 &#177; 10.57 versus 16.68 ms &#177; 4.48 ms, p &lt;0.001). A prolonged QT dispersion was found in only 0.9% of diabetics, but we did not find in any of the controls a prolonged QT dispersion. No prolonged QTc dispersion was found in any diabetic patient or control.</p>
      <fig id="f1-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-99-05-1015-00095-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>
        <bold>T<sub>peak-</sub>T<sub>end</sub> and jT<sub>peak-</sub>jT<sub>end</sub> intervals</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Regarding the comparison of T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> and jT<sub>peak</sub>-jT<sub>end</sub> intervals, <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2-body2">Table 2</xref> summarizes the results in diabetics and controls. There were no statistically significant differences in any of the comparisons made. Comparing the frequency of subjects with a prolonged Tpeak-Tend interval (above the cut-off limit determined for the study), the results showed that 7.3% of diabetic patients had a prolonged T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> interval, which was not observed in any of the controls. A prolonged jT<sub>peak</sub>-jT<sub>end</sub> interval was observed in 6.4% of diabetics, but in no individuals of the control group.</p>
      <table-wrap id="t2-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-99-05-1015-00095-gt02-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>
        <bold>Dispersion of T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> and jT<sub>peak</sub>-jT<sub>end</sub></bold>
      </p>
      <p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2-body2">Figure 2</xref> shows the comparison of the mean T<sub>peak</sub>-Tend and jT<sub>peak</sub>-jTend dispersions between diabetics and controls. The results showed that diabetics had a mean T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> dispersion significantly higher than controls (13.05 &#177; 9.36 ms versus 5.07 &#177; 3.26, p &lt; 0.001). Using the jT<sub>peak</sub>-jT<sub>end</sub> dispersion, we observed that differences remained higher in diabetic patients, when compared with controls (12.70 &#177; 5.13 versus 10.28 ms &#177; 4.05 ms, p &lt; 0.001). In this study, we found only 16.4% of diabetics with a prolonged T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> dispersion, but no control had a prolonged T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> dispersion. A prolonged jT<sub>peak</sub>-jT<sub>end</sub> interval dispersion was observed in 12.7% of the diabetics, but it was not observed in any of the controls.</p>
      <fig id="f2-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-99-05-1015-00095-gf02-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>
        <bold>Correlational Analysis</bold>
      </p>
      <p>We studied the correlation of gender, age, body mass index, duration of diabetes, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, glucose, HbA1<sub>c</sub>, total and HDL cholesterol, triglycerides, creatinine, previous cardiovascular events such as stroke, myocardial infarction, stable and unstable angina, with different electrocardiographic parameters. In the bivariate and multivariate analysis, there were no significant correlations between variables.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Discussion and Conclusion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The QT interval is the most used parameter in the electrocardiographic assessment of repolarization and its prolongation is associated with increased risk of arrhythmogenesis. Therefore, in our study, we considered it important to assess this parameter in diabetes, in order to assess the potential risk in these individuals. When comparing the QT interval between diabetics and controls, no significant differences were found; however, the QT interval does not take into account the heart rate and, therefore, these results had no clinical relevance. However, after correcting the QT interval for heart rate using the formula of Bazzet, we found significant differences between diabetics and controls, and the QTc<sub>max</sub> and the QTc<sub>mean</sub> intervals were significantly higher in diabetics. We found several studies that analyzed the QTc<sub>max</sub> interval in diabetics and nondiabetics. Most of these studies obtained results similar to those found in our study. Some studies found a QTc<sub>max</sub> interval significantly higher in diabetic patients when compared with non-diabetics<sup>16-23</sup>. We found only one study that examined the QTc<sub>mean</sub> interval and had results identical to ours, with a QTc<sub>mean</sub> interval significantly higher in diabetic patients when compared with controls. In that study no significant differences were found in the QTc<sub>min</sub> interval, unlike what was observed in our study<sup>17</sup>.</p>
      <p>The QT dispersion is a parameter that represents the spatial dispersion of repolarization and evaluates the heterogeneities of repolarization, and it is used as an indication of electrical instability and as a marker of arrhythmogenic risk. In our study, when comparing diabetics with controls, we observed significant differences in QT dispersion. The QT dispersion was significantly higher in diabetic patients when compared with controls. When this dispersion was corrected for heart rate, the results were identical, suggesting that the QTc dispersion is a parameter that does not add greater clinical relevance to QT dispersion in the risk stratification of patients with diabetes. The small differences between QT and QTc dispersions are probably due to the inaccuracy of correction values for heart rate, since the greater the QT dispersion, the greater the difference between the two, and vice versa. Several studies have found a significantly greater QT dispersion in diabetics when compared with controls<sup>16-20,24-25</sup>. Others have found an also significantly higher QTc dispersion in diabetic patients when compared with controls<sup>16-18,23,25,27,29,30</sup>. However, one study found no significant differences in QT dispersion between diabetics and controls<sup>31</sup>.</p>
      <p>The T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> interval is a parameter that reflects the transmural dispersion of repolarization, since its prolongation is associated with an increased arrhythmogenic risk. In this study, the T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> and the jT<sub>peak</sub>-jT<sub>end</sub> intervals of diabetics were similar to those measured in controls, with no significant differences. One of the reasons for these results may have been the use of only three leads (D<sub>II</sub>, V<sub>2</sub> and V<sub>5</sub>), which although providing a substantially orthogonal assessment (XYZ) may not be sufficient to evaluate the transmural dispersion represented by the T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> interval.</p>
      <p>The T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> dispersion and the jT<sub>peak</sub>-jT<sub>end</sub> dispersion also characterize the regional variation of the transmural dispersion, and their prolongation is also associated with an increased arrhythmogenic risk, so they are used as markers for the risk of arrhythmogenesis. However, we found no study on the dispersion of these intervals in diabetics. Although the mean values were similar in D<sub>II</sub>, V<sub>2</sub> and V<sub>5</sub> leads, our study showed that diabetics had T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub> and jT<sub>peak</sub>-jT<sub>end</sub> dispersions significantly higher than the controls.</p>
      <p>Gupta et al.<sup>32</sup> investigated a new risk marker that was not analyzed in our study, the T<sub>peak</sub>-T<sub>end</sub>/QT ratio, which showed increased values in patients with arrhythmic events who had Brugada syndrome, short QT syndrome, and long QT syndrome, and also in patients with organic heart disease, such as myocardial infarction<sup>32</sup>. A further investigation of the usefulness of this parameter in the identification of diabetics at higher risk of arrhythmogenesis would be an added advantage<sup>33</sup>.</p>
      <p>These changes in ventricular repolarization in diabetic patients are caused by several clinical disorders and/or pathological conditions associated with diabetes, such as hypertension<sup>34</sup>, dyslipidemias<sup>35</sup>, hyperglycemia<sup>2</sup>, hypoglycemia<sup>36</sup>, coronary disease<sup>37</sup>, neuropathy<sup>18</sup>, nephropathy<sup>38</sup>, heart failure<sup>39</sup>, etc. These conditions are responsible for the onset of metabolic disorders, electrolyte disturbances, imbalances of the autonomic nervous system, structural changes, myocardial fibrosis resulting in longer dispersion and/or repolarization time.</p>
      <p>Although repolarization parameters were significantly higher in diabetic patients than in controls, the percentage of diabetics with values above normal was relatively small for all parameters. The fact that few diabetics had abnormal values of repolarization parameters indicates that these individuals may have been at relatively low risk of arrhythmia, confirming a good clinical orientation of these patients by the physicians involved. However, it is still important to emphasize that significant differences were observed in a number of parameters evaluated when compared with the control group, indicating that the repolarization in diabetic patients, even if well-controlled in therapeutic terms, was more heterogeneous than that observed in non-diabetic individuals. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that a large proportion of the diabetic patients evaluated had a relatively short duration of illness, and the effects of the disease might not have been sufficiently established to produce greater prolongation of repolarization parameters.</p>
      <p>Another fact of great importance is the influence of medication on several electrocardiographic parameters, because there are numerous drugs that cause prolongation and/or dispersion of repolarization. This study excluded individuals receiving medications that are more frequently associated with repolarization changes; however, there was no absolute guarantee that all other medications had no influence on repolarization. In fact, a study by Costa et al.<sup>33</sup> evaluated the influence of metformin (a drug commonly used in diabetics to control blood glucose) on QT interval and QT dispersion in diabetic rats. The results showed that, with low and moderate doses of metformin, there were significant changes in electrocardiographic parameters, but this did not happen when the dose was high<sup>33</sup>. Although no study was conducted in humans, it remains plausible that this result can be identical in diabetic humans, as in diabetic rats. This aspect is particularly relevant in this study since most patients included were treated with metformin.</p>
      <p>Furthermore, this study showed a statistically significant difference in BMI between diabetics and controls. However, there were no significant correlations between BMI and repolarization parameters, which led us to conclude that obesity had no significant influence on the various repolarization parameters evaluated. On the other hand, in diabetic patients, systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, glucose, HbA1<sub>c</sub>, total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, triglycerides and creatinine do not appear to significantly influence the repolarization parameters evaluated, since there were no significant correlations between them. These results may not be clinically relevant, since they were obtained from a punctual measurement.</p>
      <p>This study was not without limitations. A larger sample would certainly increase the statistical power of the study, and probably some differences would therefore become more expressive. Moreover, manual measurements of intervals without the support of any technology that could ensure a more precise measurement may also be an aspect to be taken into account. The accuracy and reproducibility of measurements of repolarization parameters were limited by difficulties in identifying the end of the T-wave in some cases. One other problem encountered was the lack of a consensus on the values of several normal electrocardiographic parameters. Another drawback was the electrocardiographic recording done in groups of 3 simultaneous leads, since a record of 12 simultaneous leads would allow a more accurate measurement of several repolarization parameters in the same cardiac cycle.</p>
      <p>Despite some methodological limitations, this study clearly demonstrated a relationship between diabetes and changes in a set of electrophysiological parameters that indicate a prolonged and more heterogeneous repolarization in these patients, when compared with healthy subjects. This fact may be involved in the greater vulnerability of these patients to cardiac arrhythmias. Therefore, the assessment of these new markers for arrhythmogenic risk may be important for better risk stratification of diabetic patients, a conclusion that needs confirmation in larger prospective studies.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
      </p>
      <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
      </p>
      <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Study Association</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This article is part of the master thesis submitted by David da Silva Clemente , from Escola Superior de Cardiologia da Sa&#250;de de Coimbra.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
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