<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.1 20151215//EN" "https://jats.nlm.nih.gov/publishing/1.1/JATS-journalpublishing1.dtd">
<article xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" specific-use="sps-1.9" dtd-version="1.1" xml:lang="pt" article-type="research-article">
  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">MyNPHJK6TLPNbhRtJr8sTFH</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2012001000013</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(12)09900100013</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2012001000013</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>O diagn&#243;stico da obstru&#231;&#227;o da via de sa&#237;da do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo na cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mattos</surname>
            <given-names>Beatriz Piva e</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Torres</surname>
            <given-names>Marco Antonio Rodrigues</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rebelatto</surname>
            <given-names>Taiane Francieli</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Loreto</surname>
            <given-names>Melina Silva de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Scolari</surname>
            <given-names>Fernando Lu&#237;s</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="state">Rio Grande do Sul</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Servi&#231;o de Cardiologia </institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff02">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">Rio Grande do Sul</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina </institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>07</month>
        <year>2012</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>99</volume>
      <issue>1</issue>
      <fpage>665</fpage>
      <lpage>675</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>28</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2011</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>16</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2012</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>28</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2011</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>A cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica &#233; uma doen&#231;a gen&#233;tica prevalente caracterizada por hipertrofia ventricular esquerda, em que obstru&#231;&#227;o din&#226;mica da via de sa&#237;da com gera&#231;&#227;o de gradiente suba&#243;rtico incide em repouso em 30% dos casos. A obstru&#231;&#227;o &#233; atribuida complexa intera&#231;&#227;o entre o folheto anterior mitral, o septo interventricular e vetores an&#244;malos de fluxo gerados no ventr&#237;culo esquerdo aliada a modifica&#231;&#245;es na geometria da via de sa&#237;da. Regurgita&#231;&#227;o mitral em grau vari&#225;vel &#233; detectada associada ou n&#227;o a deformidades estruturais do aparelho valvar. O ecocardiograma de esfor&#231;o demonstra obstru&#231;&#227;o latente facilmente induzida por exerc&#237;cio em 60 a 75% das formas n&#227;o obstrutivas. A determina&#231;&#227;o do gradiente nessas condi&#231;&#245;es imp&#245;e-se na investiga&#231;&#227;o de rotina dos pacientes com obstru&#231;&#227;o leve ou ausente em repouso. A avalia&#231;&#227;o da cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica incorpora m&#233;todos de imagem baseados no ultrassom, os quais, adicionados resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica, possibilitam o reconhecimento de mecanismos geradores de obstru&#231;&#227;o ventricular, de modo a favorecer o diagn&#243;stico e o manejo das formas obstrutivas e obstrutivas latentes.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>Cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica</kwd>
        <kwd>hipertrofia ventricular esquerda</kwd>
        <kwd>ecocardiografia</kwd>
        <kwd>resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>04</day>
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2012</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>ARTIGO DE REVIS&#195;O</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O diagn&#243;stico da obstru&#231;&#227;o da via de sa&#237;da do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo na cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Beatriz Piva e Mattos; Marco Antonio Rodrigues Torres; Taiane Francieli Rebelatto; Melina Silva de Loreto; Fernando Lu&#237;s Scolari</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Servi&#231;o de Cardiologia do Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre, RS; Faculdade de Medicina - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS - Brasil</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="back">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESUMO</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica &#233; uma doen&#231;a gen&#233;tica prevalente caracterizada por hipertrofia ventricular esquerda, em que obstru&#231;&#227;o din&#226;mica da via de sa&#237;da com gera&#231;&#227;o de gradiente suba&#243;rtico incide em repouso em 30% dos casos. A obstru&#231;&#227;o &#233; atribuida complexa intera&#231;&#227;o entre o folheto anterior mitral, o septo interventricular e vetores an&#244;malos de fluxo gerados no ventr&#237;culo esquerdo aliada a modifica&#231;&#245;es na geometria da via de sa&#237;da. Regurgita&#231;&#227;o mitral em grau vari&#225;vel &#233; detectada associada ou n&#227;o a deformidades estruturais do aparelho valvar. O ecocardiograma de esfor&#231;o demonstra obstru&#231;&#227;o latente facilmente induzida por exerc&#237;cio em 60 a 75% das formas n&#227;o obstrutivas. A determina&#231;&#227;o do gradiente nessas condi&#231;&#245;es imp&#245;e-se na investiga&#231;&#227;o de rotina dos pacientes com obstru&#231;&#227;o leve ou ausente em repouso. A avalia&#231;&#227;o da cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica incorpora m&#233;todos de imagem baseados no ultrassom, os quais, adicionados resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica, possibilitam o reconhecimento de mecanismos geradores de obstru&#231;&#227;o ventricular, de modo a favorecer o diagn&#243;stico e o manejo das formas obstrutivas e obstrutivas latentes.</p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold> Cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica/diagn&#243;stico; hipertrofia ventricular esquerda/diagn&#243;stico; ecocardiografia; resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica (CMH) &#233; uma doen&#231;a gen&#233;tica de car&#225;ter complexo, cuja preval&#234;ncia &#233; estimada em um para cada 500 indiv&#237;duos<sup>1</sup>. Caracteriza-se por hipertrofia ventricular esquerda (HVE) identificada na aus&#234;ncia de dilata&#231;&#227;o da c&#226;mara e de qualquer outra doen&#231;a capaz de produzir anomalia semelhante<sup>2</sup>. Obstru&#231;&#227;o din&#226;mica da via de sa&#237;da do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (VE) com desenvolvimento de gradiente sist&#243;lico suba&#243;rtico pode ser evidenciada em repouso ou sob provoca&#231;&#227;o<sup>3</sup>. Com menor frequ&#234;ncia, incidem formas com obstru&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dio-ventricular acompanhadas ou n&#227;o por aneurismas apicais e, excepcionalmente, envolvimento obstrutivo do ventr&#237;culo direito<sup>2</sup>.</p>
    <p>A CMH &#233; transmitida atrav&#233;s de heran&#231;a autoss&#244;mica dominante com penetr&#226;ncia incompleta. &#201; causada por mais de 1400 muta&#231;&#245;es em genes codificantes de prote&#237;nas do sarc&#244;mero ou, mais raramente, em outras prote&#237;nas de estruturas relacionadas a este, como os discos-Z e discos intercalados. A ampla varia&#231;&#227;o fenot&#237;pica &#233; atribu&#237;da a&#231;&#227;o de fatores ambientais e gen&#233;ticos<sup>2,4</sup>.</p>
    <p>Na era moderna, a CMH foi descrita entre 1957 e 1958, na Inglaterra, pelo patologista Robert D. Teare<sup>5</sup> e pelo cirurgi&#227;o Russell C. Brock<sup>6</sup>, os quais identificaram a hipertrofia assim&#233;trica do VE associada desorganiza&#231;&#227;o celular do mioc&#225;rdio e obstru&#231;&#227;o subvalvar a&#243;rtica de car&#225;ter muscular. As bases cl&#237;nicas da CMH foram definidas gradativamente a partir da d&#233;cada de 60, em estudos fundamentais desenvolvidos por Cohen e cols.<sup>7</sup>, respons&#225;veis pela atual nomenclatura<sup>7,8</sup>, assim como por Braunwald e cols.<sup>9</sup> e Wigle e cols.<sup>10</sup>, cujas designa&#231;&#245;es sugeridas, estenose suba&#243;rtica hipertr&#243;fica idiop&#225;tica e estenose suba&#243;rtica muscular, enfatizavam o car&#225;ter obstrutivo da doen&#231;a.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Mecanismos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A obstru&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda foi, preliminarmente, interpretada como sendo fixa, produzida pela hipertrofia septal e consequente altera&#231;&#227;o da geometria da via de sa&#237;da. O car&#225;ter din&#226;mico foi suspeitado atrav&#233;s de manobras que, ao modificarem a pr&#233; e a p&#243;s-carga, alteravam a intensidade do sopro gerado<sup>9</sup>. A presen&#231;a de obstru&#231;&#227;o foi subsequentemente comprovada durante estudo hemodin&#226;mico, por meio de queda da press&#227;o ventricular no trato de sa&#237;da<sup>11</sup>. &#192; &#233;poca, o comportamento l&#225;bil da obstru&#231;&#227;o pode ser documentado em an&#225;lises detalhadas atrav&#233;s de interven&#231;&#227;o farmacol&#243;gica com vasodilatadores ou agentes inotr&#243;picos, os quais, ao produzirem redu&#231;&#227;o do volume ventricular esquerdo e da resist&#234;ncia vascular perif&#233;rica, determinavam aumento do gradiente suba&#243;rtico<sup>9,11</sup>. N&#227;o obstante, a possibilidade do gradiente ser mero artefato consequente eje&#231;&#227;o r&#225;pida e oblitera&#231;&#227;o da cavidade era ainda admitida<sup>12</sup>.</p>
    <p>Atrav&#233;s da cineangiocardiografia, foi demonstrada a exist&#234;ncia de obstru&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica da via de sa&#237;da do VE, originada da aposi&#231;&#227;o da v&#225;lvula mitral sobre o septo basal, fen&#244;meno inicialmente atribu&#237;do s&#237;stole vigorosa<sup>13</sup>. No entanto, a hip&#243;tese de n&#227;o existir obstru&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica verdadeira era considerada, face ao car&#225;ter l&#225;bil e vari&#225;vel do gradiente em mensura&#231;&#245;es seriadas, tend&#234;ncia a desaparecer evolutivamente e falta de correla&#231;&#227;o com a gravidade dos sintomas<sup>8</sup>.</p>
    <p>A introdu&#231;&#227;o da ecocardiografia aplicada ao diagn&#243;stico da CMH, entre 1969 e 1973, permitiu n&#227;o somente a aprecia&#231;&#227;o de aspectos j&#225; evidenciados investiga&#231;&#227;o invasiva, como contribuiu de forma decisiva para identifica&#231;&#227;o de formas n&#227;o obstrutivas e de mecanismos geradores de obstru&#231;&#227;o. Com a ecocardiografia modo M, foi poss&#237;vel comprovar que a imped&#226;ncia ao fluxo n&#227;o resultava de constri&#231;&#227;o muscular, mas do contato do folheto anterior da v&#225;lvula mitral com o septo durante a mesoss&#237;stole, mais prolongado em casos com maior grau de obstru&#231;&#227;o<sup>14</sup>.</p>
    <p>Preliminarmente, vigorou a concep&#231;&#227;o de que o movimento anterior sist&#243;lico da v&#225;lvula mitral (MASM) decorria do efeito Venturi, atrav&#233;s do qual a alta velocidade de fluxo na via de sa&#237;da resultaria em suc&#231;&#227;o desta estrutura em dire&#231;&#227;o ao septo interventricular<sup>15</sup>. Atrav&#233;s da ecocardiografia bidimensional, foi demonstrado que o MASM iniciava-se antes da eje&#231;&#227;o e que seria pouco dependente do efeito Venturi<sup>16</sup>. A obstru&#231;&#227;o &#233; verdadeiramente determinada pela complexa intera&#231;&#227;o entre o septo, a v&#225;lvula mitral e vetores de fluxo gerados na cavidade ventricular. A dire&#231;&#227;o anterior e a alta velocidade do fluxo sist&#243;lico ao atingir a via de sa&#237;da do VE originam vetores que se disp&#245;em transversalmente v&#225;lvula mitral fechada e, com isso, empurram o folheto anterior mitral contra o septo<sup>17</sup>.</p>
    <p>O contato da v&#225;lvula mitral com o septo marca o in&#237;cio da gera&#231;&#227;o de gradiente sist&#243;lico suba&#243;rtico consequente redu&#231;&#227;o progressiva da &#225;rea de superf&#237;cie da via de sa&#237;da. Crescente acelera&#231;&#227;o do fluxo &#233; observada medida que o folheto mitral &#233; empurrado contra o septo pelo gradiente em ascens&#227;o. Estabelece-se mecanismo de retroalimenta&#231;&#227;o cont&#237;nua, em que a redu&#231;&#227;o da via de sa&#237;da produzida pelo MASM determina aumento gradativo do gradiente press&#243;rico e esse, por sua vez, propor&#231;&#227;o em que se eleva, imp&#245;e ainda maior grau de imped&#226;ncia eje&#231;&#227;o. O fluxo anter&#243;grado, a despeito da obstru&#231;&#227;o, persiste ao longo da s&#237;stole at&#233; o fechamento da v&#225;lvula a&#243;rtica, com prolongamento do tempo de eje&#231;&#227;o proporcional ao gradiente. Verifica-se queda mesossist&#243;lica da velocidade de fluxo superior a 50% ap&#243;s o contato da v&#225;lvula mitral com o septo em gradientes &gt; 60 mmHg, pela maior redu&#231;&#227;o da &#225;rea da via de sa&#237;da<sup>17</sup>. Nesses casos, h&#225; interrup&#231;&#227;o prematura do encurtamento longitudinal durante a s&#237;stole e fechamento mesossist&#243;lico da v&#225;lvula a&#243;rtica com efeito delet&#233;rio sobre a fun&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica do VE<sup>18</sup>.</p>
    <p>A posi&#231;&#227;o dos folhetos da v&#225;lvula mitral em rela&#231;&#227;o ao trato de sa&#237;da &#233; elemento fundamental para o desenvolvimento de obstru&#231;&#227;o<sup>16</sup>. O deslocamento anterior dos m&#250;sculos papilares e aparelho subvalvar mitral modificam a geometria da via de sa&#237;da com redu&#231;&#227;o da respectiva &#225;rea, de modo a favorecer o contato entre o folheto anterior e o septo<sup>19</sup>. Ader&#234;ncias fibr&#243;ticas entre o septo e m&#250;sculos papilares, parede livre do VE ou aparelho mitral tracionam esta estrutura anteriormente, contribuindo para maior grau de obstru&#231;&#227;o<sup>20</sup>. Anomalias dos m&#250;sculos papilares identificadas por resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica (RM), incluindo espessamento, car&#225;ter b&#237;fido e deslocamento anteroapical, s&#227;o comuns na CMH e relacionam-se maior preval&#234;ncia de MASM e a gradientes mais elevados, independente da espessura septal<sup>21</sup>.</p>
    <p>O MASM &#233; mais frequente e prolongado em pacientes com hipertrofia difusa ou extensa, envolvendo de dois a quatro segmentos do VE<sup>22</sup>. Somente 25 a 50% dos que apresentam essa anomalia evidenciam gradiente em repouso<sup>23</sup>. Em muitos desses, desenvolve-se insufici&#234;ncia mitral usualmente de grau leve a moderado. Nas formas n&#227;o obstrutivas, a movimenta&#231;&#227;o mitral costuma estar ausente ou ser incompleta. Em 30% dos casos com obstru&#231;&#227;o, incidem complexas deformidades envolvendo a v&#225;lvula mitral, como o alongamento do folheto anterior e/ou posterior, ou ainda, implanta&#231;&#227;o direta em m&#250;sculos papilares, os quais podem obstruir a via de sa&#237;da<sup>24</sup>. Nesses casos, o ponto de coapta&#231;&#227;o da v&#225;lvula mitral pode estar deslocado anteriormente e estabelecer-se ao longo dos folhetos e n&#227;o em seus bordos<sup>16</sup>. O alongamento do folheto anterior associado via de sa&#237;da de pequeno di&#226;metro relaciona-se eleva&#231;&#227;o do gradiente<sup>24</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em aproximadamente 30% dos pacientes com CMH, h&#225; obstru&#231;&#227;o da via de sa&#237;da do VE em repouso, com gradiente sist&#243;lico m&#225;ximo &#8805; 30 mmHg, crit&#233;rio adotado para a identifica&#231;&#227;o de formas obstrutivas. Gradientes inferiores a 30 mmHg, que se elevam acima deste n&#237;vel com manobras provocativas, caracterizam os casos com obstru&#231;&#227;o latente. Formas n&#227;o obstrutivas caracterizam-se por gradiente &lt; 30 mmHg tanto em repouso como sob provoca&#231;&#227;o<sup>2</sup>. Conclui-se que a obstru&#231;&#227;o da via de sa&#237;da do VE na CMH tem g&#234;nese complexa e car&#225;ter multifatorial, e que a correta identifica&#231;&#227;o de seus determinantes &#233; essencial para a sele&#231;&#227;o de pacientes e respectivo manejo.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Diagn&#243;stico</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O diagn&#243;stico da CMH &#233; realizado, de rotina, atrav&#233;s da avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica com comprova&#231;&#227;o por meio do ecocardiograma ou da RM. O estudo gen&#233;tico-molecular possibilita a identifica&#231;&#227;o definitiva da doen&#231;a em fase cl&#237;nica e pr&#233;-cl&#237;nica e a avalia&#231;&#227;o de familiares, mas sua aplica&#231;&#227;o na estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco para morte s&#250;bita n&#227;o se encontra plenamente definida<sup>2,4</sup>.</p>
    <p>O diagn&#243;stico diferencial &#233; usualmente estabelecido atrav&#233;s da investiga&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o invasiva e inclui a hipertrofia fisiol&#243;gica do atleta e, nas formas conc&#234;ntricas, a cardiopatia hipertensiva e a amiloidose card&#237;aca. A determina&#231;&#227;o genot&#237;pica &#233; fundamental no reconhecimento de doen&#231;as de armazenamento mioc&#225;rdico, como Fabry, Danon e nas muta&#231;&#245;es do gene da proteinoquinase AMP-ativada (PRKAG2), consideradas fenoc&#243;pias clinicamente indistingu&#237;veis da CMH<sup>2,4</sup></p>
    <p>
      <bold>Quadro cl&#237;nico</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Desde as primeiras descri&#231;&#245;es sobre a doen&#231;a, foi identificada a potencial rela&#231;&#227;o entre a obstru&#231;&#227;o da via de sa&#237;da do VE e sintomas cardiovasculares, como dor precordial e dispneia aos esfor&#231;os ou em repouso. A obstru&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica, al&#233;m de constituir est&#237;mulo para o desenvolvimento de hipertrofia, determina aumento do estresse parietal do VE, condicionando isquemia mioc&#225;rdica e fibrose de substitui&#231;&#227;o, fatores determinantes de disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica e arritmias<sup>15,25</sup>. O exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico produz aumento da contratilidade e da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, efeitos que, aliados ao decr&#233;scimo da resist&#234;ncia vascular perif&#233;rica, desencadeiam ou determinam agravamento da obstru&#231;&#227;o e aumento da press&#227;o de enchimento do VE<sup>26,27</sup>. S&#237;ncope ou pr&#233;-sincope podem ser consequentes a arritmias ou dist&#250;rbio auton&#244;mico<sup>28-30</sup>, mas seriam decorrentes da obstru&#231;&#227;o da via de sa&#237;da quando relacionadas a esfor&#231;os maiores ou ao ato de assumir rapidamente a posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica<sup>31</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em aproximadamente um ter&#231;o dos pacientes, h&#225; surgimento ou exacerba&#231;&#227;o dos sintomas ap&#243;s refei&#231;&#245;es, atribu&#237;dos vasodilata&#231;&#227;o arterial, redu&#231;&#227;o da p&#243;s-carga e aumento compensat&#243;rio da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. Essas altera&#231;&#245;es levam direta ou indiretamente piora da obstru&#231;&#227;o da via de sa&#237;da e eleva&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o de enchimento, de forma an&#225;loga ao observado pr&#225;tica de esfor&#231;os<sup>32</sup>. A gravidade dos sintomas apresenta grande varia&#231;&#227;o dia a dia. O aumento da temperatura ambiental, a menor ingest&#227;o de l&#237;quidos e o uso de bebidas alco&#243;licas podem, por modifica&#231;&#245;es da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e das condi&#231;&#245;es de carga, determinar eleva&#231;&#227;o do gradiente suba&#243;rtico<sup>3</sup>.</p>
    <p>Ao exame cl&#237;nico, as formas obstrutivas caracterizam-se por <italic>ictus cordis</italic> propulsivo e sustentado com duplo pico sist&#243;lico e pulso arterial <italic>bisferiens</italic>. Ausculta-se quarta bulha, ocasionalmente palp&#225;vel. Sopro sist&#243;lico de m&#233;dias frequ&#234;ncias, em crescendo-decrescendo, de intensidade vari&#225;vel, &#233; aud&#237;vel no bordo esternal esquerdo, assim como nas &#225;reas a&#243;rtica e mitral, mas n&#227;o se irradia para a f&#250;rcula esternal, pesco&#231;o e axila. Manobras que diminuem a pr&#233; e/ou p&#243;s-carga, como Valsalva e posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica, podem exacerbar o sopro. A eleva&#231;&#227;o passiva dos membros inferiores e <italic>handgrip</italic>, ao contr&#225;rio, diminuem a sua intensidade. Sopro sist&#243;lico de regurgita&#231;&#227;o mitral com irradia&#231;&#227;o para axila pode ser evidenciado<sup>8</sup>.</p>
    <p>An&#225;lises longitudinais demonstram que a obstru&#231;&#227;o da via de sa&#237;da do VE com gradiente sist&#243;lico m&#225;ximo em repouso <underline>&gt;</underline> 30 mmHg aumenta a probabilidade de morte relacionada doen&#231;a<sup>25</sup>, particularmente naqueles com sintomas leves ou ausentes<sup>33</sup>. O risco de progress&#227;o classe funcional III ou IV NYHA e de &#243;bito por insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca ou acidente vascular encef&#225;lico &#233; maior em rela&#231;&#227;o a formas n&#227;o obstrutivas, sobretudo ap&#243;s os 40 anos<sup>25</sup>. A obstru&#231;&#227;o latente est&#225; tamb&#233;m implicada no desenvolvimento de sintomas incapacitantes e evolu&#231;&#227;o insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca<sup>27,34</sup>.</p>
    <p>Foi demonstrada associa&#231;&#227;o entre a gravidade da obstru&#231;&#227;o e a predisposi&#231;&#227;o morte s&#250;bita, tamb&#233;m relacionada presen&#231;a de outros fatores de risco<sup>35</sup>. Entretanto, o car&#225;ter din&#226;mico da obstru&#231;&#227;o dificulta a sua valoriza&#231;&#227;o como preditor independente de risco e a sua presen&#231;a isolada n&#227;o constitui indica&#231;&#227;o para implante de cardiodesfibrilador autom&#225;tico<sup>2</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Ecocardiograma</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O diagn&#243;stico ecocardiogr&#225;fico da CMH baseia-se na identifica&#231;&#227;o de HVE, com espessura parietal m&#225;xima <underline>&gt;</underline> 15 mm, na aus&#234;ncia de outras causas. Em membros de fam&#237;lias acometidas pela doen&#231;a, medidas <underline>&gt;</underline> 12 mm devem ser valorizadas<sup>4</sup>. Carreadores de muta&#231;&#245;es g&#234;nicas para a CMH podem apresentar espessuras parietais lim&#237;trofes ou mesmo dentro da normalidade<sup>2</sup>. A hipertrofia apresenta grau, extens&#227;o e localiza&#231;&#227;o vari&#225;veis<sup>22</sup>. N&#227;o h&#225; padr&#227;o morfol&#243;gico verdadeiramente t&#237;pico, embora sejam predominantes as formas assim&#233;tricas, com raz&#227;o septo/parede posterior do VE &gt; 1,3, e envolvimento do septo anterior e posterior, extensivo ou n&#227;o parede livre<sup>15,22</sup>. Com menor frequ&#234;ncia, incidem casos com hipertrofia conc&#234;ntrica ou isolada do septo posterior, parede anterolateral ou &#225;pice do VE<sup>22</sup>.</p>
    <p>O ecocardiograma com Doppler cont&#237;nuo identifica a obstru&#231;&#227;o din&#226;mica da via de sa&#237;da do VE, atrav&#233;s do registro de curva de aspecto t&#237;pico, resultante da aposi&#231;&#227;o do folheto anterior da v&#225;lvula mitral com as por&#231;&#245;es basais do septo interventricular durante a s&#237;stole<sup>17</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura 1</xref>). O contato pode tamb&#233;m estabelecer-se com a participa&#231;&#227;o do folheto posterior. Em muitos casos, h&#225; jato regurgitante mitral de grau vari&#225;vel dirigido posteriormente, resultante do MASM com falha de coapta&#231;&#227;o. A presen&#231;a de jato anterior ou central denota anomalias estruturais da v&#225;lvula mitral<sup>15</sup>.</p>
    <fig id="f01">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-99-01-0665-00013-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>O gradiente estimado atrav&#233;s do ecocardiograma com Doppler apresenta forte correla&#231;&#227;o com aquele medido simultaneamente por estudo hemodin&#226;mico<sup>36</sup>. Modifica&#231;&#227;o espont&#226;nea do gradiente em repouso de &#177; 32 mmHg foi observada em mensura&#231;&#245;es consecutivas, com Doppler cont&#237;nuo, ao longo de cinco dias<sup>37</sup>. Marcada labilidade do gradiente foi evidenciada em medidas invasivas seriadas realizadas no per&#237;odo de 48 horas<sup>36</sup> e em m&#250;ltiplas aferi&#231;&#245;es efetuadas durante o mesmo procedimento<sup>38</sup>. A determina&#231;&#227;o do gradiente em repouso n&#227;o deve se restringir a uma medida isolada. O car&#225;ter din&#226;mico da obstru&#231;&#227;o precisa ser convenientemente valorizado, sobretudo na avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica de pacientes sintom&#225;ticos, pelas suas implica&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas.</p>
    <p>A maioria dos pacientes n&#227;o apresenta obstru&#231;&#227;o din&#226;mica do fluxo de sa&#237;da do VE em repouso, mas tende a desenvolv&#234;-la ap&#243;s manobras provocativas capazes de modificar a pr&#233; e/ou p&#243;s-carga ou determinar aumento da contratilidade. A avalia&#231;&#227;o sob provoca&#231;&#227;o est&#225; indicada em pacientes sintom&#225;ticos com gradiente reduzido ou ausente em repouso. Deve ser praticada preferencialmente sob exerc&#237;cio fisiol&#243;gico ou, de forma alternativa, atrav&#233;s da manobra de Valsalva ou ainda nitrito de amilo. A infus&#227;o de isoproterenol durante cateterismo card&#237;aco &#233; reservada a casos duvidosos<sup>2</sup>. A utiliza&#231;&#227;o de dobutamina &#233; desestimulada pela resposta pouco espec&#237;fica, capaz de induzir obstru&#231;&#227;o em indiv&#237;duos normais ou com outras cardiopatias<sup>2,27</sup>. A aplica&#231;&#227;o da manobra de Valsalva e de outras medidas provocativas farmacol&#243;gicas tem car&#225;ter controverso por n&#227;o reproduzir as condi&#231;&#245;es fisiol&#243;gicas em que a obstru&#231;&#227;o habitualmente se manifesta<sup>2</sup>. Os sintomas caracter&#237;sticos da doen&#231;a s&#227;o mais frequentemente induzidos por altera&#231;&#245;es posturais e pelo aumento do inotropismo durante exerc&#237;cio do que por vasodilata&#231;&#227;o ou hipovolemia<sup>39</sup>.</p>
    <p>A manobra de Valsalva acentua ou induz o MASM (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2a">Figuras 2 A</xref> e <xref ref-type="fn" rid="f2b">B</xref>), mas subestima a presen&#231;a ou a magnitude do gradiente induzido por exerc&#237;cio com sensibilidade de apenas 40% para identifica&#231;&#227;o de obstru&#231;&#227;o<sup>27</sup>. No entanto, mostra-se mais sens&#237;vel do que aferi&#231;&#245;es na posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica<sup>40</sup>. Numa s&#233;rie de pacientes submetidos abla&#231;&#227;o alco&#243;lica percut&#226;nea do septo, ainda que com aplica&#231;&#227;o de metodologia discut&#237;vel para obten&#231;&#227;o dos registros<sup>41</sup>, foi evidenciado que a manobra de Valsalva e o exerc&#237;cio produziriam graus semelhantes de eleva&#231;&#227;o do gradiente na via de sa&#237;da<sup>42</sup>. Em outra s&#233;rie, a obstru&#231;&#227;o foi desencadeada por ortostatismo em 21,6% dos casos e por exerc&#237;cio moderado em 34,5%<sup>43</sup>.</p>
    <fig id="f2a">
      <graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/MyNPHJK6TLPNbhRtJr8sTFH/0f0fcbdc0406a16a304adce7821aca8deff6deef.jpg"/>
    <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-99-01-0665-00013-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>O ecocardiograma de esfor&#231;o &#233; considerado a modalidade mais fisiol&#243;gica e efetiva para avalia&#231;&#227;o do componente obstrutivo da CMH, particularmente, nos casos com obstru&#231;&#227;o latente<sup>2</sup>. Estudos demonstram, por meio de metodologias distintas, que 60 a 75% dos pacientes com gradiente basal <underline>&lt;</underline> 30 ou 50 mmHg apresentam obstru&#231;&#227;o ventricular facilmente induzida por exerc&#237;cio<sup>26,27,44</sup>. Hist&#243;ria de s&#237;ncope ou pr&#233;-sincope, MASM completo ou incompleto em repouso, grau e extens&#227;o da HVE avaliada pelo escore de Wigle<sup>15</sup> foram considerados preditores independentes de maior eleva&#231;&#227;o do gradiente durante o exerc&#237;cio<sup>27</sup>. Uma minoria de pacientes com obstru&#231;&#227;o desencadeada dessa forma desenvolve insufici&#234;ncia mitral concomitante, o que indicaria que o gradiente suba&#243;rtico seria o maior determinante da redu&#231;&#227;o da capacidade funcional<sup>27</sup>.</p>
    <p>Diretriz atual considera indica&#231;&#227;o classe IIA, com n&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia B, a realiza&#231;&#227;o de ecocardiograma de esfor&#231;o para detec&#231;&#227;o e quantifica&#231;&#227;o de obstru&#231;&#227;o din&#226;mica da via de sa&#237;da do VE em pacientes com gradiente m&#225;ximo em repouso <underline>&lt;</underline> 50 mmHg, particularmente, nas formas sintom&#225;ticas<sup>2</sup>.</p>
    <p>An&#225;lises com ecocardiograma de esfor&#231;o na CMH fundamentaram, inicialmente, a determina&#231;&#227;o do gradiente na via de sa&#237;da numa s&#243; aferi&#231;&#227;o, no pico do exerc&#237;cio<sup>26</sup> ou imediatamente ap&#243;s o t&#233;rmino, em dec&#250;bito<sup>27,44</sup>. Medidas consecutivas em condi&#231;&#245;es basais em dec&#250;bito e em posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica, e ap&#243;s, no pico do exerc&#237;cio e na fase de recupera&#231;&#227;o em ortostatismo, revelaram eleva&#231;&#227;o crescente do gradiente<sup>45</sup>. Em estudo posterior, foi demonstrado que o gradiente no pico do exerc&#237;cio apresentava correla&#231;&#227;o com aquele determinado na fase de recupera&#231;&#227;o em dec&#250;bito e que o desenvolvimento precoce de obstru&#231;&#227;o se associava maior redu&#231;&#227;o da capacidade funcional<sup>46</sup>. Em outra s&#233;rie de casos, embora tenha sido observada eleva&#231;&#227;o do gradiente em 76% dos pacientes com o ortostatismo, maior incremento foi evidenciado com o exerc&#237;cio, em medidas obtidas na fase de recupera&#231;&#227;o em dec&#250;bito<sup>40</sup>.</p>
    <p>O registro do gradiente no pico do exerc&#237;cio em ortostatismo teria maior fidedignidade e rela&#231;&#227;o com as atividades habitualmente implicadas no desencadeamento de sintomas. Dificuldades t&#233;cnicas na obten&#231;&#227;o das imagens podem ser minimizadas pelo maior treinamento do operador e posicionamento do bra&#231;o esquerdo do paciente sobre a cabe&#231;a<sup>40</sup>, ou ainda, atrav&#233;s da utiliza&#231;&#227;o de transdutores com registro cont&#237;nuo, <italic>hands-free</italic><sup>47</sup>.</p>
    <p>Embora existam restri&#231;&#245;es quanto realiza&#231;&#227;o de teste de esfor&#231;o nas formas obstrutivas e n&#227;o obstrutivas da CMH<sup>48,49</sup>, admite-se ser um procedimento seguro, com reduzida ocorr&#234;ncia de complica&#231;&#245;es graves<sup>50-52</sup>. Em estudos recentes, os quais avaliaram conjuntamente 1.747 pacientes com a doen&#231;a, atrav&#233;s de ecocardiograma de esfor&#231;o, taquicardia ventricular n&#227;o sustentada foi detectada em 1,2%<sup>51</sup> e 1,9%<sup>52</sup> dos casos e fibrila&#231;&#227;o ventricular em apenas 0,2%<sup>51</sup> ou n&#227;o h&#225; men&#231;&#227;o a complica&#231;&#245;es<sup>27,44</sup>.</p>
    <p>A assimila&#231;&#227;o do ecocardiograma de esfor&#231;o na rotina de avalia&#231;&#227;o da CMH, sobretudo de pacientes sintom&#225;ticos com gradiente ausente ou reduzido em repouso, tem implica&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas decisivas, capazes de modificar paradigmas. A excelente sobrevida a longo prazo de formas obstrutivas ap&#243;s miectomia comprovaria indiretamente a intera&#231;&#227;o entre obstru&#231;&#227;o e progn&#243;stico<sup>3</sup>. O tratamento invasivo, percut&#226;neo ou cir&#250;rgico, est&#225; indicado em pacientes que apresentam sintomas limitantes e gradiente em repouso ou sob provoca&#231;&#227;o <underline>&gt;</underline> 50 mmHg<sup>2</sup>. A abla&#231;&#227;o alco&#243;lica percut&#226;nea do septo demonstra efeitos ben&#233;ficos compar&#225;veis em casos com obstru&#231;&#227;o em repouso ou apenas sob provoca&#231;&#227;o<sup>53</sup>. Estudo recente evidencia que formas obstrutivas latentes submetidas miectomia apresentam melhora sintom&#225;tica e sobrevida semelhante popula&#231;&#227;o normal<sup>54</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Doppler tissular</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O ecocardiograma com Doppler tissular evidencia altera&#231;&#245;es m&#237;nimas da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda atrav&#233;s da quantifica&#231;&#227;o em tempo real da movimenta&#231;&#227;o axial e longitudinal do mioc&#225;rdio. Na CMH com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o normal, observa-se redu&#231;&#227;o da velocidade mioc&#225;rdica sist&#243;lica (S'), mesmo em segmentos n&#227;o hipertrofiados<sup>55</sup>.</p>
    <p>A velocidade diast&#243;lica precoce (E') encontra-se deprimida e relaciona-se magnitude da HVE<sup>55</sup>. Correla&#231;&#227;o negativa estabelece-se entre velocidades sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica precoce e o gradiente da via de sa&#237;da, o qual tamb&#233;m se associa a eleva&#231;&#227;o da raz&#227;o E/E', a qual estima a press&#227;o de enchimento do VE<sup>56,57</sup>. Maior grau de HVE na presen&#231;a de obstru&#231;&#227;o <underline>&gt;</underline> 30 mmHg seria determinante de eleva&#231;&#227;o significativa da raz&#227;o E/E'<sup>58</sup>. Em formas obstrutivas e n&#227;o obstrutivas, a capacidade funcional apresenta correla&#231;&#227;o negativa com E' lateral, E/E' lateral e &#237;ndice do volume do &#225;trio esquerdo, mas n&#227;o se relaciona com gradiente da via de sa&#237;da e espessura parietal m&#225;xima do VE<sup>59</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <italic>Strain/strain-rate e speckle-tracking</italic>
    </p>
    <p>A introdu&#231;&#227;o do <italic>strain / strain-rate</italic> possibilitou superar limita&#231;&#245;es inerentes ao Doppler tissular, ao propiciar a avalia&#231;&#227;o da motilidade segmentar do VE e seus reflexos sobre a fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica. O <italic>strain</italic> bidimensional ou <italic>speckle-tracking</italic> ao estimar a deforma&#231;&#227;o do VE quadro a quadro, analisa par&#226;metros de contra&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica independente do &#226;ngulo, com vantagem sobre o <italic>strain</italic> derivado do Doppler tissular. A an&#225;lise do <italic>strain</italic> com <italic>speckle-tracking</italic> em pacientes com a doen&#231;a submetidos a exerc&#237;cio evidencia que a obstru&#231;&#227;o din&#226;mica da via de sa&#237;da determina atraso na distor&#231;&#227;o do VE, efeito relacionado ao aumento da press&#227;o de enchimento e ao consumo m&#225;ximo de oxig&#234;nio<sup>60</sup>. A distor&#231;&#227;o medida do ponto de tor&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica m&#225;xima abertura da v&#225;lvula mitral correlaciona-se negativamente com a raz&#227;o E/A, indicando a poss&#237;vel rela&#231;&#227;o desse mecanismo com o desenvolvimento de disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica<sup>61</sup>. No entanto, estudo recente demonstrou que a abla&#231;&#227;o alco&#243;lica do septo, embora tenha determinado redu&#231;&#227;o do gradiente e da massa mioc&#225;rdica, n&#227;o produziu melhora do <italic>strain</italic> bidimensional longitudinal no seguimento de 36 meses, o que minimizaria a influ&#234;ncia da obstru&#231;&#227;o e do grau de hipertrofia sobre a fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica global do VE<sup>62</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Ecocardiograma tridimensional</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O ecocardiograma tridimensional em tempo real possibilita a detalhada avalia&#231;&#227;o das modifica&#231;&#245;es morfol&#243;gicas sofridas pelo VE na CMH, com desempenho compar&#225;vel RM e nitidamente superior ao ecocardiograma bidimensional<sup>63</sup>. A an&#225;lise qualitativa e quantitativa da via de sa&#237;da do VE revela forma assim&#233;trica e exc&#234;ntrica, com &#225;rea transversal reduzida em rela&#231;&#227;o a indiv&#237;duos normais<sup>64</sup>. Correla&#231;&#227;o &#233; evidenciada entre o gradiente suba&#243;rtico, a velocidade m&#225;xima e a menor &#225;rea medida da via de sa&#237;da<sup>65</sup>. An&#225;lise geom&#233;trica em tempo real demonstra que o MASM &#233; assim&#233;trico e predominantemente medial, resultando em lateraliza&#231;&#227;o e estreitamento da via de sa&#237;da<sup>66</sup>. Altera&#231;&#245;es geom&#233;tricas din&#226;micas sequenciais do aparelho mitral, relativas intera&#231;&#227;o entre o ponto de coapta&#231;&#227;o na mesoss&#237;stole, m&#250;sculos papilares e septo basal, contribuiriam significativamente para gera&#231;&#227;o de gradiente suba&#243;rtico<sup>67</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A RM possibilitou redefinir o fen&#243;tipo da CMH, ao agregar informa&#231;&#245;es precisas sobre a estrutura, morfologia e fun&#231;&#227;o das c&#226;maras card&#237;acas, atrav&#233;s de imagens tridimensionais de alta resolu&#231;&#227;o espacial e temporal em qualquer plano<sup>68,69</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3a">Figuras 3 A</xref> e <xref ref-type="fn" rid="f3b">B</xref>). Quantifica com precis&#227;o superior ao ecocardiograma a fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica global e segmentar do VE<sup>69</sup>. Possibilita a detec&#231;&#227;o de hipertrofia restrita parede anterolateral e &#225;pice, al&#233;m de trabecula&#231;&#245;es e aneurismas apicais<sup>69</sup>. Demonstra que a hipertrofia pode acometer menos de 50% do VE e ser restrita a um ou dois segmentos. Maior grau de espessamento incide na parede livre &#226;nterobasal do VE cont&#237;gua ao septo anterior. Segmentos hipertr&#243;ficos alternam-se com normais, em padr&#227;o n&#227;o detectado em outras cardiopatias. O n&#250;mero de segmentos hipertrofiados &#233; maior nas formas obstrutivas em rela&#231;&#227;o s n&#227;o obstrutivas<sup>70</sup>. A massa do VE demonstra rela&#231;&#227;o com a espessura parietal m&#225;xima e o gradiente em repouso. O &#237;ndice de massa do VE apresenta-se normal em 20% dos pacientes com o fen&#243;tipo e evidencia sensibilidade superior a espessura parietal m&#225;xima como preditor de progn&#243;stico<sup>71</sup>.</p>
    <fig id="f3a">
      <graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/MyNPHJK6TLPNbhRtJr8sTFH/dd9e065c35856c464432d9e37816e73eeb7dee14.jpg"/>
    <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-99-01-0665-00013-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>A &#225;rea da via de sa&#237;da do VE &#233; determinada por RM atrav&#233;s de planimetria. A ado&#231;&#227;o de 2,7 cm<sup>2</sup> como ponto de corte identifica obstru&#231;&#227;o em 100% dos casos na compara&#231;&#227;o com o Doppler<sup>72</sup>. A RM demonstra o contato entre o septo e o folheto anterior mitral em m&#250;ltiplos e distintos eixos. Cortes tridimensionais s&#227;o &#250;teis para analisar a rela&#231;&#227;o entre septo e a obstru&#231;&#227;o, assim como as consequ&#234;ncias do estreitamento da via de sa&#237;da sobre a acelera&#231;&#227;o do fluxo, grau de turbul&#234;ncia, MASM e regurgita&#231;&#227;o mitral. O gradiente m&#225;ximo &#233; determinado atrav&#233;s de medidas tomadas ao longo do segmento mais estreitado da via de sa&#237;da<sup>69</sup>. Fatores de distor&#231;&#227;o podem interferir na obten&#231;&#227;o desses par&#226;metros<sup>72</sup>. O &#226;ngulo formado entre o VE e a raiz da aorta, mais agudo na CMH, seria preditor do gradiente independentemente da espessura do septo basal<sup>73</sup>.</p>
    <p>A RM com gadol&#237;neo detecta e quantifica &#225;reas de fibrose atrav&#233;s de realce tardio (RT) de car&#225;ter focal ou difuso em 60 a 80% dos pacientes com CMH, correspondendo de 0 a 40% da massa mioc&#225;rdica do VE<sup>74-78</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 4</xref>). O RT associa-se ao registro de taquicardia ventricular n&#227;o sustentada no Holter em an&#225;lises multivariadas<sup>75,78</sup>, assim como a remodelamento ventricular esquerdo e evolu&#231;&#227;o a formas dilatadas terminais<sup>74</sup>. A associa&#231;&#227;o com a obstru&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o foi verificada em estudo em que a preval&#234;ncia de formas obstrutivas foi semelhante entre aqueles com e sem RT<sup>76</sup>. An&#225;lises longitudinais evidenciam rela&#231;&#227;o entre RT, morte s&#250;bita e maior mortalidade, sem suficiente comprova&#231;&#227;o<sup>76-78</sup>. Investiga&#231;&#245;es adicionais fazem-se necess&#225;rias para que o RT seja reconhecido como preditor independente de progn&#243;stico e fator predisponente morte s&#250;bita<sup>2</sup>.</p>
    <fig id="f04">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-99-01-0665-00013-gf04.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>A RM est&#225; indicada na investiga&#231;&#227;o da CMH sempre que o ecocardiograma for inconclusivo, ou sejam necess&#225;rias informa&#231;&#245;es adicionais sobre a HVE, anatomia da v&#225;lvula mitral e m&#250;sculos papilares ou presen&#231;a de fibrose<sup>2</sup>. A RM tamb&#233;m contribui no planejamento terap&#234;utico e avalia&#231;&#227;o de resultados. Na abla&#231;&#227;o alco&#243;lica do septo, identifica o car&#225;ter transmural e a localiza&#231;&#227;o mais inferior e posterior da &#225;rea de necrose, usualmente, em torno de 10%. Na miectomia, evidencia que a ressec&#231;&#227;o restringe-se ao septo basal, assegurando maior redu&#231;&#227;o do gradiente<sup>79</sup>. Em casos com obstru&#231;&#227;o grave e espessuras parietais do VE ligeiramente aumentadas ou normais, a RM detecta anomalias estruturais de v&#225;lvula mitral e/ou m&#250;sculos papilares respons&#225;veis pela obstru&#231;&#227;o e pass&#237;veis de corre&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica<sup>21</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Conclus&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Conclui-se que, na CMH, a obstru&#231;&#227;o da via de sa&#237;da do VE constitui caracter&#237;stica prevalente, de g&#234;nese complexa, capaz de influenciar padr&#245;es cl&#237;nico-evolutivos e taxas de mortalidade. Embora detect&#225;vel na avalia&#231;&#227;o de rotina, requer investiga&#231;&#227;o detalhada, est&#225;tica e din&#226;mica por m&#233;todos de imagem, de modo a favorecer o diagn&#243;stico e o manejo das formas obstrutivas e obstrutivas latentes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="back" fn-type="corresp">
        <p>Correspond&#234;ncia:</p>
        <p> Beatriz Piva e Mattos </p>
        <p> Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre. </p>
        <p> Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2350, sala 2060, Rio Branco </p>
        <p> CEP 90035-903, Porto Alegre, RS - Brasil </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="bpmattos@cardiol.br">bpmattos@cardiol.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Artigo recebido em 28/11/11 </p>
    <p> Revisado em 28/11/11 </p>
    <p> Aceito em 16/04/12</p>
  </body>
  <back>
    <ref-list>
      <ref id="B1">
        <mixed-citation>1. Maron BJ, Gardner    JM, Flack JM, Gidding SS, Kurosaki TT, Bild DE. Prevalence of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy    in a general population of young adults: echocardiographic analysis of 4111    subjects in the CARDIA study. Coronary Artery Risk Development in (Young) Adults.    Circulation. 1995;92(4):785-9.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Prevalence of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in a general population of young adults: echocardiographic analysis of 4111 subjects in the CARDIA study. Coronary Artery Risk Development in (Young) Adults</article-title>
          <source>Circulation</source>
          <date>
            <year>1995</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>785</fpage>
          <lpage>9</lpage>
          <issue>4</issue>
          <volume>92</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Maron</surname>
              <given-names>BJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Gardner</surname>
              <given-names>JM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Flack</surname>
              <given-names>JM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Gidding</surname>
              <given-names>SS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Kurosaki</surname>
              <given-names>TT</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Bild</surname>
              <given-names>DE</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B2">
        <mixed-citation>2. Gersh BJ, Maron    BJ, Bonow RO, Dearani JA, Fifer MA, Link MS, et al. 2011 ACCF/AHA Guideline    for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy: a report of    the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task    Force on Practice Guidelines. Developed in collaboration with the American Association    for Thoracic Surgery, American Society of Echocardiography, American Society    of Nuclear Cardiology, Heart Failure Society of America, Heart Rhythm Society,    Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions, and Society of Thoracic    Surgeons. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2011;58(25):e212-60.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>2011 ACCF/AHA Guideline for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Developed in collaboration with the American Association for Thoracic Surgery, American Society of Echocardiography, American Society of Nuclear Cardiology, Heart Failure Society of America, Heart Rhythm Society, Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions, and Society of Thoracic Surgeons</article-title>
          <source>J Am Coll Cardiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2011</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>e212</fpage>
          <lpage>60</lpage>
          <issue>25</issue>
          <volume>58</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Gersh</surname>
              <given-names>BJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Maron</surname>
              <given-names>BJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Bonow</surname>
              <given-names>RO</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Dearani</surname>
              <given-names>JA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Fifer</surname>
              <given-names>MA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Link</surname>
              <given-names>MS</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B3">
        <mixed-citation>3. Maron BJ, Maron    MS, Wigle ED, Braunwald E. The 50-years history, controversy, and clinical implications    of left ventricular outflow tract obstruction in hipertrophic cardiomyopathy    from idiopathic hypertrophic subaortic stenosis to hypertrophic cardiomyopathy:    from idiopathic hypertrophic subaortic stenosis to hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.    J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009;54(3):191-200.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>The 50-years history, controversy, and clinical implications of left ventricular outflow tract obstruction in hipertrophic cardiomyopathy from idiopathic hypertrophic subaortic stenosis to hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: from idiopathic hypertrophic subaortic stenosis to hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</article-title>
          <source>J Am Coll Cardiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2009</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>191</fpage>
          <lpage>200</lpage>
          <issue>3</issue>
          <volume>54</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Maron</surname>
              <given-names>BJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Maron</surname>
              <given-names>MS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Wigle</surname>
              <given-names>ED</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Braunwald</surname>
              <given-names>E</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B4">
        <mixed-citation>4. Mattos BP, Torres    MA, Freitas VC. Diagn&#243;stico cl&#237;nico e pr&#233;-cl&#237;nico    da cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2008;91(1):55-62.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Diagn&#243;stico cl&#237;nico e pr&#233;-cl&#237;nico da cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica</article-title>
          <source>Arq Bras Cardiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2008</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>55</fpage>
          <lpage>62</lpage>
          <issue>1</issue>
          <volume>91</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Mattos</surname>
              <given-names>BP</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Torres</surname>
              <given-names>MA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Freitas</surname>
              <given-names>VC</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B5">
        <mixed-citation>5. Teare D. Asymmetrical    hypertrophy of the heart in young adults. Br Heart J. 1958;20(1):1-8.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Asymmetrical hypertrophy of the heart in young adults</article-title>
          <source>Br Heart J</source>
          <date>
            <year>1958</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1</fpage>
          <lpage>8</lpage>
          <issue>1</issue>
          <volume>20</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Teare</surname>
              <given-names>D</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B6">
        <mixed-citation>6. Brock R. Functional    obstruction of the left ventricle; acquired aortic subvalvar stenosis. Guys    Hosp Rep. 1957;106(4):221-38.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Functional obstruction of the left ventricle; acquired aortic subvalvar stenosis</article-title>
          <source>Guys Hosp Rep</source>
          <date>
            <year>1957</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>221</fpage>
          <lpage>38</lpage>
          <issue>4</issue>
          <volume>106</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Brock</surname>
              <given-names>R</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B7">
        <mixed-citation>7. Cohen J, Effat    H, Goodwin JF, Oakley CM, Steiner RE. Hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy.    Br Heart J. 1964;26:16-32.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy</article-title>
          <source>Br Heart J</source>
          <date>
            <year>1964</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>16</fpage>
          <lpage>32</lpage>
          <volume>26</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Cohen</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Effat</surname>
              <given-names>H</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Goodwin</surname>
              <given-names>JF</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Oakley</surname>
              <given-names>CM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Steiner</surname>
              <given-names>RE</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B8">
        <mixed-citation>8. Goodwin JF.    The frontiers of cardiomyopathy. Br Heart J. 1982;48(1):1-18.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>The frontiers of cardiomyopathy</article-title>
          <source>Br Heart J</source>
          <date>
            <year>1982</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1</fpage>
          <lpage>18</lpage>
          <issue>1</issue>
          <volume>48</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Goodwin</surname>
              <given-names>JF</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B9">
        <mixed-citation>9. Braunwald E,    Oldham HN Jr, Ross J Jr, Linhart JW, Mason DT, Fort L 3rd. The circulatory response    of patients with idiopathic hypertrophic subaortic stenosis: to nitroglycerin    and to the Valsalva maneuver. Circulation. 1964;29:422-31.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>The circulatory response of patients with idiopathic hypertrophic subaortic stenosis: to nitroglycerin and to the Valsalva maneuver</article-title>
          <source>Circulation</source>
          <date>
            <year>1964</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>422</fpage>
          <lpage>31</lpage>
          <volume>29</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Braunwald</surname>
              <given-names>E</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Oldham</surname>
              <given-names>HN Jr</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ross</surname>
              <given-names>J Jr</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Linhart</surname>
              <given-names>JW</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Mason</surname>
              <given-names>DT</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Fort</surname>
              <given-names>L 3rd</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B10">
        <mixed-citation>10. Wigle ED, Heimbecker    RO, Gunton RW. Idiopathic ventricular septal hypertrophy causing muscular subaortic    stenosis. Circulation. 1962;26:325-40.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Idiopathic ventricular septal hypertrophy causing muscular subaortic stenosis</article-title>
          <source>Circulation</source>
          <date>
            <year>1962</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>325</fpage>
          <lpage>40</lpage>
          <volume>26</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Wigle</surname>
              <given-names>ED</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Heimbecker</surname>
              <given-names>RO</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Gunton</surname>
              <given-names>RW</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B11">
        <mixed-citation>11. Ross J Jr,    Braunwald E, Gault JH, Mason DT, Morrow AG. The mechanism of the intraventricular    pressure gradient in idiopathic hypertrophic subaortic stenosis. Circulation.    1966;34(4):558-78.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>The mechanism of the intraventricular pressure gradient in idiopathic hypertrophic subaortic stenosis</article-title>
          <source>Circulation</source>
          <date>
            <year>1966</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>558</fpage>
          <lpage>78</lpage>
          <issue>4</issue>
          <volume>34</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Ross</surname>
              <given-names>J Jr</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Braunwald</surname>
              <given-names>E</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Gault</surname>
              <given-names>JH</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Mason</surname>
              <given-names>DT</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Morrow</surname>
              <given-names>AG</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B12">
        <mixed-citation>12. Criley JM,    Lewis KB, White RI Jr, Ross RS. Pressure gradients without obstruction: a new    concept of "hypertrophic subaortic stenosis". Circulation. 1965;32(6):881-7.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Pressure gradients without obstruction: a new concept of "hypertrophic subaortic stenosis"</article-title>
          <source>Circulation</source>
          <date>
            <year>1965</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>881</fpage>
          <lpage>7</lpage>
          <issue>6</issue>
          <volume>32</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Criley</surname>
              <given-names>JM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Lewis</surname>
              <given-names>KB</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>White</surname>
              <given-names>RI Jr</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ross</surname>
              <given-names>RS</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B13">
        <mixed-citation>13. Simon AL, Ross    J Jr, Gault JH. Angiographic anatomy of left ventricle and mitral valve in idiopathic    hypertrophic subaortic stenosis. Circulation. 1967;36(6):852-67.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Angiographic anatomy of left ventricle and mitral valve in idiopathic hypertrophic subaortic stenosis</article-title>
          <source>Circulation</source>
          <date>
            <year>1967</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>852</fpage>
          <lpage>67</lpage>
          <issue>6</issue>
          <volume>36</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Simon</surname>
              <given-names>AL</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ross</surname>
              <given-names>J Jr</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Gault</surname>
              <given-names>JH</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B14">
        <mixed-citation>14. Shah PM, Gramiak    R, Kramer DH. Ultrasound localization of left ventricular outflow obstruction    in hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy. Circulation. 1969;40(1):3-11.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Ultrasound localization of left ventricular outflow obstruction in hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy</article-title>
          <source>Circulation</source>
          <date>
            <year>1969</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>3</fpage>
          <lpage>11</lpage>
          <issue>1</issue>
          <volume>40</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Shah</surname>
              <given-names>PM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Gramiak</surname>
              <given-names>R</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Kramer</surname>
              <given-names>DH</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B15">
        <mixed-citation>15. Wigle ED, Sasson    Z, Henderson MA, Ruddy TD, Fulop J, Rakowski H, et al. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy:    the importance of the site and the extent of hypertrophy: a review. Prog Cardiovasc    Dis. 1985;28(1):1-83.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: the importance of the site and the extent of hypertrophy: a review</article-title>
          <source>Prog Cardiovasc Dis</source>
          <date>
            <year>1985</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1</fpage>
          <lpage>83</lpage>
          <issue>1</issue>
          <volume>28</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Wigle</surname>
              <given-names>ED</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sasson</surname>
              <given-names>Z</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Henderson</surname>
              <given-names>MA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ruddy</surname>
              <given-names>TD</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Fulop</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Rakowski</surname>
              <given-names>H</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B16">
        <mixed-citation>16. Sherrid MV,    Gunsburg DZ, Moldenhauer S, Pearle G. Systolic anterior motion begins at low    left ventricular outflow tract velocity in obstructive hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.    J Am Coll Cardiol. 2000;36(4):1344-54.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Systolic anterior motion begins at low left ventricular outflow tract velocity in obstructive hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</article-title>
          <source>J Am Coll Cardiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2000</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1344</fpage>
          <lpage>54</lpage>
          <issue>4</issue>
          <volume>36</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Sherrid</surname>
              <given-names>MV</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Gunsburg</surname>
              <given-names>DZ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Moldenhauer</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Pearle</surname>
              <given-names>G</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B17">
        <mixed-citation>17. Sherrid MV,    Wever-Pinzon O, Shah A, Chaudhry FA. Reflections of inflections in hypertrophic    cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009;54(3):212-9.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Reflections of inflections in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</article-title>
          <source>J Am Coll Cardiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2009</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>212</fpage>
          <lpage>9</lpage>
          <issue>3</issue>
          <volume>54</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Sherrid</surname>
              <given-names>MV</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Wever-Pinzon</surname>
              <given-names>O</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Shah</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Chaudhry</surname>
              <given-names>FA</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B18">
        <mixed-citation>18. Barac I, Upadya    S, Pilchik R, Winson G, Passick M, Chaudhry FA, et al. Effect of obstruction    on longitudinal left ventricular shortening in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.    J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007;49(11):1203-11.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Effect of obstruction on longitudinal left ventricular shortening in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</article-title>
          <source>J Am Coll Cardiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2007</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1203</fpage>
          <lpage>11</lpage>
          <issue>11</issue>
          <volume>49</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Barac</surname>
              <given-names>I</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Upadya</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Pilchik</surname>
              <given-names>R</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Winson</surname>
              <given-names>G</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Passick</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Chaudhry</surname>
              <given-names>FA</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B19">
        <mixed-citation>19. Levine RA,    Vlahakes GJ, Lefebvre X, Guerrero JL, Cape EG, Yoganathan AP, et al. Papillary    muscle displacement causes systolic anterior motion of the mitral valve. Experimental    validation and insights into the mechanism of subaortic obstruction. Circulation.    1995;91(4):1189-95.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Papillary muscle displacement causes systolic anterior motion of the mitral valve: Experimental validation and insights into the mechanism of subaortic obstruction</article-title>
          <source>Circulation</source>
          <date>
            <year>1995</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1189</fpage>
          <lpage>95</lpage>
          <issue>4</issue>
          <volume>91</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Levine</surname>
              <given-names>RA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Vlahakes</surname>
              <given-names>GJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Lefebvre</surname>
              <given-names>X</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Guerrero</surname>
              <given-names>JL</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Cape</surname>
              <given-names>EG</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Yoganathan</surname>
              <given-names>AP</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B20">
        <mixed-citation>20. Maron BJ, Dearani    JA, Ommen SR, Maron MS, Schaff HV, Gersh BJ, et al. The case for surgery in    hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004;44(10):2044-53.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>The case for surgery in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</article-title>
          <source>J Am Coll Cardiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2004</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>2044</fpage>
          <lpage>53</lpage>
          <issue>10</issue>
          <volume>44</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Maron</surname>
              <given-names>BJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Dearani</surname>
              <given-names>JA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ommen</surname>
              <given-names>SR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Maron</surname>
              <given-names>MS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Schaff</surname>
              <given-names>HV</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Gersh</surname>
              <given-names>BJ</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B21">
        <mixed-citation>21. Kwon DH, Setser    RM, Thamilarasan M, Popovic ZV, Smedira NG, Shoenhagen P, et al. Abnormal papillary    muscle morphology is independently associated with increased left ventricular    outflow tract obstruction in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Heart. 2008;94(10):1295-301.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Abnormal papillary muscle morphology is independently associated with increased left ventricular outflow tract obstruction in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</article-title>
          <source>Heart</source>
          <date>
            <year>2008</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1295</fpage>
          <lpage>301</lpage>
          <issue>10</issue>
          <volume>94</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Kwon</surname>
              <given-names>DH</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Setser</surname>
              <given-names>RM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Thamilarasan</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Popovic</surname>
              <given-names>ZV</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Smedira</surname>
              <given-names>NG</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Shoenhagen</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B22">
        <mixed-citation>22. Klues HG, Schiffers    A, Maron BJ. Phenotypic spectrum of left ventricular hypertrophy in hypertrophic    cardiomyopathy: morphologic observations and significance as assessed by two-dimensional    echocardiography in 600 patients. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1995;26(7):1699-708.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Phenotypic spectrum of left ventricular hypertrophy in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: morphologic observations and significance as assessed by two-dimensional echocardiography in 600 patients</article-title>
          <source>J Am Coll Cardiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>1995</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1699</fpage>
          <lpage>708</lpage>
          <issue>7</issue>
          <volume>26</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Klues</surname>
              <given-names>HG</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Schiffers</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Maron</surname>
              <given-names>BJ</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B23">
        <mixed-citation>23. Luckie M, Khattar    RS. Systolic anterior motion of the mitral valve - beyond hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.    Heart. 2008;94(11):1383-5.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Systolic anterior motion of the mitral valve - beyond hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</article-title>
          <source>Heart</source>
          <date>
            <year>2008</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1383</fpage>
          <lpage>5</lpage>
          <issue>11</issue>
          <volume>94</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Luckie</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Khattar</surname>
              <given-names>RS</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B24">
        <mixed-citation>24. Maron MS, Olivotto    I, Harrigan C, Appelbaum E, Gibson CM, Lesser JR, et al. Mitral valve abnormalities    identified by cardiovascular magnetic resonance represent a primary phenotypic    expression of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Circulation. 2011;124(1):40-7.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Mitral valve abnormalities identified by cardiovascular magnetic resonance represent a primary phenotypic expression of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</article-title>
          <source>Circulation</source>
          <date>
            <year>2011</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>40</fpage>
          <lpage>7</lpage>
          <issue>1</issue>
          <volume>124</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Maron</surname>
              <given-names>MS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Olivotto</surname>
              <given-names>I</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Harrigan</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Appelbaum</surname>
              <given-names>E</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Gibson</surname>
              <given-names>CM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Lesser</surname>
              <given-names>JR</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B25">
        <mixed-citation>25. Maron MS, Olivotto    I, Betocchi S, Casey SA, Lesser JR, Losi MA, et al. Effect of left ventricular    outflow tract obstruction on clinical outcome in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.    N Engl J Med. 2003;348(4):295-303.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Effect of left ventricular outflow tract obstruction on clinical outcome in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</article-title>
          <source>N Engl J Med</source>
          <date>
            <year>2003</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>295</fpage>
          <lpage>303</lpage>
          <issue>4</issue>
          <volume>348</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Maron</surname>
              <given-names>MS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Olivotto</surname>
              <given-names>I</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Betocchi</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Casey</surname>
              <given-names>SA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Lesser</surname>
              <given-names>JR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Losi</surname>
              <given-names>MA</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B26">
        <mixed-citation>26. Cotrim C, Loureiro    MJ, Sim&#245;es O, Miranda R, Cordeiro P, Ial&#225; M, et al. Evaluation    of hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy by exercise stress echocardiography:    new methodology. Rev Port Cardiol. 2005;24(11):1319-27.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Evaluation of hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy by exercise stress echocardiography: new methodology</article-title>
          <source>Rev Port Cardiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2005</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1319</fpage>
          <lpage>27</lpage>
          <issue>11</issue>
          <volume>24</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Cotrim</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Loureiro</surname>
              <given-names>MJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sim&#245;es</surname>
              <given-names>O</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Miranda</surname>
              <given-names>R</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Cordeiro</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ial&#225;</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B27">
        <mixed-citation>27. Maron MS, Olivotto    I, Zenovich AG, Link MS, Pandian NG, Kuvin JT, et al. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy    is predominantly a disease of left ventricular outflow tract obstruction. Circulation.    2006;114(21):2232-9.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is predominantly a disease of left ventricular outflow tract obstruction</article-title>
          <source>Circulation</source>
          <date>
            <year>2006</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>2232</fpage>
          <lpage>9</lpage>
          <issue>21</issue>
          <volume>114</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Maron</surname>
              <given-names>MS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Olivotto</surname>
              <given-names>I</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Zenovich</surname>
              <given-names>AG</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Link</surname>
              <given-names>MS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Pandian</surname>
              <given-names>NG</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Kuvin</surname>
              <given-names>JT</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B28">
        <mixed-citation>28. Bittencourt    MI, Barbosa PR, Drumond Neto C, Bedirian R, Barbosa EC, Brasil F, et al. Avalia&#231;&#227;o    da fun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica na cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica.    Arq Bras Cardiol. 2005;85(6):388-96.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica na cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica</article-title>
          <source>Arq Bras Cardiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2005</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>388</fpage>
          <lpage>96</lpage>
          <issue>6</issue>
          <volume>85</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Bittencourt</surname>
              <given-names>MI</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Barbosa</surname>
              <given-names>PR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Drumond Neto</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Bedirian</surname>
              <given-names>R</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Barbosa</surname>
              <given-names>EC</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Brasil</surname>
              <given-names>F</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B29">
        <mixed-citation>29. Mattos BP.    Estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco para morte s&#250;bita na cardiomiopatia    hipertr&#243;fica: bases gen&#233;ticas e cl&#237;nicas. Arq Bras Cardiol.    2006;87(3):391-9.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco para morte s&#250;bita na cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica: bases gen&#233;ticas e cl&#237;nicas</article-title>
          <source>Arq Bras Cardiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2006</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>391</fpage>
          <lpage>9</lpage>
          <issue>3</issue>
          <volume>87</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Mattos</surname>
              <given-names>BP</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B30">
        <mixed-citation>30. Medeiros P    de T, Martinelli Filho M, Arteaga E, Costa R, Siqueira S, Mady C, et al. Cardiomiopatia    hipertr&#243;fica: import&#226;ncia dos eventos arr&#237;tmicos em pacientes    com risco de morte s&#250;bita. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2006;87(5):649-57.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica: import&#226;ncia dos eventos arr&#237;tmicos em pacientes com risco de morte s&#250;bita</article-title>
          <source>Arq Bras Cardiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2006</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>649</fpage>
          <lpage>57</lpage>
          <issue>5</issue>
          <volume>87</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Medeiros P de</surname>
              <given-names>T</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Martinelli Filho</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Arteaga</surname>
              <given-names>E</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Costa</surname>
              <given-names>R</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Siqueira</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Mady</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B31">
        <mixed-citation>31. Elliott P,    Spirito P. Prevention of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy-related deaths: theory    and practice. Heart. 2008;94(10):1269-75.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Prevention of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy-related deaths: theory and practice</article-title>
          <source>Heart</source>
          <date>
            <year>2008</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1269</fpage>
          <lpage>75</lpage>
          <issue>10</issue>
          <volume>94</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Elliott</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Spirito</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B32">
        <mixed-citation>32. Adams JC, Ommen    SR, Klarich KW, Tajik AJ, Nishimura RA. Significance of postprandial symptom    exacerbation in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Am J Cardiol. 2010;105(7):990-2.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Significance of postprandial symptom exacerbation in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</article-title>
          <source>Am J Cardiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2010</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>990</fpage>
          <lpage>2</lpage>
          <issue>7</issue>
          <volume>105</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Adams</surname>
              <given-names>JC</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ommen</surname>
              <given-names>SR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Klarich</surname>
              <given-names>KW</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Tajik</surname>
              <given-names>AJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Nishimura</surname>
              <given-names>RA</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B33">
        <mixed-citation>33. Autore C, Bernab&#242;    P, Barill CS, Bruzzi P, Spirito P. The prognostic importance of left ventricular    outflow obstruction in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy varies in relation to the    severity of symptoms. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005;45(7):1076-80.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>The prognostic importance of left ventricular outflow obstruction in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy varies in relation to the severity of symptoms</article-title>
          <source>J Am Coll Cardiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2005</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1076</fpage>
          <lpage>80</lpage>
          <issue>7</issue>
          <volume>45</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Autore</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Bernab&#242;</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Barill</surname>
              <given-names>CS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Bruzzi</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Spirito</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B34">
        <mixed-citation>34. Vaglio JC Jr,    Ommen SR, Nishimura RA, Tajik AJ, Gersh BJ. Clinical characteristics and outcomes    of patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy with latent obstruction. Am Heart    J. 2008;156(2):342-7.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Clinical characteristics and outcomes of patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy with latent obstruction</article-title>
          <source>Am Heart J</source>
          <date>
            <year>2008</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>342</fpage>
          <lpage>7</lpage>
          <issue>2</issue>
          <volume>156</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Vaglio</surname>
              <given-names>JC Jr</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ommen</surname>
              <given-names>SR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Nishimura</surname>
              <given-names>RA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Tajik</surname>
              <given-names>AJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Gersh</surname>
              <given-names>BJ</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B35">
        <mixed-citation>35. Elliott PM,    Gimeno JR, Tom&#233; MT, Shah J, Ward D, Thaman R, et al. Left ventricular    outflow tract obstruction and sudden death risk in patients with hypertrophic    cardiomyopathy. Eur Heart J. 2006;27(16):1933-41.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Left ventricular outflow tract obstruction and sudden death risk in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</article-title>
          <source>Eur Heart J</source>
          <date>
            <year>2006</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1933</fpage>
          <lpage>41</lpage>
          <issue>16</issue>
          <volume>27</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Elliott</surname>
              <given-names>PM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Gimeno</surname>
              <given-names>JR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Tom&#233;</surname>
              <given-names>MT</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Shah</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ward</surname>
              <given-names>D</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Thaman</surname>
              <given-names>R</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B36">
        <mixed-citation>36. Geske JB, Sorajja    P, Ommen SR, Nishimura RA. Left ventricular outflow tract gradient variability    in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Clin Cardiol. 2009;32(7):397-402.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Left ventricular outflow tract gradient variability in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</article-title>
          <source>Clin Cardiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2009</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>397</fpage>
          <lpage>402</lpage>
          <issue>7</issue>
          <volume>32</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Geske</surname>
              <given-names>JB</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sorajja</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ommen</surname>
              <given-names>SR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Nishimura</surname>
              <given-names>RA</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B37">
        <mixed-citation>37. Kizilbash AM,    Heinle SK, Grayburn PA. Spontaneous variability of left ventricular outflow    tract gradient in hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy. Circulation. 1998;97(5):461-6.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Spontaneous variability of left ventricular outflow tract gradient in hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy</article-title>
          <source>Circulation</source>
          <date>
            <year>1998</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>461</fpage>
          <lpage>6</lpage>
          <issue>5</issue>
          <volume>97</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Kizilbash</surname>
              <given-names>AM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Heinle</surname>
              <given-names>SK</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Grayburn</surname>
              <given-names>PA</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B38">
        <mixed-citation>38. Geske JB, Sorajja    P, Ommen SR, Nishimura RA. Variability of left ventricular outflow tract gradient    during cardiac catheterization in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.    JACC Cardiovasc Interv. 2011;4(6):704-9</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Variability of left ventricular outflow tract gradient during cardiac catheterization in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</article-title>
          <source>JACC Cardiovasc Interv</source>
          <date>
            <year>2011</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>704</fpage>
          <lpage>9</lpage>
          <issue>6</issue>
          <volume>4</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Geske</surname>
              <given-names>JB</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sorajja</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ommen</surname>
              <given-names>SR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Nishimura</surname>
              <given-names>RA</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B39">
        <mixed-citation>39. Williams L,    Gruner C, Rakowski H. Left ventricular outflow tract obstruction in hypertrophic    cardiomyopathy: do we need to stand to be counted. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2011;24(1):83-5.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Left ventricular outflow tract obstruction in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: do we need to stand to be counted</article-title>
          <source>J Am Soc Echocardiogr</source>
          <date>
            <year>2011</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>83</fpage>
          <lpage>5</lpage>
          <issue>1</issue>
          <volume>24</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Williams</surname>
              <given-names>L</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Gruner</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Rakowski</surname>
              <given-names>H</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B40">
        <mixed-citation>40. Joshi S, Patel    UK, Yao SS, Castenada V, Isambert A, Winson G, et al. Standing and exercise    Doppler echocardiography in obstructive hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: the range    of gradients with upright activity. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2011;24(1):75-82.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Standing and exercise Doppler echocardiography in obstructive hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: the range of gradients with upright activity</article-title>
          <source>J Am Soc Echocardiogr</source>
          <date>
            <year>2011</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>75</fpage>
          <lpage>82</lpage>
          <issue>1</issue>
          <volume>24</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Joshi</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Patel</surname>
              <given-names>UK</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Yao</surname>
              <given-names>SS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Castenada</surname>
              <given-names>V</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Isambert</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Winson</surname>
              <given-names>G</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B41">
        <mixed-citation>41. Dimitrow PP,    Cotrim C. Exercise echocardiography in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Eur J Echocardiogr.    2010;11(9):730.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Exercise echocardiography in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</article-title>
          <source>Eur J Echocardiogr</source>
          <date>
            <year>2010</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>730</fpage>
          <issue>9</issue>
          <volume>11</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Dimitrow</surname>
              <given-names>PP</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Cotrim</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B42">
        <mixed-citation>42. Jensen MK,    Havndrup O, Pecini R, Dalsgaard M, Hassager C, Helqvist S, et al. Comparison    of Valsalva manoeuvre and exercise in echocardiographic evaluation of left ventricular    outflow tract obstruction in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Eur J Echocardiogr.    2010;11(9):763-9.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Comparison of Valsalva manoeuvre and exercise in echocardiographic evaluation of left ventricular outflow tract obstruction in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</article-title>
          <source>Eur J Echocardiogr</source>
          <date>
            <year>2010</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>763</fpage>
          <lpage>9</lpage>
          <issue>9</issue>
          <volume>11</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Jensen</surname>
              <given-names>MK</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Havndrup</surname>
              <given-names>O</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Pecini</surname>
              <given-names>R</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Dalsgaard</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Hassager</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Helqvist</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B43">
        <mixed-citation>43. Dimitrow PP,    Bober M, Michalowska J, Sorysz D. Left ventricular outflow tract gradient provoked    by upright position or exercise in treated patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy    without obstruction at rest. Echocardiography. 2009;26(5):513-20.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Left ventricular outflow tract gradient provoked by upright position or exercise in treated patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy without obstruction at rest</article-title>
          <source>Echocardiography</source>
          <date>
            <year>2009</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>513</fpage>
          <lpage>20</lpage>
          <issue>5</issue>
          <volume>26</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Dimitrow</surname>
              <given-names>PP</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Bober</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Michalowska</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sorysz</surname>
              <given-names>D</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B44">
        <mixed-citation>44. Shah JS, Esteban    MT, Thaman R, Sharma R, Mist B, Pantazis A, et al. Prevalence of exercise-induced    left ventricular outflow tract obstruction in symptomatic patients with non-obstructive    hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Heart. 2008;94(10):1288-94.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Prevalence of exercise-induced left ventricular outflow tract obstruction in symptomatic patients with non-obstructive hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</article-title>
          <source>Heart</source>
          <date>
            <year>2008</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1288</fpage>
          <lpage>94</lpage>
          <issue>10</issue>
          <volume>94</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Shah</surname>
              <given-names>JS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Esteban</surname>
              <given-names>MT</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Thaman</surname>
              <given-names>R</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sharma</surname>
              <given-names>R</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Mist</surname>
              <given-names>B</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Pantazis</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B45">
        <mixed-citation>45. Miranda R,    Cotrim C, Cardim N, Almeida S, Lopes L, Loureiro MJ, et al. Evaluation of left    ventricular outflow tract gradient during treadmill exercise and in recovery    period in orthostatic position, in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.    Cardiovasc Ultrasound. 2008;6:19.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Evaluation of left ventricular outflow tract gradient during treadmill exercise and in recovery period in orthostatic position, in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</article-title>
          <source>Cardiovasc Ultrasound</source>
          <date>
            <year>2008</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>19</fpage>
          <volume>6</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Miranda</surname>
              <given-names>R</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Cotrim</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Cardim</surname>
              <given-names>N</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Almeida</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Lopes</surname>
              <given-names>L</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Loureiro</surname>
              <given-names>MJ</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B46">
        <mixed-citation>46. Nistri S, Olivotto    I, Maron MS, Grifoni C, Baldini K, Baldi M, et al. Timing and significance of    exercise-induced left ventricular outflow tract pressure gradients in hypertrophic    cardiomyopathy. Am J Cardiol. 2010;106(9):1301-6.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Timing and significance of exercise-induced left ventricular outflow tract pressure gradients in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</article-title>
          <source>Am J Cardiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2010</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1301</fpage>
          <lpage>6</lpage>
          <issue>9</issue>
          <volume>106</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Nistri</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Olivotto</surname>
              <given-names>I</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Maron</surname>
              <given-names>MS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Grifoni</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Baldini</surname>
              <given-names>K</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Baldi</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B47">
        <mixed-citation>47. Chandraratna    PA, Gajanayaka R, Makkena SM, Wijegunaratne K, Hafeez H, Vijayasekaran S, et    al. "Hands-Free" continuous echocardiography during treadmill exercise using    novel ultrasound transducer. Echocardiography. 2010;27(5):563-6.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>"Hands-Free" continuous echocardiography during treadmill exercise using novel ultrasound transducer</article-title>
          <source>Echocardiography</source>
          <date>
            <year>2010</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>563</fpage>
          <lpage>6</lpage>
          <issue>5</issue>
          <volume>27</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Chandraratna</surname>
              <given-names>PA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Gajanayaka</surname>
              <given-names>R</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Makkena</surname>
              <given-names>SM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Wijegunaratne</surname>
              <given-names>K</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Hafeez</surname>
              <given-names>H</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Vijayasekaran</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B48">
        <mixed-citation>48. Gibbons RJ,    Balady GJ, Bricker JT, Chaitman BR, Fletcher GF, Froelicher VF, et al.; American    College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines    (Committee to Update the 1997 Exercise Testing Guidelines). ACC/AHA 2002 guideline    update for exercise testing: summary article: a report of the American College    of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Committee    to Update the 1997 Exercise Testing Guidelines). Circulation. 2002;106(14):1883-92.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>; American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Committee to Update the 1997 Exercise Testing Guidelines): ACC/AHA 2002 guideline update for exercise testing: summary article: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Committee to Update the 1997 Exercise Testing Guidelines)</article-title>
          <source>Circulation</source>
          <date>
            <year>2002</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1883</fpage>
          <lpage>92</lpage>
          <issue>14</issue>
          <volume>106</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Gibbons</surname>
              <given-names>RJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Balady</surname>
              <given-names>GJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Bricker</surname>
              <given-names>JT</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Chaitman</surname>
              <given-names>BR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Fletcher</surname>
              <given-names>GF</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Froelicher</surname>
              <given-names>VF</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B49">
        <mixed-citation>49. Meneghelo RS,    Ara&#250;jo CGS, Stein R, Mastrocolla LE, Albuquerque PF, Serra SM, et al.;    Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia. III Diretrizes da Sociedade Brasileira    de Cardiologia sobre teste ergom&#233;trico. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2010;95(5 supl.1):1-26.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>; Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia: III Diretrizes da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia sobre teste ergom&#233;trico</article-title>
          <source>Arq Bras Cardiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2010</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1</fpage>
          <lpage>26</lpage>
          <issue>5</issue>
          <volume>95</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Meneghelo</surname>
              <given-names>RS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ara&#250;jo</surname>
              <given-names>CGS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Stein</surname>
              <given-names>R</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Mastrocolla</surname>
              <given-names>LE</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Albuquerque</surname>
              <given-names>PF</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Serra</surname>
              <given-names>SM</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B50">
        <mixed-citation>50. Morise AP.    Exercise testing in nonatherosclerotic heart disease: hypertrophic cardiomyopathy,    valvular heart disease and arrhythmias. Circulation. 2011;123(2):216-25.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Exercise testing in nonatherosclerotic heart disease: hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, valvular heart disease and arrhythmias</article-title>
          <source>Circulation</source>
          <date>
            <year>2011</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>216</fpage>
          <lpage>25</lpage>
          <issue>2</issue>
          <volume>123</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Morise</surname>
              <given-names>AP</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B51">
        <mixed-citation>51. Bunch TJ, Chandrasekaran    K, Ehrasm JE, Hammill SC, Urban LH, Hodge DO, et al. Prognostic significance    of exercise induced arrhythmias and echocardiographic variables in hypertrophic    cardiomyopathy. Am J Cardiol. 2007;99(6):835-8.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Prognostic significance of exercise induced arrhythmias and echocardiographic variables in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</article-title>
          <source>Am J Cardiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2007</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>835</fpage>
          <lpage>8</lpage>
          <issue>6</issue>
          <volume>99</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Bunch</surname>
              <given-names>TJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Chandrasekaran</surname>
              <given-names>K</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ehrasm</surname>
              <given-names>JE</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Hammill</surname>
              <given-names>SC</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Urban</surname>
              <given-names>LH</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Hodge</surname>
              <given-names>DO</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B52">
        <mixed-citation>52. Gimeno JR,    Tom&#233;-Esteban M, Lofiego C, Hurtado J, Pantazis A, Mist B, et al. Exercise-induced    ventricular arrhythmias and risk of sudden cardiac death in patients with hypertrophic    cardiomyopathy. Eur Heart J. 2009;30(21):2599-605.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Exercise-induced ventricular arrhythmias and risk of sudden cardiac death in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</article-title>
          <source>Eur Heart J</source>
          <date>
            <year>2009</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>2599</fpage>
          <lpage>605</lpage>
          <issue>21</issue>
          <volume>30</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Gimeno</surname>
              <given-names>JR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Tom&#233;-Esteban</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Lofiego</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Hurtado</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Pantazis</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Mist</surname>
              <given-names>B</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B53">
        <mixed-citation>53. Gietzen FH,    Leuner CJ, Obergassel L, Strunk-Mueller C, Kuhn H. Role of transcoronary ablation    of septal hypertrophy in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, New York    Heart Association functional class III or IV, and outflow obstruction only under    provocable conditions. Circulation. 2002;106(4):454-9.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Role of transcoronary ablation of septal hypertrophy in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, New York Heart Association functional class III or IV, and outflow obstruction only under provocable conditions</article-title>
          <source>Circulation</source>
          <date>
            <year>2002</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>454</fpage>
          <lpage>9</lpage>
          <issue>4</issue>
          <volume>106</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Gietzen</surname>
              <given-names>FH</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Leuner</surname>
              <given-names>CJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Obergassel</surname>
              <given-names>L</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Strunk-Mueller</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Kuhn</surname>
              <given-names>H</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B54">
        <mixed-citation>54. Schaff HV,    Dearani JA, Ommen SR, Sorajja P, Nishimura RA. Expanding the indications for    septal myectomy in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: results of operation    in patients with latent obstruction. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2012;143(2):303-9.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Expanding the indications for septal myectomy in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: results of operation in patients with latent obstruction</article-title>
          <source>J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg</source>
          <date>
            <year>2012</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>303</fpage>
          <lpage>9</lpage>
          <issue>2</issue>
          <volume>143</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Schaff</surname>
              <given-names>HV</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Dearani</surname>
              <given-names>JA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ommen</surname>
              <given-names>SR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sorajja</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Nishimura</surname>
              <given-names>RA</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B55">
        <mixed-citation>55. Cardim N, Oliveira    AG, Longo S, Ferreira T, Pereira A, Reis RP, et al. Doppler tissue imaging:    regional myocardial function in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and in athlete's    heart. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2003;16(3):223-32.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Doppler tissue imaging: regional myocardial function in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and in athlete's heart</article-title>
          <source>J Am Soc Echocardiogr</source>
          <date>
            <year>2003</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>223</fpage>
          <lpage>32</lpage>
          <issue>3</issue>
          <volume>16</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Cardim</surname>
              <given-names>N</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Oliveira</surname>
              <given-names>AG</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Longo</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ferreira</surname>
              <given-names>T</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Pereira</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Reis</surname>
              <given-names>RP</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B56">
        <mixed-citation>56. Matsumura Y,    Elliott PM, Virdee MS, Sorajja P, Doi Y, McKenna WJ. Left ventricular diastolic    function assessed using Doppler tissue imaging in patients with hypertrophic    cardiomyopathy: relation to symptoms and exercise capacity. Heart. 2002;87(3):247-51.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Left ventricular diastolic function assessed using Doppler tissue imaging in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: relation to symptoms and exercise capacity</article-title>
          <source>Heart</source>
          <date>
            <year>2002</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>247</fpage>
          <lpage>51</lpage>
          <issue>3</issue>
          <volume>87</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Matsumura</surname>
              <given-names>Y</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Elliott</surname>
              <given-names>PM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Virdee</surname>
              <given-names>MS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sorajja</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Doi</surname>
              <given-names>Y</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>McKenna</surname>
              <given-names>WJ</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B57">
        <mixed-citation>57. Araujo AQ,    Arteaga E, Ianni BM, Fernandes F, Ramires FJ, Buck PC, et al. Relationship between    outflow obstruction and left ventricular functional impairment in hypertrophic    cardiomyopathy: a Doppler echocardiographic study. Echocardiography. 2006;23(9):734-40.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Relationship between outflow obstruction and left ventricular functional impairment in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: a Doppler echocardiographic study</article-title>
          <source>Echocardiography</source>
          <date>
            <year>2006</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>734</fpage>
          <lpage>40</lpage>
          <issue>9</issue>
          <volume>23</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Araujo</surname>
              <given-names>AQ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Arteaga</surname>
              <given-names>E</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ianni</surname>
              <given-names>BM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Fernandes</surname>
              <given-names>F</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ramires</surname>
              <given-names>FJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Buck</surname>
              <given-names>PC</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B58">
        <mixed-citation>58. Loreto MS,    Rebelatto TF, Scolari FL, Eisele BS, Freitas VC, Torres MAR, et al. Avalia&#231;&#227;o    do enchimento diast&#243;lico do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo na cardiomiopatia    hipertr&#243;fica: influ&#234;ncia do grau de hipertrofia e da obstru&#231;&#227;o    din&#226;mica da via-de-sa&#237;da. Rev HCPA. 2011;31(Supl):81-2.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Avalia&#231;&#227;o do enchimento diast&#243;lico do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo na cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica: influ&#234;ncia do grau de hipertrofia e da obstru&#231;&#227;o din&#226;mica da via-de-sa&#237;da</article-title>
          <source>Rev HCPA</source>
          <date>
            <year>2011</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>81</fpage>
          <lpage>2</lpage>
          <volume>31</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Loreto</surname>
              <given-names>MS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Rebelatto</surname>
              <given-names>TF</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Scolari</surname>
              <given-names>FL</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Eisele</surname>
              <given-names>BS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Freitas</surname>
              <given-names>VC</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Torres</surname>
              <given-names>MAR</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B59">
        <mixed-citation>59. Le VV, Perez    MV, Wheeler MT, Myers J, Schnittger I, Ashley EA. Mechanisms of exercise intolerance    in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Am Heart J. 2009;158(3):e27-34.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Mechanisms of exercise intolerance in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</article-title>
          <source>Am Heart J</source>
          <date>
            <year>2009</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>e27</fpage>
          <lpage>34</lpage>
          <issue>3</issue>
          <volume>158</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Le</surname>
              <given-names>VV</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Perez</surname>
              <given-names>MV</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Wheeler</surname>
              <given-names>MT</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Myers</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Schnittger</surname>
              <given-names>I</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ashley</surname>
              <given-names>EA</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B60">
        <mixed-citation>60. Wang J, Buergler    JM, Veerasamy K, Ashton YP, Nagueh SF. Delayed untwisting: the mechanistic link    between dynamic obstruction and exercise tolerance in patients with hypertrophic    obstructive cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009;54(14):1326-34.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Delayed untwisting: the mechanistic link between dynamic obstruction and exercise tolerance in patients with hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy</article-title>
          <source>J Am Coll Cardiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2009</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1326</fpage>
          <lpage>34</lpage>
          <issue>14</issue>
          <volume>54</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Wang</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Buergler</surname>
              <given-names>JM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Veerasamy</surname>
              <given-names>K</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ashton</surname>
              <given-names>YP</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Nagueh</surname>
              <given-names>SF</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B61">
        <mixed-citation>61. van Dalen BM,    Kauer F, Michels M, Soliman OI, Vletter WB, van der Zwaan HB, et al. Delayed    left ventricular untwisting in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J Am Soc Echocardiogr.    2009;22(12):1320-6.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Delayed left ventricular untwisting in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</article-title>
          <source>J Am Soc Echocardiogr</source>
          <date>
            <year>2009</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1320</fpage>
          <lpage>6</lpage>
          <issue>12</issue>
          <volume>22</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>van Dalen</surname>
              <given-names>BM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Kauer</surname>
              <given-names>F</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Michels</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Soliman</surname>
              <given-names>OI</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Vletter</surname>
              <given-names>WB</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>van der Zwaan</surname>
              <given-names>HB</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B62">
        <mixed-citation>62. Sommer A, Poulsen    SH, Mogensen J, Thuesen L, Egeblad H. Left ventricular longitudinal systolic    function after alcohol septal ablation for hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyophathy:    a long-term follow-up study focused on speckle-tracking echocardiography. Eur    J Echocardiogr. 2010;11(10):883-8.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Left ventricular longitudinal systolic function after alcohol septal ablation for hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyophathy: a long-term follow-up study focused on speckle-tracking echocardiography</article-title>
          <source>Eur J Echocardiogr</source>
          <date>
            <year>2010</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>883</fpage>
          <lpage>8</lpage>
          <issue>10</issue>
          <volume>11</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Sommer</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Poulsen</surname>
              <given-names>SH</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Mogensen</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Thuesen</surname>
              <given-names>L</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Egeblad</surname>
              <given-names>H</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B63">
        <mixed-citation>63. Bicudo LS,    Tsutsui JM, Shiozaki A, Rochitte CE, Arteaga E, Mady C, et al. Value of real    time three-dimensional echocardiography in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy:    comparison with two-dimensional echocardiography and magnetic resonance imaging.    Echocardiography. 2008;25(7):717-26.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Value of real time three-dimensional echocardiography in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: comparison with two-dimensional echocardiography and magnetic resonance imaging</article-title>
          <source>Echocardiography</source>
          <date>
            <year>2008</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>717</fpage>
          <lpage>26</lpage>
          <issue>7</issue>
          <volume>25</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Bicudo</surname>
              <given-names>LS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Tsutsui</surname>
              <given-names>JM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Shiozaki</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Rochitte</surname>
              <given-names>CE</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Arteaga</surname>
              <given-names>E</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Mady</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B64">
        <mixed-citation>64. Salustri A,    Kofflard MJ, Roelandt JR, Nosir Y, Trocino G, Keane D, et al. Assessment of    left ventricular outflow in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy using anyplane and paraplane    analysis of three-dimensional echocardiography. Am J Cardiol. 1996;78(4):462-8.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Assessment of left ventricular outflow in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy using anyplane and paraplane analysis of three-dimensional echocardiography</article-title>
          <source>Am J Cardiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>1996</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>462</fpage>
          <lpage>8</lpage>
          <issue>4</issue>
          <volume>78</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Salustri</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Kofflard</surname>
              <given-names>MJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Roelandt</surname>
              <given-names>JR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Nosir</surname>
              <given-names>Y</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Trocino</surname>
              <given-names>G</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Keane</surname>
              <given-names>D</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B65">
        <mixed-citation>65. Qin JX, Shiota    T, Lever HM, Rubin DN, Bauer F, Kim YJ, et al. Impact of left ventricular outflow    tract area on systolic outflow velocity in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: a real-time    three-dimensional echocardiographic study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002;39(2):308-14.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Impact of left ventricular outflow tract area on systolic outflow velocity in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: a real-time three-dimensional echocardiographic study</article-title>
          <source>J Am Coll Cardiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2002</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>308</fpage>
          <lpage>14</lpage>
          <issue>2</issue>
          <volume>39</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Qin</surname>
              <given-names>JX</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Shiota</surname>
              <given-names>T</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Lever</surname>
              <given-names>HM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Rubin</surname>
              <given-names>DN</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Bauer</surname>
              <given-names>F</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Kim</surname>
              <given-names>YJ</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B66">
        <mixed-citation>66. Song JM, Fukuda    S, Lever HM, Daimon M, Agler DA, Smedira NG, et al. Asymmetry of systolic anterior    motion of the mitral valve in patients with hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy:    a real-time three-dimensional echocardiographic study. J Am Soc Echocardiogr.    2006;19(9):1129-35.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Asymmetry of systolic anterior motion of the mitral valve in patients with hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy: a real-time three-dimensional echocardiographic study</article-title>
          <source>J Am Soc Echocardiogr</source>
          <date>
            <year>2006</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1129</fpage>
          <lpage>35</lpage>
          <issue>9</issue>
          <volume>19</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Song</surname>
              <given-names>JM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Fukuda</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Lever</surname>
              <given-names>HM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Daimon</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Agler</surname>
              <given-names>DA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Smedira</surname>
              <given-names>NG</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B67">
        <mixed-citation>67. Hwang HJ, Choi    EY, Kwan J, Kim SA, Shim CY, Ha JW, et al. Dynamic change of mitral apparatus    as potential cause of left ventricular outflow tract obstruction in hypertrophic    cardiomyopathy. Eur J Echocardiogr. 2011;12(1):19-25.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Dynamic change of mitral apparatus as potential cause of left ventricular outflow tract obstruction in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</article-title>
          <source>Eur J Echocardiogr</source>
          <date>
            <year>2011</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>19</fpage>
          <lpage>25</lpage>
          <issue>1</issue>
          <volume>12</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Hwang</surname>
              <given-names>HJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Choi</surname>
              <given-names>EY</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Kwan</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Kim</surname>
              <given-names>SA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Shim</surname>
              <given-names>CY</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ha</surname>
              <given-names>JW</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B68">
        <mixed-citation>68. Shiozaki AA,    Kim RJ, Parga JR, Tassi EM, Arteaga E, Rochitte CE. Resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica    cardiovascular na cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2007;88(2):243-8.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica cardiovascular na cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica</article-title>
          <source>Arq Bras Cardiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2007</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>243</fpage>
          <lpage>8</lpage>
          <issue>2</issue>
          <volume>88</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Shiozaki</surname>
              <given-names>AA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Kim</surname>
              <given-names>RJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Parga</surname>
              <given-names>JR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Tassi</surname>
              <given-names>EM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Arteaga</surname>
              <given-names>E</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Rochitte</surname>
              <given-names>CE</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B69">
        <mixed-citation>69. To AC, Dhillon    A, Desai MY. Cardiac magnetic resonance in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. JACC    Cardiovasc Imaging. 2011;4(10):1123-37.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Cardiac magnetic resonance in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</article-title>
          <source>JACC Cardiovasc Imaging</source>
          <date>
            <year>2011</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1123</fpage>
          <lpage>37</lpage>
          <issue>10</issue>
          <volume>4</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>To</surname>
              <given-names>AC</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Dhillon</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Desai</surname>
              <given-names>MY</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B70">
        <mixed-citation>70. Maron MS, Maron    BJ, Harrigan C, Buros J, Gibson CM, Olivotto I, et al. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy    phenotype revisited after 50 years with cardiovascular magnetic resonance. J    Am Coll Cardiol. 2009;54(3):220-8.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy phenotype revisited after 50 years with cardiovascular magnetic resonance</article-title>
          <source>J Am Coll Cardiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2009</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>220</fpage>
          <lpage>8</lpage>
          <issue>3</issue>
          <volume>54</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Maron</surname>
              <given-names>MS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Maron</surname>
              <given-names>BJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Harrigan</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Buros</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Gibson</surname>
              <given-names>CM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Olivotto</surname>
              <given-names>I</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B71">
        <mixed-citation>71. Olivotto I,    Maron MS, Autore C, Lesser JR, Rega L, Casolo G, et al. Assessment and significance    of left ventricular mass by cardiovascular magnetic resonance in hypertrophic    cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008;52(7):559-66.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Assessment and significance of left ventricular mass by cardiovascular magnetic resonance in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</article-title>
          <source>J Am Coll Cardiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2008</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>559</fpage>
          <lpage>66</lpage>
          <issue>7</issue>
          <volume>52</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Olivotto</surname>
              <given-names>I</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Maron</surname>
              <given-names>MS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Autore</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Lesser</surname>
              <given-names>JR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Rega</surname>
              <given-names>L</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Casolo</surname>
              <given-names>G</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B72">
        <mixed-citation>72. Schulz-Menger    J, Abdel-Aty H, Busjahn A, Wassmuth R, Pilz B, Dietz R, et al. Left ventricular    outflow tract planimetry by cardiovascular magnetic resonance differentiates    obstructive from non-obstructive hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J Cardiovasc Magn    Reson. 2006;8(5):741-6.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Left ventricular outflow tract planimetry by cardiovascular magnetic resonance differentiates obstructive from non-obstructive hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</article-title>
          <source>J Cardiovasc Magn Reson</source>
          <date>
            <year>2006</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>741</fpage>
          <lpage>6</lpage>
          <issue>5</issue>
          <volume>8</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Schulz-Menger</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Abdel-Aty</surname>
              <given-names>H</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Busjahn</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Wassmuth</surname>
              <given-names>R</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Pilz</surname>
              <given-names>B</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Dietz</surname>
              <given-names>R</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B73">
        <mixed-citation>73. Kwon DH, Smedira    NG, Popovic ZB, Lytle BW, Setser RM, Thamilarasan M, et al. Steep left ventricle    to aortic root angle and hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy: study of a    novel association using three-dimensional multimodality imaging. Heart. 2009;95(21):1784-91.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Steep left ventricle to aortic root angle and hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy: study of a novel association using three-dimensional multimodality imaging</article-title>
          <source>Heart</source>
          <date>
            <year>2009</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1784</fpage>
          <lpage>91</lpage>
          <issue>21</issue>
          <volume>95</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Kwon</surname>
              <given-names>DH</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Smedira</surname>
              <given-names>NG</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Popovic</surname>
              <given-names>ZB</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Lytle</surname>
              <given-names>BW</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Setser</surname>
              <given-names>RM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Thamilarasan</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B74">
        <mixed-citation>74. Moon JC, McKenna    WJ, McCrohon JA, Elliot PM, Smith GC, Pennel DJ. Toward clinical risk assessment    in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy with gadolinium cardiovascular magnetic resonance.    J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;41(9):1561-7.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Toward clinical risk assessment in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy with gadolinium cardiovascular magnetic resonance</article-title>
          <source>J Am Coll Cardiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2003</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1561</fpage>
          <lpage>7</lpage>
          <issue>9</issue>
          <volume>41</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Moon</surname>
              <given-names>JC</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>McKenna</surname>
              <given-names>WJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>McCrohon</surname>
              <given-names>JA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Elliot</surname>
              <given-names>PM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Smith</surname>
              <given-names>GC</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Pennel</surname>
              <given-names>DJ</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B75">
        <mixed-citation>75. Adabag AS,    Maron BJ, Appelbaum E, Harrigan CJ, Buros JL, Gibson CM, et al. Occurrence and    frequency of arrhythmias in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in relation to delayed    enhancement on cardiovascular magnetic resonance. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008;51(14):1369-74.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Occurrence and frequency of arrhythmias in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in relation to delayed enhancement on cardiovascular magnetic resonance</article-title>
          <source>J Am Coll Cardiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2008</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1369</fpage>
          <lpage>74</lpage>
          <issue>14</issue>
          <volume>51</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Adabag</surname>
              <given-names>AS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Maron</surname>
              <given-names>BJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Appelbaum</surname>
              <given-names>E</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Harrigan</surname>
              <given-names>CJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Buros</surname>
              <given-names>JL</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Gibson</surname>
              <given-names>CM</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B76">
        <mixed-citation>76. O'Hanlon R,    Grasso A, Roughton M, Moon JC, Clark S, Wage R, et al. Prognostic significance    of myocardial fibrosis in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010;56(11):867-74.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Prognostic significance of myocardial fibrosis in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</article-title>
          <source>J Am Coll Cardiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2010</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>867</fpage>
          <lpage>74</lpage>
          <issue>11</issue>
          <volume>56</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>O'Hanlon</surname>
              <given-names>R</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Grasso</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Roughton</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Moon</surname>
              <given-names>JC</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Clark</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Wage</surname>
              <given-names>R</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B77">
        <mixed-citation>77. Bruder O, Wagner    A, Jensen CJ, Schneider S, Ong P, Kispert EM, et al. Myocardial scar visualized    by cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging predicts major adverse events in    patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010;56(11):875-87.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Myocardial scar visualized by cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging predicts major adverse events in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</article-title>
          <source>J Am Coll Cardiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2010</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>875</fpage>
          <lpage>87</lpage>
          <issue>11</issue>
          <volume>56</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Bruder</surname>
              <given-names>O</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Wagner</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Jensen</surname>
              <given-names>CJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Schneider</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ong</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Kispert</surname>
              <given-names>EM</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B78">
        <mixed-citation>78. Rubinshtein    R, Glockner JF, Ommen SR, Araoz PA, Ackerman MJ, Sorajja P, et al. Characteristics    and clinical significance of late gadolinium enhancement by contrast-enhanced    magnetic resonance imaging in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Cir    Heart Fail. 2010;3(1):51-8.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Characteristics and clinical significance of late gadolinium enhancement by contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</article-title>
          <source>Cir Heart Fail</source>
          <date>
            <year>2010</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>51</fpage>
          <lpage>8</lpage>
          <issue>1</issue>
          <volume>3</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Rubinshtein</surname>
              <given-names>R</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Glockner</surname>
              <given-names>JF</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ommen</surname>
              <given-names>SR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Araoz</surname>
              <given-names>PA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ackerman</surname>
              <given-names>MJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sorajja</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B79">
        <mixed-citation>79. Valeti US,    Nishimura RA, Holmes DR, Araoz PA, Glockner JF, Breen JF, et al. Comparison    of surgical septal myectomy and alcohol septal ablation with cardiac magnetic    resonance imaging in patients with hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy.    J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007;49(3):350-7.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Comparison of surgical septal myectomy and alcohol septal ablation with cardiac magnetic resonance imaging in patients with hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy</article-title>
          <source>J Am Coll Cardiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2007</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>350</fpage>
          <lpage>7</lpage>
          <issue>3</issue>
          <volume>49</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Valeti</surname>
              <given-names>US</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Nishimura</surname>
              <given-names>RA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Holmes</surname>
              <given-names>DR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Araoz</surname>
              <given-names>PA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Glockner</surname>
              <given-names>JF</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Breen</surname>
              <given-names>JF</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
    </ref-list>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">The diagnosis of left ventricular outflow tract obstruction in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is a prevalent genetic disease characterized by left ventricular hypertrophy, presenting dynamic obstruction of outflow tract with subaortic gradient happening at rest in 30% of the cases. It is attributed to the intricate interaction between the anterior mitral leaflet, the interventricular septum and altered flow vectors generated in left ventricle along with changes in outflow tract geometry. Mitral regurgitation in varying degrees is found with or without association with structural deformities of the valve apparatus. The exercise echocardiogram evidences latent obstruction easily induced by exercise in 60 to 75% of non-obstructive forms. The determination of the gradient under this condition must be considered in routine investigation of patients with mild or no obstruction at rest. The evaluation of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy incorporates methods based on the ultrasound image, which, along with MRI, allow recognizing ventricular obstruction generating mechanisms, thus facilitating the diagnosis and management of obstructive and latent obstructive forms.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Cardiomiopathy, hypertrophic</kwd>
        <kwd>hypertrophy, left ventricular</kwd>
        <kwd>echocardiography</kwd>
        <kwd>Magnetic resonance</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>REVIEW ARTICLE</bold>
      </p>
      <p><undefined id="top-body2"/>The diagnosis of left ventricular outflow tract obstruction in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Beatriz Piva e Mattos; Marco Antonio Rodrigues Torres; Taiane Francieli Rebelatto; Melina Silva de Loreto; Fernando Lu&#237;s Scolari</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Servi&#231;o de Cardiologia do Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre, RS; Faculdade de Medicina - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil</p>
      <p>Mailing Address</p>
      <p>
        <bold>ABSTRACT</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is a prevalent genetic disease characterized by left ventricular hypertrophy, presenting dynamic obstruction of outflow tract with subaortic gradient happening at rest in 30% of the cases. It is attributed to the intricate interaction between the anterior mitral leaflet, the interventricular septum and altered flow vectors generated in left ventricle along with changes in outflow tract geometry. Mitral regurgitation in varying degrees is found with or without association with structural deformities of the valve apparatus. The exercise echocardiogram evidences latent obstruction easily induced by exercise in 60 to 75% of non-obstructive forms. The determination of the gradient under this condition must be considered in routine investigation of patients with mild or no obstruction at rest. The evaluation of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy incorporates methods based on the ultrasound image, which, along with MRI, allow recognizing ventricular obstruction generating mechanisms, thus facilitating the diagnosis and management of obstructive and latent obstructive forms.</p>
      <p><bold>Keywords:</bold> Cardiomiopathy, hypertrophic/diagnosis; hypertrophy, left ventricular/diagnosis; echocardiography; Magnetic resonance.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is a genetic disease of complex nature. Its prevalence is estimated in one per each 500 individuals<sup>1</sup>. It is characterized by left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) identified in the absence of chamber dilation and any other disease capable of producing a similar anomaly<sup>2</sup>. The dynamic obstruction of left ventricular (LV) outflow tract, developing subaortic systolic gradient, may be evidenced at rest or under provocation<sup>3</sup>. At a smaller rate, forms with midventricular obstruction are found with or without concomitant apical aneurysm and, exceptionally, obstructive impairment of right ventricle<sup>2</sup>.</p>
      <p>HCM is transmitted through autosomal dominant inheritance with incomplete penetrance. It is caused by over 1400 mutations in genes encoding sarcomeric proteins or, more rarely, in other proteins related to this structure, such as Z-discs and interleaved discs. The wide phenotypic variation is attributed to the action of environmental and genetic factors<sup>2, 4</sup>.</p>
      <p>In the modern era, HCM was reported between 1957 and 1958 in England, by the pathologist Robert D. Teare<sup>5</sup> and surgeon Russell C. Brock<sup>6</sup>, who identified the asymmetric hypertrophy of LV associated to myocardial cell disorganization and subvalvar aortic obstruction of muscular nature. The clinical bases of HCM were defined gradually from the 1960s in fundamental studies developed by Cohen et al.<sup>7</sup>, which introduced the current nomenclature<sup>7,8</sup>, as well as Braunwald et al.<sup>9</sup> and Wigle et al.<sup>10</sup>, whose suggested designations, idiopathic hypertrophic subaortic stenosis and muscular subaortic stenosis, stressed the obstructive character of the disease.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Mechanisms</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The left ventricular obstruction was preliminarily interpreted as being fixed, produced by septal hypertrophy and consequent change in the outflow tract's geometry. The dynamic character was suspected by maneuvers which, modifying the preload and afterload, changed the intensity of the murmur generated<sup>9</sup>. The presence of obstruction was subsequently demonstrated during hemodynamic study, by means of drop in ventricular pressure in the outflow tract<sup>11</sup>. At the time, the labile behavior of the obstruction was demonstrated in detailed analyses, through drug interventions with vasodilators or inotropic agents, which, producing reduction in left ventricle volume and peripheral vascular resistance, determined increase in subaortic gradient<sup>9,11</sup>. Notwithstanding this, the likelihood that the gradient was a mere artifact of the rapid ejection and cavity obliteration was still admitted<sup>12</sup>.</p>
      <p>Angiocardiography helped demonstrate the existence of mechanical obstruction of LV outflow tract triggered by affixation of the mitral valve on the basal septum, which was initially attributed to the vigorous systole<sup>13</sup>. However, the hypothesis that a true hemodynamic obstruction did not exist was still considered, given the labile character and the varying gradients in serial measurements, as well as the tendency to progressively disappear and the lack of correlation with symptom severity<sup>8</sup>.</p>
      <p>The introduction of echocardiography applied to the diagnosis of HCM between 1969 and 1973 not only allowed the examination of issues previously seen on invasive investigation, but it also contributed decisively to identify non-obstructive forms and obstruction generating mechanisms. With M-mode echocardiography, it was possible to demonstrate that the flow impedance, rather than caused by muscular constriction, was due to the contact of the anterior leaflet of the mitral valve with the septum during mesosystole, which was longer in patients with more severe obstruction. Otherwise, the contact of the anterior leaflet of the mitral valve with the septum during mesosystole, which was more prolonged in higher obstruction, was a possible cause<sup>14</sup>.</p>
      <p>Preliminarily, the vision that the systolic anterior motion of the mitral valve (SAM) was the result of the Venturi effect prevailed, whereby the high flow velocity in the outflow tract would lead to suction of this structure towards the interventricular septum<sup>15</sup>. Through two-dimensional echocardiography, the SAM was revealed to begin before ejection, and slightly differentiated from the Venturi effect<sup>16</sup>. The obstruction is truly determined by the complex interaction between septum, mitral valve and flow vectors generated in ventricular cavity. The anterior direction and high systolic flow velocity on reaching the LV outflow tract originate vectors that run across the closed mitral valve and thereby push the anterior mitral leaflet against the septum<sup>17</sup>.</p>
      <p>Further, this phenomenon sets off the generation of the systolic subaortic gradient resulting from the progressive reduction of the outflow tract surface area. Increasing acceleration of the flow is observed as the mitral leaflet is pushed against the septum by the rising gradient. A continuous feedback mechanism is established, wherein the reduction of the outflow tract produced by the SAM determines a gradual increase of the pressure gradient, which, in turn, imposes even greater degree of impedance to ejection in proportion to its increase. In spite of the obstruction, the antegrade flow persists throughout systole until the aortic valve closure, with prolonged ejection time proportional to the gradient. There is mesosystolic decrease of flow rate greater than 50% after contact of the mitral valve with the septum at gradients &gt; 60 mmHg, with higher reduction in the outflow tract area<sup>17</sup>. In these cases, there is early interruption of longitudinal shortening during systole and mesosystolic closure of aortic valve with detrimental effect relating to the LV mechanical function<sup>18</sup>.</p>
      <p>The position of the mitral valve leaflets in relation to the outflow tract is fundamental for the obstruction to develop<sup>16</sup>. The anterior displacement of papillary muscles and mitral subvalvar apparatus change the outflow tract geometry, reducing the respective area, favoring the contact between the anterior leaflet and the septum<sup>19</sup>. Fibrous adherences between the septum and papillary muscles, free wall of the LV or mitral apparatus pull this structure anteriorly, contributing to a higher degree of obstruction<sup>20</sup>. Anomalies of papillary muscles identified by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), include thickening, bifid character and anterior apical displacement, are common in HCM and are connected to the higher prevalence of SAM and higher gradients, regardless of septum thickness<sup>21</sup>.</p>
      <p>The SAM is more frequent and prolonged in patients with diffuse or extensive hypertrophy involving two to four segments of the LV<sup>22</sup>. Only 25 to 50% of those presenting this anomaly show gradient at rest<sup>23</sup>. In many of them, mild to moderate mitral regurgitation is developed. In non-obstructive forms, mitral movement tends to be absent or be incomplete. In 30% of the cases with obstruction, there are complex deformities involving the mitral valve, such as anterior and/or posterior leaflet lengthening, or even direct implantation in papillary muscles, which can obstruct the outflow tract<sup>24</sup>. In these cases, the mitral valve coaptation point may be displaced anteriorly and be placed along the leaflets, and not on their borders<sup>16</sup>. The anterior leaflet lengthening associated with low-diameter outflow tract is connected to gradient increase<sup>24</sup>.</p>
      <p>In approximately 30% of the patients with HCM, there is obstruction of LV outflow tract at rest, with a maximum systolic gradient &#8805; 30 mmHg, criterion which is adopted for identifying the obstructive forms. Gradients below 30 mmHg, which rise above this level with provocative maneuvers, characterize cases with latent obstruction. Non-obstructive forms are characterized by gradient &lt; 30 mmHg at rest and under provocation. We may conclude that the LV outflow tract's obstruction in HCM has a complex genesis and multiple factors<sup>2</sup>. Hence, correct identification of determining factors is germane for selecting patients and their management.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Diagnosis</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The HCM diagnosis is performed routinely by clinical evaluation, and is confirmed using echocardiography or MRI. The molecular genetic study provides definitive identification of the disease in its clinical and preclinical stages, as well as family evaluation, but its application in risk stratification for sudden death is not fully ascertained<sup>2,4</sup>.</p>
      <p>The differential diagnosis is usually established through non-invasive research and includes athlete's physiologic hypertrophy and, in concentric forms, hypertensive heart disease and cardiac amyloidosis. The genotype determination is critical in the recognition of myocardial storage diseases, such as Fabry, Danon and gene mutations in AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), considered clinically indistinguishable phenocopies of HCM<sup>2,4</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Clinical picture</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Since the first descriptions of the disease, the potential relation between obstruction of LV outflow tract and cardiovascular symptoms, such as chest pain and dyspnea, on exertion or at rest, have been identified. The chronic obstruction, rather than a stimulus for hypertrophy, causes an increase in LV wall stress, conditioning myocardial ischemia and replacement fibrosis, factors usually implicated in diastolic dysfunction and arrhythmias<sup>15,25</sup>. Physical exercise produces increase of contractility and heart rate, effects which, along with the decrease of peripheral vascular resistance, trigger or determine worsening of obstruction and increase in LV filling pressure<sup>26,27</sup>. Syncope or presyncope may be the consequence of arrhythmias or autonomic disorder<sup>28-30</sup>, but would derive from outflow tract obstruction when related to larger exertion or to swiftly assuming standing position<sup>31</sup>.</p>
      <p>In approximately one third of the patients, there is emergence or exacerbation of symptoms after meals, attributed to arterial vasodilatation, decreased afterload and compensatory increase in heart rate. These changes directly or indirectly lead to worsening of the outflow tract obstruction and elevation of filling pressure, similarly to that observed on exertion<sup>32</sup>. The severity of symptoms presents great daily variation. The increase in ambient temperature, the lower fluid intake and the use of alcoholic beverages may, due to modifications in heart rate and load conditions, determine the elevation of subaortic gradient<sup>3</sup>.</p>
      <p>On examination, the obstructive forms are characterized by propulsive and sustained apical impulse with double systolic peak and bisferiens arterial pulse. Fourth heart sound, occasionally palpable, is auscultated. Medium frequency systolic murmur, "crescendo-decrescendo", of variable intensity, is heard at the left sternal border, as well as in aortic and mitral areas, but does not radiate to the sternal notch, neck and axilla. Maneuvers that decrease the pre-and/or afterload, such as Valsalva and standing position, may exacerbate the murmur. On the contrary, the passive elevation of the lower limbs and handgrip reduces its intensity, mitral regurgitation systolic murmur with radiation to the axilla may be observed<sup>8</sup>.</p>
      <p>Longitudinal analyzes show that the obstruction of the left ventricular outflow tract with peak systolic gradient at rest &#8805; 30 mmHg increases the likelihood of death related to the disease<sup>25</sup>, particularly in those presenting mild or absent symptoms<sup>33</sup>. The risk of progression to functional class III or IV NYHA and death by heart failure or stroke is greater in the non-obstructive forms, mainly after 40 years old<sup>25</sup>. The latent obstruction is also implied in the development of disabling symptoms and evolution to heart failure<sup>27,34</sup>.</p>
      <p>Association was demonstrated between the severity of obstruction and predisposition to sudden death, which was also related to the presence of other risk factors<sup>35</sup>. However, the dynamic character of the obstruction makes the detection of independent risk predictor difficult, in addition to the fact that its isolated presence does not stand and indication for implantation of automatic defibrillator<sup>2</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Echocardiogram</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The HCM echocardiographic diagnosis centers on the identification of LVH with maximum wall thickness &#8805;15 mm in the absence of other causes. In family members affected by the disease, measures &#8805; 12 mm should be valuated<sup>4</sup>. HCM mutation carriers may present borderline wall thickness or even normal ones<sup>2</sup>. Hypertrophy presents variable degree, extension and location<sup>22</sup>. There is no typical morphological pattern, although asymmetric forms prevail, presenting septum/posterior wall of the LV &gt; 1.3, and anterior and posterior septum impairment, extending or not to the free wall<sup>15,22</sup>. With smaller frequency, there are cases of concentric or isolated hypertrophy of the LV posterior septum, anterior lateral wall or apex<sup>22</sup>.</p>
      <p>Continous wave Doppler echocardiography identifies the dynamic outflow tract obstruction by recording a typical curve, resulting from the contact of the anterior leaflet of the mitral valve with the basal portions of the interventricular septum during systole<sup>17</sup>(<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01-body2">Figure 1</xref>). The contact may also be related to the posterior leaflet. In many cases, there is variable mitral regurgitation jet directed posteriorly, resulting in SAM with coaptation failure. The presence of anterior or central jet denotes mitral valve structural abnormalities<sup>15</sup>.</p>
      <fig id="f01-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-99-01-0665-00013-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>The gradient estimated by Doppler echocardiogram shows a strong correlation with that one measured simultaneously by hemodynamic study<sup>36</sup>. Spontaneous change of gradient at rest of &#177; 32 mmHg was observed in consecutive measurements, with continuous Doppler, along five days<sup>37</sup>. Marked gradient labile character was evidenced in serial invasive measurements performed during a 48-hour period<sup>38</sup> and in multiple measurements during the same procedure. The assessment of gradient at rest should not be restricted to an isolated measurement. The precise dynamic nature of the obstruction should be properly valued, especially in the clinical evaluation of symptomatic patients, owing to its therapeutic implications.</p>
      <p>Most patients do not present dynamic obstruction of the LV outflow tract at rest, but it tends to develop after provocative maneuvers capable of modifying the pre-and/or afterload or determine increased contractility. The assessment under provocation is indicated in symptomatic patients with reduced or absent gradient at rest. It should be practiced preferably under physiological exercise or, alternatively, through the Valsalva maneuver, or else under amyl nitrite administration. The isoproterenol infusion during cardiac catheterization is reserved for doubtful cases<sup>2</sup>. The use of dobutamine is discouraged due to lowly-specific response, capable of inducing obstruction in normal individuals or those with other heart diseases<sup>2,27</sup>. The application of Valsalva maneuver and other pharmacological provocative measures is controversial, since it does not reproduce the physiological conditions in which the obstruction typically develops<sup>2</sup>. The characteristic symptoms of the disease are more frequently induced by posture abnormalities and increase in contraction during exercise than with vasodilatation or hypovolemia<sup>39</sup>.</p>
      <p>The Valsalva maneuver increases or induces SAM (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2a-body2">Figures 2A</xref> and <xref ref-type="fn" rid="f2b-body2">B</xref>), but it underestimates the presence or magnitude of the exercise-induced gradient with sensitivity of only 40% for identifying the obstruction<sup>27</sup>. However, it is more sensitive than measurements in standing position<sup>40</sup>. In a series of patients submitted to percutaneous alcohol septal ablation, but, even though its application is arguable for recording purposes<sup>41</sup>, the Valsalva maneuver and the exercise were found to produce similar degrees of elevation of the gradient in outflow tract<sup>42</sup>. In another series, the obstruction was triggered by the standing position in 21.6% of the cases and by moderate exercise in 34.5%<sup>43</sup>.</p>
      <fig id="f2a-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/MyNPHJK6TLPNbhRtJr8sTFH/cbf0ed9132c6fedfc0eef587d01db35603dcd7c3.jpg"/>
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-99-01-0665-00013-gf02-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>The exercise echocardiogram is considered the most physiological and effective modality for evaluation of the obstructive component of HCM, particularly in cases with latent obstruction<sup>2</sup>. Studies demonstrate, by means of distinct methodologies, that 60 to 75% of the patients with baseline gradient &#8804; 30 or 50 mmHg present ventricular obstruction easily induced by exercise<sup>26,27,44</sup>. History of syncope or presyncope, complete or incomplete SAM at rest, and the degree and extent of LVH evaluated by Wigle score<sup>15</sup> were considered independent predictors of higher elevation of the gradient during exercise<sup>27</sup>. A lower number of patients with obstruction triggered this way develops concomitant mitral regurgitation, which would mean that the subaortic gradient would be the most important factor determining the reduction of functional capacity<sup>27</sup>.</p>
      <p>Current guideline considers exercise echocardiography a class IIa, level of evidence B, indication for the detection and quantification of LV outflow tract dynamic obstruction in patients with a resting peak instantaneous gradients &#8804; 50 mmHg, specially in symptomatic forms<sup>2</sup>.</p>
      <p>In studies using exercise echocardiography in HCM have initially grounded the determination of gradient in outflow tract in a single measurement, at the the peak of exercise<sup>26</sup> or immediately after it, in supine<sup>27,44</sup>. Consecutive measurements under baseline conditions in supine and orthostatic position, and after, at the peak of the exercise and on the recovery phase in orthostatism showed a continuous elevation of the gradient<sup>45</sup>. In a later study, the peak of exercise gradient was demonstrated to present correlation with that on the supine recovery phase, and that the early development of obstruction was associated to higher reduction of function capacity<sup>46</sup>. In other set of cases, although elevation of gradient in 76% of the patients in standing position has been observed, a higher increment was found in exertion, in measurements made in supine recovery phase<sup>40</sup>.</p>
      <p>The record of the gradient at the peak of exercise while standing is believed to guarantee higher reliability compared to the usual activities involved in the onset of symptoms. Technical difficulties in obtaining the images can be minimized by greater operator's training and positioning of the patient's left arm on the head<sup>40</sup>, or through the use of transducers with continuous hands-free recording<sup>47</sup>.</p>
      <p>Although there are restrictions on the performance of exercise testing in obstructive and non-obstructive forms of HMC<sup>48,49</sup>, it is considered a safe procedure with low severe complication rates<sup>50-52</sup>. In recent studies, which jointly evaluated 1,747 patients with the disease, through stress echocardiogram, nonsustained ventricular tachycardia was detected in 1.2%<sup>51</sup> and 1.9%<sup>52</sup> of the cases, and ventricular fibrillation in only 0.2%<sup>51</sup> or there was no mention to complications<sup>27,44</sup>.</p>
      <p>The assimilation of exercise echocardiography in the routine evaluation of HCM, especially in symptomatic patients with absent or reduced gradient at rest, has decisive therapeutic implications, capable of changing paradigms. The excelent long term survival in obstructive forms after myectomy would indirectly prove the interaction between obstruction and prognosis<sup>3</sup>. The invasive, percutaneous or surgical treatment is indicated to patients who present limiting symptoms and gradient at rest or under provocation &#8805; 50 mmHg<sup>2</sup>. The percutaneous alcohol septal ablation demonstrates comparable beneficial effects in cases with obstruction at rest or only under provocation<sup>53</sup>. A recent study shows that latent obstructive forms submitted to myectomy present symptomatic improvement and survival similar to normal population.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Tissue doppler</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Tissue Doppler echocardiography shows minimal changes in left ventricular function by real time quantification of axial and longitudinal displacement of the myocardium. In HCM with normal ejection fraction, there was reduction in systolic myocardial velocity (S'), even in segments not presenting hypertrophy<sup>55</sup>. The early diastolic velocity (E') is diminished and related to the magnitude of LVH<sup>55</sup>. There is negative correlation between systolic and early diastolic velocities and the gradient of the outflow tract, which is also associated to the elevation of the E/E' ratio, which estimates the LV filling pressure<sup>56,57</sup>. A higher degree of LVH in presence of obstruction &#8805; 30 mmHg would be a determining factor for significant elevation of the E/E' ratio<sup>58</sup>. In obstructive and non-obstructive forms, the functional capacity presents negative correlation with lateral E', lateral E/E' and left atrium volume index, but it is not related to the gradient or outflow tract and the LV maximum wall thickness<sup>59</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <italic>Strain/strain-rate and speckle-tracking</italic>
      </p>
      <p>The introduction of strain/strain-rate facilitated the overcoming of limitations inherent to tissue Doppler imaging, as it allowed to assess of LV wall motion and its effects on systolic and diastolic function. While estimating the LV deformation frame to frame, two-dimensional strain or speckle-tracking analyzes parameters of myocardial contraction independent of angle, presenting advantage over the strain derived from tissue Doppler imaging. The analysis of speckle-tracking strain in patients with the disease undergoing exercise shows that the dynamic obstruction of the outflow tract determines delay in untwisting of the LV, an effect related to the increased filling pressure and maximal oxygen consumption<sup>60</sup>. Untwisting rate from peak systolic twist to mitral valve opening was negatively correlated with the E/A ratio, showing a possible relation of this mechanism to the development of diastolic disfunction<sup>61</sup>. However, a recent study demonstrated that the alcohol septal ablation, although determining reduction in the gradient and myocardial mass, did not produce longitudinal two-dimension strain improvement in the 36-month follow-up, which would minimize the influence of obstruction and the degree of hypertrophy on the LV global systolic function<sup>62</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Three-dimensional echocardiography</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The real-time three-dimensional echocardiography allows detailed evaluation of the morphological changes undergone by the LV in HCM, with performance comparable to MRI and notably better than two-dimension echocardiography<sup>63</sup>. The qualitative and quantitative analysis of the LV outflow tract reveals asymmetric and eccentric form, with reduced transversal area relating to normal individuals<sup>64</sup>. Correlation is found between the subaortic gradient, the maximum velocity and the lowest area measured of the outflow tract<sup>65</sup>. The real-time geometric analysis demonstrates that SAM is asymmetric and dominantly medial, resulting in lateralization and narrowing of the outflow tract<sup>66</sup>. Sequential dynamic geometric abnormalities of the mitral apparatus, relating to the interaction between the coaptation point in mesosystole, papillary muscles and basal septum, have significantly contributed to generate subaortic gradient<sup>67</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Magnetic resonance imaging</bold>
      </p>
      <p>MRI allowed to redefine the phenotype of HCM by adding accurate information about the structure, morphology and function of the cardiac chambers through three-dimensional images of high spatial and temporal resolution in any plan<sup>68, 69</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3a-body2">Figures 3 A</xref> and <xref ref-type="fn" rid="f3b-body2">B</xref>). It quantifies accurately than echocardiography the LV global and segmental systolic functions<sup>69</sup>. Furthermore, it allows to detect hypertrophy restricted to the anterior lateral wall and apex, in addition to apical trabeculations and aneurysms<sup>69</sup>. It demonstrates that the hypertrophy may occur in less than 50% of the LV and be restricted to one or two segments. A greater degree of thickening happens on the basal anterior free wall of the LV adjacent to the anterior septum. Hypertrophic segments alternate with normal ones in a pattern not detected in other heart diseases. The number of hypertrophic segments is greater in hypertrophic obstructive forms than in non-obstructive ones<sup>70</sup>. The LV mass is related to maximum wall thickness and gradient at rest. The LV index mass is normal in 20% of patients with the phenotype and shows a sensitivity greater than the maximum wall thickness as a predictor of prognosis<sup>71</sup>.</p>
      <fig id="f3a-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/MyNPHJK6TLPNbhRtJr8sTFH/132e807b0c61f746067e2f3bb37b885b38fb0b41.jpg"/>
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-99-01-0665-00013-gf03-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>The LV outflow tract area is determined by MRI through planimetry. The adoption of 2.7 cm<sup>2</sup> as the cutoff point identifies obstruction in 100% of cases compared to Doppler<sup>72</sup>. The MRI demonstrates contact between the septum and the anterior mitral leaflet in multiple and distinct axis. Three-dimensional cutoffs are useful for analyzing the relationship between the septum and obstruction, as well as the consequences of the outflow tract narrowing on the flow acceleration, turbulence degree, SAM and mitral regurgitation. The maximum gradient is determined through measurements taken along the most narrowed segment of the outflow tract<sup>69</sup>. Distortion factors may interfere with the measurements of these parameters<sup>72</sup>. The angle formed between LV and the aortic root, more acute in HCM, is considered a predictor of gradient regardless of the thickness basal septum<sup>73</sup>.</p>
      <p>MRI with gadolinium detects and quantifies fibrosis areas with delayed enhancement (DE) of focal or diffuse character in 60-80% of patients with HCM, representing 0-40% of the LV myocardial mass<sup>74-78</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4-body2">Figure 4</xref>). The DE is associated with the record of nonsustained ventricular tachycardia in Holter in multivariate analyses<sup>75,78</sup>, as well as the left ventricular reshaping and evolution of terminal dilated forms<sup>74</sup>. The association with the obstruction was not found in a study in which the prevalence of obstructive forms was similar between those with and without DE<sup>76</sup>. Longitudinal analyses showed relation between DE, sudden death and increased mortality, but it is still not proved<sup>76-78</sup>. Further investigations are necessary for the DE to be recognized as an independent prognosis predictor and a factor predisposing to sudden death<sup>2</sup>.</p>
      <fig id="f4-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-99-01-0665-00013-gf04-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>MRI is indicated in the investigation of HCM when echocardiography is inconclusive or additional information about LVH, anatomy of the mitral valve and papillary muscles or fibrosis presence is needed<sup>2</sup>. MRI also contributes to the therapeutic planning and evaluation of results. In alcohol septal ablation, it identifies the transmural nature and the lowest and posterior location of the necrosis area, usually around 10%. In myectomy, it shows that the resection is restricted to the basal septum, ensuring greater gradient reduction<sup>79</sup>. In cases with severe obstruction and LV wall thickness slightly increased or normal, MRI detects structural anomalies of the mitral valve and/or papillary muscles responsible for the obstruction and which may be surgically corrected<sup>21</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Conclusion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>We conclude that, in HCM, the obstruction of LV outflow tract, a prevalent characteristic with complex genesis, may influence clinical outcome patterns and mortality rates. Although it is detectable in the routine evaluation, it requires detailed, static and dynamic investigation by imaging methods in order to improve the diagnosis and management of obstructive and latent obstructive forms.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
      </p>
      <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
      </p>
      <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Study Association</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This study is not associated with any post-graduation program.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
</article>
