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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">YvLysbx9tTyVSRQx5GpcMcB</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2012001400006</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(12)09900506</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2012005000097</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigos Originais</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Tratamento p&#243;s-menopausa reduz a atividade da catalase e atenua o risco cardiovascular</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Castanho</surname>
            <given-names>Vera S.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Nakamura</surname>
            <given-names>Rui Tsutomu</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pinto-Neto</surname>
            <given-names>Aar&#227;o M.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff03"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Faria</surname>
            <given-names>Eliana Cotta De</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Campinas</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Estadual de Campinas</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas </institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Departamento de Patologia Cl&#237;nica</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff03">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Campinas</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Estadual de Campinas</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas </institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Departamento de Tocoginecologia</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff02">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Campinas</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Estadual de Campinas</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas </institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Departamento de Radiologia</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>11</month>
        <year>2012</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>99</volume>
      <issue>5</issue>
      <fpage>1008</fpage>
      <lpage>1014</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>21</day>
          <month>12</month>
          <year>2011</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>06</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2012</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>06</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2012</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>FUNDAMENTO: A menopausa pode levar a altera&#231;&#245;es na sa&#250;de feminina, com mudan&#231;as no estado oxidativo de mulheres p&#243;s-menopausadas, para as quais s&#227;o limitadas as informa&#231;&#245;es relativas &#224; influ&#234;ncia da hormonioterapia (HT) sobre as atividades das enzimas antioxidantes. OBJETIVO: Avaliar a influ&#234;ncia da HT sobre a atividade da catalase, concentra&#231;&#245;es de lip&#237;deos e lipoprote&#237;nas, prote&#237;na de transfer&#234;ncia de colesteril &#233;ster, subst&#226;ncias reativas ao &#225;cido tiobarbit&#250;rico, nitratos, prote&#237;na C-reativa ultrassens&#237;vel e espessura da car&#243;tida em mulheres p&#243;s-menopausadas. M&#201;TODOS: Foram alocadas 94 mulheres para um de quatro grupos com ou sem HT. O &#250;ltimo grupo foi subdividido em mulheres sendo tratadas com estr&#243;geno e outras com estr&#243;geno mais progest&#225;geno. Foram realizadas medidas de par&#226;metros bioqu&#237;micos plasm&#225;ticos e da espessura da &#237;ntima-m&#233;dia da car&#243;tida. RESULTADOS: A HT antagonizou a redu&#231;&#227;o na atividade da catalase ap&#243;s a menopausa, mas n&#227;o teve efeito sobre os n&#237;veis da prote&#237;na de transfer&#234;ncia de colesteril &#233;ster, subst&#226;ncias reativas ao &#225;cido tiobarbit&#250;rico, per&#243;xido lip&#237;dico, nitrato e prote&#237;na C reativa ultrassens&#237;vel, nem sobre a espessura da &#237;ntima-m&#233;dia da car&#243;tida. A an&#225;lise multivariada mostrou que a HT baseada em estr&#243;geno atenuou a rela&#231;&#227;o entre os fatores de risco cardiovasculares e a espessura da &#237;ntima-m&#233;dia da car&#243;tida comum. CONCLUS&#195;O: Este estudo mostra que a HT em mulheres p&#243;s-menopausadas produz efeitos antioxidantes e antiateroscler&#243;ticos ben&#233;ficos por melhorar as concentra&#231;&#245;es s&#233;ricas de lip&#237;dios e lipoprote&#237;nas, aumentar a atividade da catalase s&#233;rica e atenuar a associa&#231;&#227;o entre os fatores de risco cardiovasculares e a aterosclerose precoce.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>Fatores de risco</kwd>
        <kwd>doen&#231;as cardiovasculares</kwd>
        <kwd>catalase</kwd>
        <kwd>p&#243;s-menopausa</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>30</day>
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2012</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>Tratamento p&#243;s-menopausa reduz a atividade da catalase e atenua o risco cardiovascular</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Vera S. Castanho<sup>I</sup>; Rui Tsutomu Nakamura<sup>II</sup>; Aar&#227;o M. Pinto-Neto<sup>III</sup>; Eliana Cotta De Faria<sup>I</sup></bold>
    </p>
    <p><sup>I</sup>Departamento de Patologia Cl&#237;nica da Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas da Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP - Brasil </p>
    <p><sup>II</sup>Departamento de Radiologia da Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas da Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP - Brasil </p>
    <p><sup>III</sup>Departamento de Tocoginecologia da Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas da Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP - Brasil</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="back">Endere&#231;o para correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESUMO</bold>
    </p>
    <p><bold>FUNDAMENTO:</bold> A menopausa pode levar a altera&#231;&#245;es na sa&#250;de feminina, com mudan&#231;as no estado oxidativo de mulheres p&#243;s-menopausadas, para as quais s&#227;o limitadas as informa&#231;&#245;es relativas &#224; influ&#234;ncia da hormonioterapia (HT) sobre as atividades das enzimas antioxidantes. </p>
    <p><bold>OBJETIVO:</bold> Avaliar a influ&#234;ncia da HT sobre a atividade da catalase, concentra&#231;&#245;es de lip&#237;deos e lipoprote&#237;nas, prote&#237;na de transfer&#234;ncia de colesteril &#233;ster, subst&#226;ncias reativas ao &#225;cido tiobarbit&#250;rico, nitratos, prote&#237;na C-reativa ultrassens&#237;vel e espessura da car&#243;tida em mulheres p&#243;s-menopausadas. </p>
    <p><bold>M&#201;TODOS:</bold> Foram alocadas 94 mulheres para um de quatro grupos com ou sem HT. O &#250;ltimo grupo foi subdividido em mulheres sendo tratadas com estr&#243;geno e outras com estr&#243;geno mais progest&#225;geno. Foram realizadas medidas de par&#226;metros bioqu&#237;micos plasm&#225;ticos e da espessura da &#237;ntima-m&#233;dia da car&#243;tida. </p>
    <p><bold>RESULTADOS:</bold> A HT antagonizou a redu&#231;&#227;o na atividade da catalase ap&#243;s a menopausa, mas n&#227;o teve efeito sobre os n&#237;veis da prote&#237;na de transfer&#234;ncia de colesteril &#233;ster, subst&#226;ncias reativas ao &#225;cido tiobarbit&#250;rico, per&#243;xido lip&#237;dico, nitrato e prote&#237;na C reativa ultrassens&#237;vel, nem sobre a espessura da &#237;ntima-m&#233;dia da car&#243;tida. A an&#225;lise multivariada mostrou que a HT baseada em estr&#243;geno atenuou a rela&#231;&#227;o entre os fatores de risco cardiovasculares e a espessura da &#237;ntima-m&#233;dia da car&#243;tida comum. </p>
    <p><bold>CONCLUS&#195;O:</bold> Este estudo mostra que a HT em mulheres p&#243;s-menopausadas produz efeitos antioxidantes e antiateroscler&#243;ticos ben&#233;ficos por melhorar as concentra&#231;&#245;es s&#233;ricas de lip&#237;dios e lipoprote&#237;nas, aumentar a atividade da catalase s&#233;rica e atenuar a associa&#231;&#227;o entre os fatores de risco cardiovasculares e a aterosclerose precoce.</p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold> Fatores de risco; doen&#231;as cardiovasculares; catalase; p&#243;s-menopausa.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O papel do estresse oxidativo na aterosclerose recebe aten&#231;&#227;o consider&#225;vel, sendo a aterog&#234;nese desencadeada por inflama&#231;&#227;o focal e prolifera&#231;&#227;o celular<sup>1</sup>. As enzimas antioxidantes como a catalase, super&#243;xido dismutase e glutationa peroxidase protegem as c&#233;lulas aer&#243;bicas contra a les&#227;o oxidativa causada por esp&#233;cies reativas de oxig&#234;nio (ERO) geradas durante o metabolismo celular normal<sup>1</sup>. O estresse oxidativo resultante do excesso de produ&#231;&#227;o de ERO ou uma defici&#234;ncia nos sistemas antioxidantes enzim&#225;ticos e n&#227;o enzim&#225;ticos podem levar a uma s&#233;rie de situa&#231;&#245;es patol&#243;gicas e contribuir para o envelhecimento<sup>1</sup>. A menopausa pode causar mudan&#231;as na sa&#250;de da mulher, com excesso de forma&#231;&#227;o de ERO e altera&#231;&#245;es no <italic>status</italic> oxidativo de mulheres p&#243;s-menopausadas<sup>2-5</sup>. Entretanto, poucos estudos examinaram a influ&#234;ncia da hormonioterapia (HT) na atividade das enzimas antioxidantes em mulheres p&#243;s-menopausadas e t&#234;m se concentrado no uso em curto prazo da HT.</p>
    <p>Os efeitos cardiovasculares da HT s&#227;o objeto de muito debate desde que os primeiros achados do <italic>Women's Health Initiative</italic> (WHI - Iniciativa sobre a Sa&#250;de da Mulher) foram divulgados. No entanto, an&#225;lises posteriores dos resultados da WHI sugeriram que a associa&#231;&#227;o entre o uso de HT e o risco cardiovascular &#233; influenciada por v&#225;rios fatores, entre os quais a idade e tempo desde a menopausa. Estudos observacionais e randomizados sugerem que a introdu&#231;&#227;o da terapia de reposi&#231;&#227;o hormonal (TH) logo no in&#237;cio da p&#243;s-menopausa pode ser ben&#233;fica sob o ponto de vista cardiovascular. Contrariamente, o envelhecimento, o tempo desde a menopausa e a presen&#231;a de fatores de risco cardiovasculares ou de doen&#231;a cardiovascular podem reduzir sua efic&#225;cia e aumentar o risco de eventos cardiovasculares<sup>6</sup>.</p>
    <p>Nos &#250;ltimos dez anos, a TH para o tratamento dos sintomas da menopausa &#233; uma op&#231;&#227;o real que levou &#224; publica&#231;&#227;o recente de estudos sobre os efeitos antioxidantes do estr&#243;geno. Al&#233;m de seus efeitos sobre os sintomas p&#243;s-menopausa, a estrogenioterapia vem sendo empregada para tratar a osteoporose<sup>7</sup>, e muitas mulheres p&#243;s-menopausadas a utilizam.</p>
    <p>A espessura da &#237;ntima-m&#233;dia da art&#233;ria car&#243;tida comum (EIM da car&#243;tida), que &#233; um desfecho intermedi&#225;rio adequado para se investigar os efeitos clinicamente relevantes sobre a aterog&#234;nese, pode ser utilizada para avaliar os est&#225;gios iniciais da aterosclerose, uma vez que esse par&#226;metro se correlaciona com fatores de risco que incluem a idade, dislipidemias e o estresse oxidativo<sup>8</sup>. H&#225; poucas informa&#231;&#245;es sobre a influ&#234;ncia da HT sobre a aterosclerose de car&#243;tida; enquanto estudos experimentais e epidemiol&#243;gicos relatam que a HT tem um efeito ben&#233;fico sobre a progress&#227;o da EIM da car&#243;tida em mulheres p&#243;s-menopausadas<sup>9</sup>, outros n&#227;o observaram nenhum efeito significativo<sup>10</sup>. Em contraposi&#231;&#227;o, relata-se que, embora a HT possa prevenir o desenvolvimento de placas ateroscler&#243;ticas em mulheres p&#243;s-menopausadas<sup>9</sup>, n&#227;o h&#225; nenhuma diferen&#231;a na EIM da car&#243;tida entre mulheres que receberam ou n&#227;o HT<sup>11</sup>. O metabolismo dos lip&#237;dios e lipoprote&#237;nas altera-se acentuadamente ap&#243;s a menopausa<sup>12-14</sup> com uma redu&#231;&#227;o natural nos n&#237;veis de estr&#243;geno.</p>
    <p>No presente estudo, investigamos a atividade da catalase s&#233;rica, as concentra&#231;&#245;es s&#233;ricas de lip&#237;dios, das lipoprote&#237;nas, da prote&#237;na de transfer&#234;ncia de colesteril &#233;ster, de subst&#226;ncias reativas ao &#225;cido tiobarbit&#250;rico (TBARS), do nitrato e os n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos de prote&#237;na C reativa ultrassens&#237;vel (PCR-us) em mulheres p&#243;s-menopausadas recebendo ou n&#227;o HT para determinar se este tratamento p&#243;s-menopausa influencia os n&#237;veis de estresse oxidativo (um marcador pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rio). A espessura da EIM da car&#243;tida comum foi usada como marcador precoce de aterosclerose.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>M&#233;todos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Participantes</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Selecionamos 94 mulheres p&#243;s-menopausadas (MPM) com idade m&#233;dia de 59 anos, que foram distribu&#237;das em um dos dois grupos seguintes: as sem HT (SHT, n = 63) e as com HT (CHT, n = 31). O grupo CHT foi subdividido entre as que usavam estrogenioterapia (ET, estr&#243;geno equino conjugado, 0,625 mg/dia; n = 20) e as que usavam estr&#243;geno mais progest&#225;geno (EPT, acetato de medroxiprogesterona, 2,5-5 mg/dia; n = 11). As participantes foram recrutadas sequencialmente na cl&#237;nica da universidade por um per&#237;odo de um ano, de acordo com os crit&#233;rios apresentados a seguir.</p>
    <p>As MPM foram avaliadas clinicamente no Ambulat&#243;rio de Dislipidemia e Menopausa da Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas da Unicamp. A presen&#231;a de menopausa foi definida em mulheres &#8805; 40 anos em menopausa natural h&#225; pelo menos um ano ou submetidas cirurgicamente a ooforectomia bilateral, de acordo com os crit&#233;rios da Sociedade Norte-Americana de Menopausa<sup>14</sup>. Os crit&#233;rios de exclus&#227;o para participa&#231;&#227;o no estudo foram: dislipidemia grave (colesterol HDL &#8804; 40 mg/L, colesterol LDL &#8805; 190 mg/L e triglic&#233;rides &#8805; 400 mg/L), tabagismo, etilismo, doen&#231;a sist&#234;mica grave incluindo nefropatias, endocrinopatias, hepatopatias e pneumopatias.</p>
    <p>O crit&#233;rio para &#237;ndice de massa corp&#243;rea (IMC) &#8804; 27 kg/ m<sup>2 13</sup> foi atingido por metade das mulheres estudadas.</p>
    <p>Sintomas vasomotores (ondas de calor e sudorese noturna) foram as principais indica&#231;&#245;es para o uso de HT sist&#234;mica<sup>14</sup>. Todas as MPM recebiam HT com estr&#243;geno oral cont&#237;nuo (0,625 mg/dia) ou estr&#243;geno cont&#237;nuo (0,625 mg/dia) mais acetato de medroxiprogesterona (2,5 ou 5 mg/dia) por pelo menos um ano (m&#233;dia de cinco anos). Todas as participantes assinaram o termo de consentimento antes de serem admitidas no estudo.</p>
    <p>Esta investiga&#231;&#227;o foi aprovada pelo Comit&#234; de &#201;tica em Pesquisa da Institui&#231;&#227;o (protocolo n&#186; 314/2004).</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Amostras</bold>
    </p>
    <p>As amostras de sangue foram coletadas das pacientes por pun&#231;&#227;o venosa em &#225;cido etilenodiamino tetra-ac&#233;tico (EDTA), ap&#243;s 12 horas de jejum. O plasma foi obtido por centrifuga&#231;&#227;o a 1.000 g por 10 minutos a 4 &#176;C.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>M&#233;todos Anal&#237;ticos Gerais</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Determinou-se o n&#237;vel de colesterol total e de triglic&#233;rides por m&#233;todo colorim&#233;trico-enzim&#225;tico (Hitachi 917, Roche, Mannheim, Alemanha). O colesterol de LDL e HDL plasm&#225;ticos foram analisados no sobrenadante da amostra por meio de m&#233;todo colorim&#233;trico-enzim&#225;tico direto homog&#234;neo ap&#243;s precipita&#231;&#227;o das lipoprote&#237;nas contendo apo-B 100. As apolipoprote&#237;nas (AI e B 100) foram medidas por nefelometria.</p>
    <p>O nitrato, metab&#243;lito est&#225;vel do &#243;xido n&#237;trico, foi medido com reagente Greiss em kit comercial de ensaio nitrato/nitrito (Cayman Chemical Co, Ann Arbor, Michigan, EUA)<sup>15</sup>. Os ensaios em plasma da atividade da catalase e concentra&#231;&#245;es de subst&#226;ncias reativas ao &#225;cido tiobarbit&#250;rico (TBARS) e lipoperoxidases (LPO), foram realizados pelos m&#233;todos de Elisa e colorim&#233;trico (Cayman Chemical Co, Ann Arbor, Michigan, EUA)<sup>16,17</sup>. A concentra&#231;&#227;o de PCR ultrassens&#237;vel foi medida por ensaio de PCR aumentada por l&#225;tex da Behring e por sistema de analisador nefelom&#233;trico da Behring (Dade Behring, T&#243;quio, Jap&#227;o).</p>
    <p>A espessura da &#237;ntima-m&#233;dia da art&#233;ria car&#243;tida comum foi medida por sistema de ultrassom HDI 1500 (Ultrassom ATL, Botheli, WA, EUA) dotado de sonda Doppler colorido de 7-12 MHz. A EIM da car&#243;tida foi calculada como a m&#233;dia de cinco medidas tomadas na parede distal das art&#233;rias car&#243;tidas comuns direita e esquerda, de acordo com m&#233;todo padronizado<sup>9</sup>. Os resultados individuais (expressos em mm) foram a m&#233;dia da EIM das car&#243;tidas direita e esquerda.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Os resultados est&#227;o expressos como m&#233;dias &#177; desvio-padr&#227;o (DP). As an&#225;lises estat&#237;sticas foram feitas por meio de Ancova com transforma&#231;&#227;o de <italic>rank</italic> ajustada para idade e IMC ou do teste de Mann-Whitney. O teste de Spearman foi usado para analisar a correla&#231;&#227;o entre as vari&#225;veis nos grupos. Foi usada an&#225;lise de regress&#227;o linear m&#250;ltipla com crit&#233;rio passo a passo para a sele&#231;&#227;o de vari&#225;veis para avaliar a influ&#234;ncia da concentra&#231;&#227;o s&#233;rica de lipoprote&#237;nas, apolipoprote&#237;nas, prote&#237;na de transfer&#234;ncia de colesterol esterificado (CETP), catalase, nitrato, TBARS, LPO e PCR-us na EIM da car&#243;tida. Os resultados foram expressos como coeficientes de determina&#231;&#227;o (R<sup>2</sup>) que representaram a porcentagem de varia&#231;&#227;o na vari&#225;vel dependente explicada por vari&#225;veis independentes. Valores de p &lt; 0,05 (teste bicaudal) foram considerados significativos. Todas as an&#225;lises estat&#237;sticas e de dados foram realizadas com o pacote estat&#237;stico SAS (SAS Institute Inc, Cary, NC, EUA).</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Resultados</bold>
    </p>
    <p>As caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas e bioqu&#237;micas das participantes est&#227;o resumidas na <xref ref-type="table" rid="aop09312_port_t01">Tabela 1</xref>. N&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a na m&#233;dia de idade ou press&#227;o arterial dos grupos SHT e CHT, mas observou-se diferen&#231;a significativa no IMC (29 kg/m<sup>2</sup> e 26 kg/ m<sup>2</sup>, respectivamente; p = 0,021) e circunfer&#234;ncia da cintura (89 cm e 83 cm, respectivamente; p = 0,007) dos dois grupos. A EIM m&#233;dia da car&#243;tida variou de 0,83 mm a 0,91 mm, sem diferen&#231;a entre os dois grupos p&#243;s-menopausa.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="aop09312_port_t01">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-99-05-1008-00097-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>A concentra&#231;&#227;o s&#233;rica m&#233;dia de colesterol total no MPM excedeu o valor m&#225;ximo recomendado de 200 mg/dL (<xref ref-type="table" rid="aop09312_port_t02">Tabela 2</xref>). Foram observados n&#237;veis mais altos de colesterol LDL e colesterol NHDL (colesterol n&#227;o HDL) nas mulheres p&#243;s-menopausadas SHT em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224;s CHT (p = 0,013 e 0,048 para colesterol LDL e NHDL, respectivamente - <xref ref-type="table" rid="aop09312_port_t02">Tabela 2</xref>), ao passo que a lipoprote&#237;na (a) permaneceu inalterada. Foram observados n&#237;veis aumentados de colesterol HDL nas mulheres p&#243;s-menopausadas recebendo estrogenioterapia em compara&#231;&#227;o com aquelas tratadas com estr&#243;geno mais progest&#225;geno (p = 0,041). Os n&#237;veis de insulina foram id&#234;nticos em todos os grupos (n&#227;o mostrados). O &#237;ndice de Castelli II (colesterol LDL/colesterol HDL) diminuiu na HT com estr&#243;geno. A atividade da CETP foi semelhante em todos os grupos.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="aop09312_port_t02">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-99-05-1008-00097-gt02.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>A <xref ref-type="table" rid="aop09312_port_t03">Tabela 3</xref> mostra que, &#224; exce&#231;&#227;o da catalase, que aumentou em aproximadamente 42% nos grupos CHT e EPT, n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;as significativas entre os grupos quanto aos n&#237;veis dos outros biomarcadores de estresse oxidativo e inflama&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="aop09312_port_t03">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-99-05-1008-00097-gt03.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>Foram observadas correla&#231;&#245;es fortes entre tr&#234;s fatores de risco para aterosclerose (idade, PCR-us e circunfer&#234;ncia da cintura) e a EIM da car&#243;tida no grupo SHT que, no entanto, foram abolidas pela TH no grupo EPT (<xref ref-type="table" rid="aop09312_port_t04">Tabela 4</xref>). Entretanto, o grupo EPT ainda manteve correla&#231;&#245;es importantes entre a EIM da car&#243;tida e colesterol LDL e press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica, dois bem conhecidos marcadores de aterosclerose.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="aop09312_port_t04">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-99-05-1008-00097-gt04.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>A an&#225;lise de regress&#227;o mostrou que, nas mulheres SHT, a EIM da car&#243;tida correlacionou-se positivamente com a idade e os n&#237;veis de nitrato e de PCR-us, mas negativamente com os n&#237;veis de Lp (a) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="aop09312_port_t05">Tabela 5</xref>). Nas mulheres CHT, a EIM da car&#243;tida correlacionou-se positivamente com a idade e a circunfer&#234;ncia da cintura, enquanto, nas mulheres ET, a EIM da car&#243;tida correlacionou-se negativamente com a idade e os n&#237;veis de lipoprote&#237;nas. O &#250;ltimo achado sugere a&#231;&#227;o protetora do estr&#243;geno.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="aop09312_port_t05">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-99-05-1008-00097-gt05.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Discuss&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O estresse oxidativo tem um papel central na peroxida&#231;&#227;o lip&#237;dica e na inflama&#231;&#227;o associada &#224; aterosclerose, sendo a inflama&#231;&#227;o particularmente importante na media&#231;&#227;o de todos os est&#225;gios dessa doen&#231;a<sup>18</sup>. Entretanto, a utilidade das medidas antioxidantes no tratamento de pacientes portadores de aterosclerose n&#227;o foi conclusivamente provada.</p>
    <p>A HT possui a&#231;&#245;es cardioprotetoras que podem estar associadas a altera&#231;&#245;es nos n&#237;veis de lipoprote&#237;nas circulantes<sup>19</sup>. Como mostrado aqui, mulheres em HT apresentaram n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos significativamente menores de colesterol LDL (p = 0,013) e colesterol NHDL (p = 0,048), e rela&#231;&#227;o colesterol LDL/colesterol HDL mais baixa (p = 0,001), embora as mulheres ET apresentassem colesterol HDL mais alto que as EPT (p = 0,041).</p>
    <p>As altera&#231;&#245;es no perfil das lipoprote&#237;nas plasm&#225;ticas, mediadas pela transfer&#234;ncia de lip&#237;dios neutros tais como o colesteril &#233;ster e triglic&#233;ride, s&#227;o a fun&#231;&#227;o mais bem conhecida do CETP<sup>20</sup>. Estudos experimentais e epidemiol&#243;gicos indicam que o CETP pode desempenhar um papel importante no desenvolvimento da aterosclerose<sup>20-21</sup>, embora os efeitos precisos da CETP na aterog&#234;nese ainda sejam controversos. Em humanos, associa-se o aumento na incid&#234;ncia de coronariopatias com a defici&#234;ncia<sup>22</sup> ou aumento<sup>23</sup> de CETP. Embora a CETP seja um alvo terap&#234;utico em potencial<sup>24</sup>, a utilidade das interven&#231;&#245;es envolvendo essa prote&#237;na depender&#225; da elucida&#231;&#227;o de seu papel na aterog&#234;nese. Conforme mostramos, a CETP n&#227;o se alterou com a HT, em concord&#226;ncia com um estudo anterior em mulheres p&#243;s-menopausadas<sup>5</sup>.</p>
    <p>A peroxida&#231;&#227;o lip&#237;dica induzida por radicais livres &#233; proposta como fator etiol&#243;gico no envelhecimento ap&#243;s a menopausa e em v&#225;rias doen&#231;as relacionadas &#224; idade, incluindo a aterosclerose. No presente estudo, n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;as nos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de LPO e TBARS (indicadores, respectivamente, de peroxida&#231;&#227;o lip&#237;dica e produ&#231;&#227;o de radicais livres) entre os grupos SHT e CHT. Esses dados diferem de achados anteriores<sup>25</sup> e dos n&#237;veis significativamente mais altos de TBARS em mulheres p&#243;s-menopausadas recebendo HT<sup>26</sup>. A discrep&#226;ncia entre nosso estudo e o mencionado anteriormente pode estar relacionada a diferen&#231;as na idade m&#233;dia dos grupos estudados, ou seja, de 59 e 56 anos nas mulheres SHT e CHT de nosso estudo, respectivamente, em compara&#231;&#227;o a 47 e 52 anos para mulheres SHT e CHT, respectivamente no estudo de Kesim e cols.<sup>26</sup>.</p>
    <p>A &#243;xido n&#237;trico sintetase (NOS) expressa na parede vascular &#233; um alvo da a&#231;&#227;o estrog&#234;nica e produz uma s&#233;rie de efeitos ben&#233;ficos na biologia vascular. Conforme a mulher envelhece, a NOS aumenta e passa a produzir super&#243;xido, uma perigosa esp&#233;cie reativa de oxig&#234;nio. &#201; o ambiente bioqu&#237;mico em torno da NOS que determinar&#225; se o estr&#243;geno vai gerar um produto ben&#233;fico &#243;xido n&#237;trico ou delet&#233;rio (super&#243;xido), e que pode ser responsabilizado por essa natureza dupla e oposta da farmacologia do estrog&#234;nio<sup>27</sup>.</p>
    <p>A aus&#234;ncia de diferen&#231;a nos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de nitrato/nitrito nas mulheres SHT e CHT foi concordante com os dados relatados por Kesim e cols.<sup>26</sup>, mas diferente dos de Bednarek-Tupikowska e cols.<sup>25</sup> e Salhotra e cols.<sup>28</sup>, que encontraram n&#237;veis significativamente mais altos de nitrito em mulheres p&#243;s-menopausadas recebendo HT.</p>
    <p>A defici&#234;ncia, dependente da idade, de estradiol e do antioxidante glutationa no sangue de mulheres p&#243;s-menopausadas, causa uma atividade compensat&#243;ria da catalase, o que nem sempre &#233; suficiente para contrabalan&#231;ar o estresse oxidativo.</p>
    <p>V&#225;rios relatos t&#234;m sugerido uma conex&#227;o entre a exposi&#231;&#227;o ao estr&#243;geno e a atividade da catalase, que &#233; um componente de defesa antioxidante prim&#225;rio que catalisa a decomposi&#231;&#227;o do per&#243;xido de hidrog&#234;nio em &#225;gua<sup>29,30</sup>. A HT antagonizou a redu&#231;&#227;o na atividade da catalase normalmente associada &#224; menopausa (atividade da catalase: 22% em mulheres SHT, em compara&#231;&#227;o com 37% nas mulheres ET; p = 0,029).</p>
    <p>Esses dados diferiram de outros estudos que n&#227;o mostraram diferen&#231;a na atividade da catalase em mulheres SHT e CHT<sup>27</sup> ou n&#237;veis mais elevados em mulheres p&#243;s-menopausadas<sup>31-36</sup>.</p>
    <p>Demonstrou-se que o tratamento de c&#233;lulas epiteliais normais da mama humana em cultura com estradiol reduz a atividade da catalase celular<sup>37</sup>. Ademais, o tratamento de linhagens de c&#233;lulas cancer&#237;genas de mama com estradiol resultou na redu&#231;&#227;o da atividade da catalase em linhagens celulares com receptor de estr&#243;geno (RE) positivo, mas n&#227;o nas de linhagem RE negativo<sup>37</sup>.</p>
    <p>A discrep&#226;ncia entre nosso estudo e outros relatos pode estar relacionada ao pequeno n&#250;mero de pacientes em cada grupo estudado. A magnitude da redu&#231;&#227;o na atividade de catalase pode depender de outros fatores como ra&#231;a, alimenta&#231;&#227;o, e da express&#227;o individual das formas do polimorfismo da catalase, embora nosso estudo n&#227;o tenha permitido an&#225;lises de subgrupos detalhadas em rela&#231;&#227;o a essas caracter&#237;sticas<sup>38</sup>. Escalante G&#243;mez e Quesada Mora<sup>39</sup> estudaram o efeito sobre a oxida&#231;&#227;o do DNA como poss&#237;vel explica&#231;&#227;o para o processo de envelhecimento e as consequ&#234;ncias que a HT tem sobre eles. Nesse estudo, eles n&#227;o encontraram diferen&#231;a estat&#237;stica entre os grupos para oxida&#231;&#227;o proteica e atividade da catalase, concluindo que a HT reduz o dano oxidativo tanto no DNA quanto nos lip&#237;dios em mulheres p&#243;s-menopausadas, &#224; semelhan&#231;a de nosso estudo<sup>39</sup>.</p>
    <p>Al&#233;m disso, estavam dispon&#237;veis informa&#231;&#245;es abrangentes sobre fatores confundidores em potencial. As informa&#231;&#245;es sobre o uso de HT foram coletadas por meio de question&#225;rio detalhado, o que, embora sujeito a vi&#233;s de recorda&#231;&#227;o, referia-se a comportamento pregresso.</p>
    <p>A HT n&#227;o alterou a EIM da car&#243;tida em mulheres CHT, nem nos subgrupos ET e EPT. Entretanto, a m&#233;dia da EIM da car&#243;tida correlacionou-se positivamente com a idade, circunfer&#234;ncia da cintura e n&#237;veis de PCR-us; essa correla&#231;&#227;o desapareceu com a HT. Al&#233;m disso, a an&#225;lise de regress&#227;o m&#250;ltipla mostrou rela&#231;&#245;es negativas para idade e LPO ap&#243;s HT com estr&#243;geno, indicando efeito protetor do tratamento hormonal. Este pequeno estudo mostra a necessidade de pesquisas mais abrangentes para investigar os pap&#233;is diferenciais da HT e, se ap&#243;s a menopausa, ela pode influenciar os n&#237;veis de estresse oxidativo.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Conclus&#245;es</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Este estudo mostra que a HT em mulheres p&#243;s-menopausadas produz efeitos antioxidantes e antiateroscler&#243;ticos ben&#233;ficos por meio da melhora dos perfis plasm&#225;ticos de lip&#237;dios e lipoprote&#237;nas, do aumento da atividade da catalase plasm&#225;tica e da atenua&#231;&#227;o da associa&#231;&#227;o entre fatores de risco cardiovascular e aterosclerose precoce.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de tese de doutorado de Vera Sylvia Castanho pela UNICAMP.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="back" fn-type="corresp">
        <p>Endere&#231;o para correspond&#234;ncia:</p>
        <p> Eliana C de Faria </p>
        <p> Departamento de Patologia Cl&#237;nica, FCM </p>
        <p> Universidade de Campinas </p>
        <p> Rua Tess&#225;lia Vieira de Camargo, 126, Bar&#227;o Geraldo </p>
        <p> CEP 13084-971, Campinas, SP - Brasil </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p><email xlink:href="cotta@fcm.unicamp.br">cotta@fcm.unicamp.br</email>, </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="cottadefaria@gmail.com">cottadefaria@gmail.com</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Artigo recebido em 21/12/11 </p>
    <p> Revisado em 03/01/12 </p>
    <p> Aceito em 06/07/12</p>
  </body>
  <back>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Articles</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Postmenopausal therapy reduces catalase activity and attenuates cardiovascular risk</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>BACKGROUND: Menopause can lead to alterations in women's health, with changes in the oxidative status of postmenopausal women in whom information regarding the influence of hormone therapy (HT) on antioxidant enzyme activities is limited. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the influence of HT on catalase activity; concentrations of lipids and lipoprotein, cholesteryl ester transfer protein, thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances, nitrates, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein and carotid thickness in postmenopausal women. METHODS: Ninety-four consecutive women were allocated to one of four groups, without HT and with HT. The latter group was subdivided into women using estrogen and those using estrogen plus progestogen therapy. Plasma biochemical parameters and common carotid intima-media thickness measurements were performed. RESULTS: HT antagonized the decrease in catalase activity after menopause, but had no effect on the levels of cholesteryl ester transfer protein, thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances, lipid peroxide, nitrate, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein, or on the common carotid intima-media thickness. Multivariate analysis showed that estrogen-based HT attenuated the relationship between cardiovascular risk factors and the intima-media thickness of the common carotid. CONCLUSION: This study indicates that HT in postmenopausal women produces beneficial antioxidant and anti-atherosclerotic effects by ameliorating the plasma lipid and lipoprotein profiles, increasing plasma catalase activity and attenuating the association between cardiovascular risk factors and early atherosclerosis.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Risk factors</kwd>
        <kwd>cardiovascular diseases</kwd>
        <kwd>catalase</kwd>
        <kwd>postmenopause</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p><undefined id="top-body2"/>Postmenopausal therapy reduces catalase activity and attenuates cardiovascular risk</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Vera S. Castanho<sup>I</sup>; Rui Tsutomu Nakamura<sup>II</sup>; Aar&#227;o M. Pinto-Neto<sup>III</sup>; Eliana Cotta De Faria<sup>I</sup></bold>
      </p>
      <p><sup>I</sup>Department of Clinical Pathology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP - Brazil</p>
      <p><sup>II</sup>Department of Radiology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP - Brazil</p>
      <p><sup>III</sup>Department of Tocogynecology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP - Brazil</p>
      <p>Mailing Address</p>
      <p>
        <bold>ABSTRACT</bold>
      </p>
      <p><bold>BACKGROUND: </bold> Menopause can lead to alterations in women's health, with changes in the oxidative status of postmenopausal women in whom information regarding the influence of hormone therapy (HT) on antioxidant enzyme activities is limited.</p>
      <p><bold>OBJECTIVE: </bold> To evaluate the influence of HT on catalase activity; concentrations of lipids and lipoprotein, cholesteryl ester transfer protein, thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances, nitrates, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein and carotid thickness in postmenopausal women.</p>
      <p><bold>METHODS: </bold> Ninety-four consecutive women were allocated to one of four groups, without HT and with HT. The latter group was subdivided into women using estrogen and those using estrogen plus progestogen therapy. Plasma biochemical parameters and common carotid intima-media thickness measurements were performed.</p>
      <p><bold>RESULTS: </bold> HT antagonized the decrease in catalase activity after menopause, but had no effect on the levels of cholesteryl ester transfer protein, thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances, lipid peroxide, nitrate, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein, or on the common carotid intima-media thickness. Multivariate analysis showed that estrogen-based HT attenuated the relationship between cardiovascular risk factors and the intima-media thickness of the common carotid.</p>
      <p><bold>CONCLUSION: </bold> This study indicates that HT in postmenopausal women produces beneficial antioxidant and anti-atherosclerotic effects by ameliorating the plasma lipid and lipoprotein profiles, increasing plasma catalase activity and attenuating the association between cardiovascular risk factors and early atherosclerosis. </p>
      <p><bold>Keywords:</bold> Risk factors; cardiovascular diseases; catalase; postmenopause.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The role of oxidative stress in atherosclerosis has received considerable attention, with atherogenesis being triggered by focal inflammation and cellular proliferation<sup>1</sup>. Antioxidant enzymes such as catalase, superoxide dismutase e glutathione peroxidase, protect aerobic cells against oxidative injury caused by reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated during normal cellular metabolism<sup>1</sup>. Oxidative stress resulting from the overproduction of ROS or a deficiency in the enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant systems can lead to a number of pathological conditions and contribute to aging<sup>1</sup>. Menopause can lead to alterations in women&#180;s health, with excessive ROS formation and changes in the oxidative status of postmenopausal women<sup>2-5</sup>. However, few studies have examined the influence of hormone therapy (HT) on antioxidant enzyme activity in postmenopausal women and have focused on short-term use of HT.</p>
      <p>The cardiovascular effects of HT have been the subject of much debate since the initial findings from the Women's Health Initiative (WHI study) were reported. However, re-analyses of WHI results have suggested that the association between HT use and cardiovascular risk is influenced by several factors, among these, age and time since menopause. Observational and randomized studies have suggested that initiation of hormone replacement therapy (HT) in early postmenopause could be beneficial from a cardiovascular point of view. Conversely, aging, time since menopause and presence of cardiovascular risk factors or cardiovascular disease may decrease its efficacy and increase the risk of cardiovascular events<sup>6</sup>.</p>
      <p>In the last ten years, HT for the treatment of menopausal symptoms is a real option that led to recently launched studies on the antioxidant effects of estrogen. In addition to its effects on the post-menopausal symptoms estrogen therapy has been used to treat osteoporosis<sup>7</sup> and many postmenopausal women have been using it.</p>
      <p>The intima-media thickness of the common carotid artery (carotid IMT), an appropriate intermediate endpoint for investigating clinically relevant effects on atherogenesis, can be used to assess the early stages of atherosclerosis, since this parameter correlates with risk factors, including age, dyslipidemias and oxidative stress<sup>8</sup>. Information regarding the influence of HT on carotid atherosclerosis is limited; whereas experimental and epidemiological studies have reported that HT has a beneficial effect on the progression of carotid IMT in postmenopausal women<sup>9</sup>, others have observed no significant effect<sup>10</sup>. In contrast, it has been reported that while HT may prevent the development of atherosclerotic plaques in postmenopausal women<sup>9</sup>, there is no difference in the carotid IMT between women who had and had not used HT<sup>11</sup>. Lipid and lipoprotein metabolism is markedly altered after menopause<sup>12-14</sup> with a natural reduction in estrogen levels.</p>
      <p>In this study, we investigated the serum catalase activity; serum concentrations of lipids and lipoprotein, cholesteryl ester transfer protein, thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS), nitrate and hs-CRP plasma levels in postmenopausal women with or without HT, in order to determine whether postmenopausal HT influences the levels of oxidative stress (a proinflammatory marker). The thickness of the common carotid intima-media was used as an early marker of atherosclerosis.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Methods</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Subjects</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Ninety four postmenopausal women (POMW) mean age: 59 years, were assigned to one of two groups: those without HT (WTHT, n = 63) and those with HT (WHT, n = 31); the women in the latter group were further subdivided into those using estrogen therapy (ET, conjugated equine estrogen, 0.625 mg/d; n = 20) and those using estrogen plus progestogen therapy (EPT, methoxyprogesterone acetate, 2.5-5 mg/d; n = 11). They were sequentially recruited at the University Clinic during a one-year period, according to the criteria presented below.</p>
      <p>The POMW were clinically evaluated at the Dyslipidemia and Menopause Outpatient Clinics of the School of Medical Sciences of UNICAMP. The presence of menopause was defined among women &#8805; 40 years old with at least one year of natural menopause or surgical bilateral oophorectomy, in accordance with the criteria of the North American Menopause Society<sup>14</sup>. The exclusion criteria for participation in the study were: severe dyslipidemia (HDL cholesterol &#8804; 40 mg/L, LDL cholesterol &#8805; 190 mg/L and triglycerides &#8805; 400 mg/L), smoking, alcoholism, severe systemic disease including nephropathy, endocrinopathy and pneumopathy.</p>
      <p>The criterium for body mass index (BMI) &#8804; 27 kg/m<sup>2 13</sup> was reached in half of the women studied.</p>
      <p>Vasomotor symptoms (hot flashes and night sweats) were the main indication for the use of systemic HT<sup>14</sup>. All POMW had been on HT with continuous oral estrogen (0.625 mg/d) or continuous estrogen (0.625 mg/d) and methoxyprogesterone acetate (2.5 or 5 mg/d) for at least one year (mean of five years). All of the subjects gave written informed consent to participate in the study.</p>
      <p>This investigation was approved by the institutional Research Ethics Committee (protocol no. 314/2004).</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Samples</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Blood samples were collected from patients by venipuncture into ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA) after a 12 h fast. Plasma was obtained by centrifugation at 1000 <italic>g</italic> for 10 min at 4&#176;C.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>General Analytical Methods</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Total cholesterol and triglycerides were determined by an enzymatic-colorimetric method (Hitachi 917, Roche, Mannheim, Germany). Plasma LDL and HDL cholesterol were analyzed in sample supernatants by a homogeneous direct enzymatic-colorimetric method after precipitation of apoB 100-containing lipoproteins. Apolipoproteins (AI and B 100) were determined by nephelometry.</p>
      <p>Nitrate, the stable metabolite of nitric oxide, was measured with Greiss reagent in a commercial nitrate/nitrite assay kit (Cayman Chemical Co, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA)<sup>15</sup>. Catalase activity, thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS) and lipoperoxidases (LPO) concentrations were assayed in plasma by ELISA and colorimetric methods (Cayman Chemical Co, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA)<sup>16,17</sup>. The concentration of high-sensitive CRP was determined with a Behring latex-enhanced CRP assay and a Behring nephelometer analyzer system (Dade Behring, Tokyo, Japan).</p>
      <p>The intima-media thickness of the common carotid artery was measured with an HDI 1500 ultrasound system (ATL Ultrasound, Botheli, WA, USA) fitted with a 7-12 MHz color Doppler probe. The carotid IMT was calculated as the mean of five measurements in the far wall of the left and right common carotid arteries, according to a standardized method<sup>9</sup>. Individual results (expressed in mm) were the average of the left and right carotid IMT.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Statistical Analysis</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Results are expressed as means &#177; SD. Statistical analyses were carried out using ANCOVA with rank transformation, adjusted for age and BMI, or the Mann-Whitney test. Spearman's test was used to examine the correlation between variables in the groups. Multiple linear regression analysis with stepwise criteria for the selection of variables was used to assess the influence of lipoproteins, apolipoproteins, cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP), catalase, nitrate, TBARS, LPO and hs-CRP serum concentrations on carotid IMT. The results were expressed as coefficients of determination (R<sup>2</sup>) that represented the percentage of variation in the dependent variable that was explained by the independent variables. A value of p &lt; 0.05 (two-tailed test) indicated significance. All data and statistical analyses were performed with the SAS statistical package (SAS Institute Inc, Cary, NC, USA).</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Results</bold>
      </p>
      <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="aop09312_ing_t01-body2">Table 1</xref> summarizes the clinical and biochemical characteristics of the subjects. There was no difference in the mean age or blood pressure of the WTHT and WHT groups, but a significant difference was observed in the BMI (29 kg/m<sup>2</sup> and 26 kg/m<sup>2</sup>, respectively; p = 0.021) and waist circumference (89 cm and 83 cm, respectively; p = 0.007) of the two groups. The mean carotid IMT ranged from 0.83 mm to 0.91 mm, with no difference between the two postmenopausal groups.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="aop09312_ing_t01-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-99-05-1008-00097-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>The mean serum total cholesterol concentration in POMW exceeded the maximum recommended value of 200 mg/dL (<xref ref-type="table" rid="aop09312_ing_t02-body2">Table 2</xref>). Higher LDLchol and NHDLchol (non HDL cholesterol) levels were observed in WTHT versus WHT postmenopausal women (p = 0.013 and 0.048 for LDL and NHDLchol, respectively) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="aop09312_ing_t02-body2">Table 2</xref>), whereas lipoprotein (a) remained unchanged. Increased HDLchol was observed in postmenopausal women with estrogen therapy, compared to those with estrogen plus progestogen therapy (p = 0.041). Insulin levels were identical in all groups (not shown). The Castelli II index (LDLchol/HDLchol) decreased in HT with estrogen. CETP activity was similar in all groups.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="aop09312_ing_t02-body2">
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      </p>
      <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="aop09312_ing_t03-body2">Table 3</xref> shows that, with the exception of catalase, which increased by approximately 42% in the WHT and EPT groups, there were no significant differences in the levels of the other biomarkers of oxidative stress and inflammation between the groups.</p>
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      <p>Strong correlations were observed between three risk factors for atherosclerosis (age, hs-CRP and waist circumference) and carotid IMT in the WTHT group, but these were abolished by HT in the EPT group (<xref ref-type="table" rid="aop09312_ing_t04-body2">Table 4</xref>). However, the EPT group still retained important correlations between carotid IMT and LDLchol and systolic blood pressure, two well-known markers for atherosclerosis.</p>
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      <p>Regression analysis showed that, in WTHT women, carotid IMT was positively correlated with age and nitrate and hs-CRP levels, but negatively correlated with Lp (a) levels (<xref ref-type="table" rid="aop09312_ing_t05-body2">Table 5</xref>). In WHT women, carotid IMT was positively correlated with age and waist circumference, whereas in ET women, the carotid IMT was negatively correlated with age and lipoprotein levels. The latter finding suggests a protective action of estrogen.</p>
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      <p>
        <bold>Discussion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Oxidative stress has a central role in lipid peroxidation and inflammation associated with atherosclerosis, with inflammation being particularly important in mediating all stages of this disease<sup>18</sup>. However, the usefulness of antioxidant measures to treat patients with atherosclerosis has not been conclusively proven.</p>
      <p>HT has cardioprotective actions that may be associated with changes in circulating lipoprotein levels<sup>19</sup>. As shown here, women with HT had significantly lower plasma levels of LDLchol (p = 0.013) and NHDLchol (p = 0.048), and a lower LDLchol/HDLchol ratio (p = 0.001), although ET women had higher HDLchol than EPT women (p = 0.041).</p>
      <p>Changes in the plasma lipoprotein profile, mediated by the transfer of neutral lipids, such as cholesteryl ester and triglyceride, are the best known function of CETP<sup>20</sup>. Experimental and epidemiological studies indicate that CETP may play an important role in the development of atherosclerosis<sup>20-21</sup>, although the precise effects of CETP on atherogenesis are still controversial. In humans, an increased incidence of coronary heart disease has been associated with a deficiency<sup>22</sup> or increase<sup>23</sup> in CETP. Although CETP is a potential therapeutic target<sup>24</sup>, the usefulness of interventions involving this protein will depend on clarification of its role in atherogenesis. As shown here, CETP was unaffected by HT, in agreement with a previous study in postmenopausal women<sup>5</sup>.</p>
      <p>Free radical-induced lipid peroxidation has been proposed as an etiological factor in ageing after menopause and in various age-related diseases, including atherosclerosis. In the present study, there were no differences in the serum LPO and TBARS levels (indicators of lipid peroxidation and free-radical production, respectively) between the WTHT and WHT groups. These data differ from previous findings<sup>25</sup> and from the significantly higher TBARS levels in postmenopausal women under HT<sup>26</sup>. The discrepancy between our study and the already-mentioned report may be related to differences in the mean ages of the groups that were studied, namely, 59 and 56 years in our WTHT and WHT women, respectively, compared to 47 and 52 years for WTHT and WHT women, respectively, in Kesim et al's study<sup>26</sup>.</p>
      <p>The nitric oxide synthase expressed within the vascular wall is a target of estrogen action and produces a number of beneficial effects on vascular biology. As a woman ages, NOS becomes increasingly higher and starts to produce superoxide, a dangerous reactive oxygen species. It is the biochemical environment around NOS that will determine whether estrogen produces a beneficial nitric oxide or deleterious (superoxide) product, and can account for this dual and opposite nature of estrogen pharmacology<sup>27</sup>.</p>
      <p>The lack of difference in the serum nitrate/nitrite levels of WTHT and WHT women agreed with data reported by kesim et al.<sup>26</sup>, but differed from those of Bednarek-Tupikowska et al.<sup>25</sup> and Salhotra et al.<sup>28</sup>, who reported significantly higher nitrite levels in postmenopausal women under HT.</p>
      <p>Age-dependent deficiency of estradiol and antioxidant glutathione in blood of postmenopausal women causes compensatory activity of catalase, which is not always enough to counteract oxidative stress.</p>
      <p>Several reports have suggested a connection between estrogen exposure and catalase activity. Catalase is a primary antioxidant defense component that catalyzes the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide to water<sup>29-30</sup>. HT antagonized the decrease in catalase activity normally associated with menopause (catalase activity: 22% in WTHT women, compared to 37% in ET women; p = 0.029).</p>
      <p>These findings differed from those of other studies that reported no difference in catalase activities of WTHT and WHT women<sup>27</sup> or higher levels in postmenopausal women<sup>31-36</sup>.</p>
      <p>Treatment of normal human breast epithelial cells in culture with estradiol was shown to decrease cellular catalase activity<sup>37</sup>. Further, treatment of breast cancer cell lines with estradiol resulted in decreased catalase activity in the estrogen receptor (ER) - positive but not the ER-negative cell lines<sup>37</sup>.</p>
      <p>The discrepancy between our study and other reports may be related to the small number of patients in each group studied. The magnitude of the decrease in catalase activity may depend on other factors such as race, diet and the individual expressing forms of the catalase polymorphism, although our study did not permit detailed subgroup analysis by diet status, race or catalase polymorphism<sup>38</sup>. Escalante G&#243;mez and Quesada Mora<sup>39</sup> studied the effect on DNA oxidation as a possible explanation for the aging process itself and the effects that HT has on them, and found no statistical difference for protein oxidation and catalase activity among the groups. They concluded that HT decreases oxidative damage to both DNA and lipids in postmenopausal women, in corroboration to our findings<sup>39</sup>.</p>
      <p>In addition, comprehensive information regarding potential confounding factors were available, and the HT-use information was collected using a detailed questionnaire, which, although subject to recall bias, referred to behavior in the past.</p>
      <p>HT did not alter the carotid IMT in WHT women, or in the subgroups ET and EPT. However, mean carotid IMT was positively correlated with age, waist circumference and hs-CRP levels; this correlation disappeared with HT. In addition, multiple regression analysis showed negative relationships for age and LPO after estrogen HT, indicating a protective effect of hormonal treatment. This small study indicates the need for more extensive studies to investigate the differential roles of whether postmenopausal HT influences the levels of oxidative stress.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Conclusions</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This study indicates that HT in postmenopausal women produces beneficial antioxidant and anti-atherosclerotic effects by ameliorating the plasma lipid and lipoprotein profiles, increasing plasma catalase activity and attenuating the association between cardiovascular risk factors and early atherosclerosis.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
      </p>
      <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
      </p>
      <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Study Association</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This article is part of the thesis of doctoral submitted by Vera Sylvia Castanho , from UNICAMP.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
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