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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">jnsfdgW5BP3rPcYZRSbF4Zj</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2012001000002</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(12)09900100002</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2012001000002</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Especial</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>I posicionamento brasileiro sobre hipertens&#227;o arterial resistente</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>07</month>
        <year>2012</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>99</volume>
      <issue>1</issue>
      <fpage>576</fpage>
      <lpage>585</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>04</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2012</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>05</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2012</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>04</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2012</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>Hipertens&#227;o</kwd>
        <kwd>hipertens&#227;o</kwd>
        <kwd>press&#227;o arterial, anti-hipertensivos</kwd>
        <kwd>anti-hipertensivos</kwd>
        <kwd>fatores de risco</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>04</day>
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2012</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>ARTIGO ESPECIAL</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>I posicionamento brasileiro sobre hipertens&#227;o arterial resistente</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Departamento de Hipertens&#227;o Arterial da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia pelos autores</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="back">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave: </bold> Hipertens&#227;o / fisiopatologia; hipertens&#227;o / dietoterapia; press&#227;o arterial, anti-hipertensivos / administra&#231;&#227;o &amp; dosagem; anti-hipertensivos / uso terap&#234;utico; fatores de risco.</p>
    <p><bold>Keywords:</bold> Hypertension / physiopathology; hypertension / diet therapy; blood pressure; antihypertensive agents / administration &amp; dosage; antihypertensive agents / therapeutic use &amp; dosage; risk factors.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Defini&#231;&#227;o e epidemiologia</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Defini&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A Hipertens&#227;o Arterial Resistente (HAR) &#233; definida quando a Press&#227;o Arterial (PA) permanece acima das metas recomendadas com o uso de tr&#234;s f&#225;rmacos anti-hipertensivos com a&#231;&#245;es sin&#233;rgicas em doses m&#225;ximas preconizadas e toleradas, sendo um deles preferencialmente um diur&#233;tico, ou quando em uso de quatro ou mais f&#225;rmacos anti-hipertensivos, mesmo com a PA controlada<sup>1</sup>.</p>
    <p>HAR verdadeira deve ser diferenciada da pseudorresist&#234;ncia, que ocorre em raz&#227;o de n&#227;o ades&#227;o ao tratamento, medidas inadequadas da PA, uso de doses ou esquemas terap&#234;uticos n&#227;o apropriados, ou presen&#231;a do efeito do avental branco<sup>2</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Controle da hipertens&#227;o arterial no Brasil e no mundo</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A Hipertens&#227;o Arterial (HA) atinge em m&#233;dia 30% da popula&#231;&#227;o adulta, cerca de 1,2 bilh&#227;o no mundo<sup>3</sup>. No Brasil, 14 estudos populacionais (1994-2009), revelaram baixos n&#237;veis de controle da PA (19,6%)<sup>4</sup>.</p>
    <p>O fato de o controle da HA ter duplicado nos Estados Unidos entre 1988-2008 (27,3% <italic>vs.</italic> 53,5%)<sup>5</sup>, e quintuplicado no Canad&#225; entre 1992-2009 (13,2% <italic>vs,</italic> 64,6%)<sup>6</sup>, reflete importantes avan&#231;os na sua detec&#231;&#227;o e tratamento nesses pa&#237;ses.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Incid&#234;ncia e preval&#234;ncia de HAR</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Daugherty e cols. demonstraram a incid&#234;ncia de 1,9% de HAR em seguimento por 18 meses de hipertensos que iniciaram o tratamento. Esse estudo envolveu uma grande <italic>coorte</italic> com diversidade &#233;tnica e levou em considera&#231;&#227;o a ades&#227;o ao tratamento, excluindo, dessa forma, a pseudorresist&#234;ncia<sup>7</sup>.</p>
    <p>Embora a exata preval&#234;ncia de HAR ainda n&#227;o esteja estabelecida, estima-se que essa condi&#231;&#227;o atinja 12-15% dos hipertensos<sup>8</sup>. A an&#225;lise dos dados do National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) no per&#237;odo de 2003 a 2008 mostrou que 12,8% dos hipertensos em uso de anti-hipertensivos nos Estados Unidos foram certificados como HAR<sup>9</sup>. Egan e cols.<sup>10</sup> destacaram que esses percentuais t&#234;m aumentado nos Estados Unidos.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fatores relacionados &#224; HAR</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Tanto a hipertens&#227;o sist&#243;lica quanto a diast&#243;lica podem ser resistentes, sendo a primeira mais prevalente<sup>1</sup>. Fatores causais incluem maior sensibilidade a sal, hipervolemia (decorrente de maior ingest&#227;o de s&#243;dio, nefropatia cr&#244;nica ou inadequada terap&#234;utica diur&#233;tica), subst&#226;ncias ex&#243;genas (anti-inflamat&#243;rios n&#227;o hormonais, corticosteroides, contraceptivos orais, simpatomim&#233;ticos, quimioter&#225;picos, antidepressivos, imunodepressores, descongestionantes nasais, anorex&#237;genos, &#225;lcool e coca&#237;na) e causas secund&#225;rias de hipertens&#227;o (com &#234;nfase no aldosteronismo prim&#225;rio, apneia obstrutiva do sono, nefropatia cr&#244;nica e estenose de art&#233;ria renal)<sup>11,12</sup>.</p>
    <p>S&#227;o caracter&#237;sticas predominantes nos pacientes com HAR: idade mais avan&#231;ada, afrodescendentes, obesidade, hipertrofia ventricular esquerda, diabete melito, nefropatia cr&#244;nica, s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica, aumento da ingest&#227;o de sal e menor atividade f&#237;sica. Ressalte-se que o efeito do avental branco est&#225; presente em cerca de 30% dos pacientes com HAR<sup>1,13</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Aspectos progn&#243;sticos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A HAR &#233; uma entidade de dif&#237;cil controle cl&#237;nico associada a alto risco cardiovascular. A maioria dos estudos epidemiol&#243;gicos que avaliaram o progn&#243;stico da HAR apresenta limita&#231;&#245;es como falta de uniformidade na defini&#231;&#227;o e informa&#231;&#227;o dos f&#225;rmacos em uso, incluindo casos de pseudo-hipertens&#227;o, al&#233;m de tempo de seguimento insuficiente e n&#227;o inclus&#227;o de jovens<sup>1,14</sup>.</p>
    <p>O progn&#243;stico est&#225; associado especialmente aos seguintes fatores: exposi&#231;&#227;o prolongada a n&#237;veis press&#243;ricos elevados, aumento dos n&#237;veis press&#243;ricos, danos em &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo e excesso de mineralocorticoides (aldosterona), e consumo elevado de s&#243;dio<sup>15-17</sup>. In&#250;meros estudos demonstram que a aldosterona &#233; um marcador importante da gravidade da doen&#231;a cardiovascular<sup>18</sup>.</p>
    <p>A Monitoriza&#231;&#227;o Ambulatorial da Press&#227;o Arterial (MAPA) &#233; um importante marcador de progn&#243;stico, especialmente a press&#227;o noturna e a press&#227;o de pulso de 24 horas<sup>14,19,20</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fluxograma de avalia&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A primeira etapa na investiga&#231;&#227;o da hipertens&#227;o arterial resistente &#233; a exclus&#227;o das causas de pseudorresist&#234;ncia, tais como t&#233;cnica inadequada de aferi&#231;&#227;o da PA, baixa ades&#227;o ao tratamento, pseudo-hipertens&#227;o e o efeito do avental branco<sup>1</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura 1</xref>). A MAPA &#233; o exame de elei&#231;&#227;o para confirma&#231;&#227;o do inadequado controle press&#243;rico, por&#233;m, caso n&#227;o dispon&#237;vel, a Monitoriza&#231;&#227;o Residencial da Press&#227;o Arterial (MRPA) ou Automedida da Press&#227;o Arterial (AMPA) pode colaborar<sup>13,21</sup>.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="f01">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-99-01-0576-00002-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>Les&#245;es em &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo e comorbidades associadas devem ser investigadas pela realiza&#231;&#227;o de exames especializados, pois influenciam na estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco cardiovascular, e s&#227;o marcadores de progn&#243;stico<sup>22,23</sup>.</p>
    <p>Dentre as causas de pseudorresist&#234;ncia, a m&#225; ades&#227;o &#233; o grande desafio. In&#233;rcia terap&#234;utica, prescri&#231;&#227;o de doses insuficientes ou medica&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o sin&#233;rgicas e m&#225; rela&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dico-paciente devem ser observadas, bem como a procura por agentes que possam interferir no controle press&#243;rico. Caso a meta a ser atingida n&#227;o seja alcan&#231;ada em seis meses, a interna&#231;&#227;o por curto per&#237;odo deve ser considerada<sup>24</sup>.</p>
    <p>Aproximadamente 30% a 50% dos pacientes subestimam sua ingest&#227;o de s&#243;dio. O impacto de sua restri&#231;&#227;o em resistentes est&#225; bem demonstrado e a dosagem da excre&#231;&#227;o urin&#225;ria de s&#243;dio em 24 horas deve ser realizada como controle<sup>16</sup>. O diagn&#243;stico de hipertens&#227;o secund&#225;ria deve ser exaustivamente buscado nos casos de hipertens&#227;o resistente.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Medida da press&#227;o arterial</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O uso de t&#233;cnica acurada para a medida da PA &#233; essencial para o diagn&#243;stico preciso da HAR. O paciente deve estar sentado, em ambiente calmo, por cinco minuntos antes da medida, com as costas apoiadas e o bra&#231;o no n&#237;vel do cora&#231;&#227;o. Devem-se utilizar manguitos adequados &#224; circunfer&#234;ncia do bra&#231;o (propor&#231;&#227;o largura/comprimento de 1:2, largura da bolsa de borracha do manguito correspondendo a 40% e comprimento a 80% da circunfer&#234;ncia do bra&#231;o, respectivamente)<sup>25</sup>. Um m&#237;nimo de tr&#234;s leituras devem ser feitas em intervalos de pelo menos um minuto, e a m&#233;dia das duas &#250;ltimas medi&#231;&#245;es deve ser utilizada, caso a diferen&#231;a seja inferior ou igual a 4 mmHg entre estas &#250;ltimas. A PA deve ser medida em ambos os bra&#231;os e o bra&#231;o com as press&#245;es mais elevadas deve ser usado para fazer medidas futuras. Caso a diferen&#231;a entre os bra&#231;os seja superior a 15 mmHg para a PA sist&#243;lica e/ou 10 mmHg para a PA diast&#243;lica, deve-se investigar doen&#231;a vascular ateroscler&#243;tica<sup>26</sup>. Medidas da PA nas posi&#231;&#245;es supina e ereta devem ser realizadas nas avalia&#231;&#245;es de seguimento para avalia&#231;&#227;o de hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>MAPA</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A MAPA &#233; uma ferramenta importante no diagn&#243;stico de uma das principais causas de pseudorresist&#234;ncia, em que indiv&#237;duos supostamente fora da meta press&#243;rica no consult&#243;rio possuem MAPA normal. Essa diferen&#231;a entre a medida da PA no consult&#243;rio e a MAPA na vig&#237;lia &#233; denominada efeito do avental branco. N&#237;veis press&#243;ricos muito elevados podem ser uma limita&#231;&#227;o ao exame, por causa do desconforto do paciente. Nessas situa&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o alternativas a MRPA e a AMPA.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>MRPA</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A MRPA &#233; o registro da press&#227;o arterial por m&#233;todo indireto, com tr&#234;s medidas pela manh&#227; e tr&#234;s &#224; noite, por cinco dias<sup>4</sup>. Suas indica&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o basicamente as mesmas da MAPA; por&#233;m, em pacientes com a PA muito elevada, a MRPA pode ser mais bem tolerada. Tamb&#233;m &#233; capaz de identificar o efeito do avental branco, e assim afastar ou confirmar a HAR.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>AMPA</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Trata-se da medida realizada geralmente no domicilio por pacientes ou familiares. A principal vantagem da AMPA &#233; a possibilidade de obter uma estimativa mais real da PA, tendo em vista que os valores s&#227;o obtidos no ambiente onde os pacientes vivem, desde que sejam utilizados equipamentos validados e calibrados. Na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t01">Tabela 1</xref> encontra-se a rela&#231;&#227;o dos valores da press&#227;o considerados normais para a hipertens&#227;o e efeito do avental branco nas medidas de consult&#243;rio, MAPA, MRPA e AMPA.</p>
    <table-wrap id="t01">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-99-01-0576-00002-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>
      <bold>Les&#245;es em &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Altera&#231;&#245;es vasculares e cerebrais</bold>
    </p>
    <p>As altera&#231;&#245;es vasculares podem estar presentes nas fases iniciais da doen&#231;a hipertensiva. A HAR se associa com grau mais acentuado de disfun&#231;&#227;o vascular, avaliada por vasodilata&#231;&#227;o dependente do endot&#233;lio e biomarcadores s&#233;ricos, podendo justificar a aus&#234;ncia de descenso noturno e maior press&#227;o de pulso durante a MAPA<sup>27,28</sup>. Existe intima rela&#231;&#227;o entre altos n&#237;veis de PA, disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial e maior rigidez vascular em hipertensos resistentes, demonstrado por redu&#231;&#227;o na vasodilata&#231;&#227;o mediada pelo fluxo e velocidade de onda de pulso elevada. Nessa popula&#231;&#227;o tamb&#233;m s&#227;o observados maiores n&#237;veis de aldosterona<sup>29,30</sup>.</p>
    <p>O sistema nervoso pode ser afetado precocemente na HAR, e &#233; o &#243;rg&#227;o que melhor se beneficia com o controle adequado da PA. As altera&#231;&#245;es vasculares s&#227;o universais e os vasos cerebrais s&#227;o comprometidos relativamente cedo no processo hipertensivo. As anormalidades microvasculares na retina s&#227;o um espelho do que est&#225; ocorrendo no c&#233;rebro. Por meio da an&#225;lise retiniana podemos encontrar microaneurismas, hemorragias, exudatos duros e moles, cruzamentos arteriovenosos patol&#243;gicos e espessamento arterial.</p>
    <p>As estenoses de car&#243;tidas, aterosclerose intracranial e do arco a&#243;rtico, al&#233;m da les&#227;o card&#237;aca, podem ser respons&#225;veis por fen&#244;menos isqu&#234;micos ou tromboemb&#243;licos. A hipertens&#227;o n&#227;o controlada, com o tempo, pode levar aos pequenos aneurismas cerebrais que podem romper, levando a hemorragias subaracnoideas ou intracerebrais de grande magnitude<sup>31</sup>. Os infartos lacunares s&#227;o pequenos, em geral inferiores a 2,0 cm de di&#226;metro, resultantes de obstru&#231;&#245;es de pequenos vasos perfurantes, podendo ser respons&#225;veis por dem&#234;ncia progressiva.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Altera&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A principal les&#227;o no cora&#231;&#227;o dos pacientes com HAR &#233; a Hipertrofia Ventricular Esquerda (HVE). No Brasil, a preval&#234;ncia de HVE diagnosticada por ecocardiograma em indiv&#237;duos com HAR &#233; de 83,3%<sup>32</sup>. Nesses pacientes, altera&#231;&#245;es eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas com invers&#227;o de onda T e depress&#227;o do segmento ST nas deriva&#231;&#245;es V<sub>5</sub> e V<sub>6</sub> levam a um pior progn&#243;stico<sup>33,34</sup>. HVE &#233; um importante fator de risco independente para a morbidade e mortalidade cardiovascular, acrescentando risco 1,5 vez maior para os indiv&#237;duos portadores dessa les&#227;o<sup>35</sup>. Predisp&#245;e ao aparecimento de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, taquiarritmias ventriculares, acidente vascular encef&#225;lico isqu&#234;mico ou emb&#243;lico e fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial. Na HVE ocorre diminui&#231;&#227;o da reserva coronariana, endurecimento arterial e disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, ocorrendo significativa isquemia mioc&#225;rdica. Esses indiv&#237;duos, por apresentarem disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial macrovascular e microvascular, devem ter valorizado os sintomas de dor tor&#225;cica mesmo quando a cinecoronariografia n&#227;o apresenta evid&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a coronariana relevante<sup>36</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Altera&#231;&#245;es renais</bold>
    </p>
    <p>As les&#245;es renais ocorrem precocemente e s&#227;o comuns, com altera&#231;&#245;es hemodin&#226;micas secund&#225;rias &#224; perda de massa glomerular, mas que determinam hipertrofia e hiperfiltra&#231;&#227;o dos n&#233;frons residuais normais.</p>
    <p>Anefroesclerose hipertensiva nominada "benigna" se caracteriza por arteriosclerose e arteriolosclerose, hialinose, les&#245;es t&#250;bulo-intersticiais e a glomerulosclerose segmentar focal e global<sup>37</sup>. Por outro lado, a hiperplasia miointimal e necrose fibrinoide s&#227;o descritas como comemorativos da les&#227;o provocada pela hipertens&#227;o maligna<sup>37</sup>.</p>
    <p>V&#225;rios s&#227;o os fatores de risco que podem contribuir para o desenvolvimento e progress&#227;o da nefrosclerose hipertensiva: Idade superior a 50 anos, sexo masculino, predisposi&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica e &#233;tnica (afrodescendentes), dura&#231;&#227;o e gravidade da HA, baixo n&#237;vel socioecon&#244;mico, intensidade da protein&#250;ria, grau de disfun&#231;&#227;o renal, dislipidemia; al&#233;m de outros agressores: fumo, excesso de sal e prote&#237;nas na dieta, uso de anti-inflamat&#243;rios n&#227;o hormonais, antibi&#243;ticos e de outros agentes nefrot&#243;xicos<sup>38</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fen&#243;tipo do hipertenso resistente</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A idade avan&#231;ada &#233; um dos principais fatores relacionados &#224; dificuldade de se atingir as metas para a PA sist&#243;lica. Paralelamente a essa observa&#231;&#227;o, o estudo de Framingham encontrou correla&#231;&#227;o entre dificuldade de controle da PA e presen&#231;a de n&#237;veis basais elevados de press&#227;o sist&#243;lica<sup>39</sup>. A HVE e a obesidade s&#227;o tamb&#233;m fortes preditores de insucesso no controle da HA, sendo este &#250;ltimo mais associado &#224; dificuldade de controle da press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica. As altas taxas de ingesta de s&#243;dio<sup>18</sup>, doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica (ritmo de filtra&#231;&#227;o glomerular <underline>&lt;</underline> 60 mL/min), diabetes, afrodescendentes, completam o quadro de caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas associadas &#224; dificuldade de controle da PA<sup>1</sup>. Outras condi&#231;&#245;es v&#234;m sendo associadas, tais como: a) presen&#231;a de les&#245;es silenciosas e precoces em &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo como a microalbumin&#250;ria<sup>23,40,41</sup>, a HVE<sup>42,43</sup>, a s&#237;ndrome da apneia obstrutiva do sono<sup>44-46</sup> e a s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica<sup>47</sup>. Embora para as duas &#250;ltimas condi&#231;&#245;es, rela&#231;&#245;es entre causa e efeito com a HAR ainda n&#227;o estejam totalmente definidas, alguns estudos t&#234;m apontado mecanismos comuns entre obesidade, s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica, diabetes, dist&#250;rbios do sono e atividade inflamat&#243;ria em hipertensos, de uma forma geral<sup>48,49</sup>. &#201; comum a associa&#231;&#227;o entre o teste de <italic>screening</italic> positivo para hipercortisolismo com diabetes, idade avan&#231;ada e padr&#227;o <italic>non-dipper</italic> em uma popula&#231;&#227;o de hipertensos resistentes<sup>50</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, pacientes com HAR com diabetes tipo 2 apresentam maior grau de disfun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica associada a n&#237;veis mais elevados de &#237;ndice de massa corporal e n&#237;veis plasm&#225;tico reduzidos de adiponectina<sup>51</sup>. A presen&#231;a de n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos elevados de aldosterona tem sido apontada como relevante para o insucesso do controle da PA<sup>52</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Hipertens&#227;o secund&#225;ria</bold>
    </p>
    <p>N&#227;o h&#225; dados que indiquem a real preval&#234;ncia de causas secund&#225;rias entre indiv&#237;duos com hipertens&#227;o resistente. Entretanto, &#233; notadamente maior a probabilidade de ocorr&#234;ncia de causas secund&#225;rias entre portadores de hipertens&#227;o grave e/ou de dif&#237;cil controle. S&#237;ndrome da Apneia Obstrutiva do Sono (SAOS), Aldosteronismo Prim&#225;rio (AP), Doen&#231;a Parenquimatosa Renal cr&#244;nica (DPR), Hipertens&#227;o Renovascular (HRV), Feocromocitoma (FEO), S&#237;ndrome de Cushing (SC), Coarcta&#231;&#227;o de Aorta (CoA), dist&#250;rbios da tireoide e uso de alguns f&#225;rmacos que alteram a press&#227;o arterial, drogas il&#237;citas e abuso de &#225;lcool s&#227;o as formas secund&#225;rias mais comuns de hipertens&#227;o resistente. A SAOS &#233; altamente prevalente e, em nosso meio, foi encontrada em 64% dos pacientes com hipertens&#227;o resistente<sup>53</sup>. Foi observada uma preval&#234;ncia de 20% de AP na popula&#231;&#227;o de hipertensos resistentes<sup>54</sup>. HRV ateroscler&#243;tica est&#225; presente em 12,5% dos pacientes hipertensos resistentes com idade acima de 50 anos<sup>55</sup>. O FEO se associa a quadro cl&#237;nico de hipertens&#227;o arterial parox&#237;stica (30% dos casos) ou resistente com ou sem paroxismos em 50% a 60% dos casos<sup>56</sup>. A possibilidade de uma causa secund&#225;ria constitui um dos pontos fundamentais da avalia&#231;&#227;o do hipertenso. Na HAR, entretanto, deve-se dar maior &#234;nfase &#224; pesquisa de causas secund&#225;rias, assim como &#224; proped&#234;utica espec&#237;fica em casos suspeitos. A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t02">Tabela 2</xref> mostra as principais causas de hipertens&#227;o secund&#225;ria, a sintomatologia sugestiva e os principais m&#233;todos diagn&#243;sticos para a pesquisa dessas condi&#231;&#245;es.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="t02">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-99-01-0576-00002-gt02.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Medidas n&#227;o farmacol&#243;gicas</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O uso de medidas n&#227;o farmacol&#243;gicas &#233; de grande import&#226;ncia no tratamento da HAR<sup>1</sup>. Apesar do pequeno n&#250;mero de estudos avaliando a efic&#225;cia dessas medidas, elas j&#225; se mostraram eficazes no tratamento de pacientes hipertensos em geral e seu benef&#237;cio parece ser maior em hipertensos graves do que naqueles com hipertens&#227;o leve/moderada. Dessa forma, pacientes com HAR devem ser orientados quanto &#224; import&#226;ncia da redu&#231;&#227;o de sal na dieta, perda de peso, pr&#225;tica de exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos regulares e modera&#231;&#227;o no consumo de &#225;lcool<sup>1,4</sup>.</p>
    <p>Restri&#231;&#227;o de sal: a ingest&#227;o elevada de s&#243;dio na dieta comprovadamente contribui para a resist&#234;ncia &#224; terapia anti-hipertensiva. Pacientes idosos, afrodescendentes ou com fun&#231;&#227;o renal diminu&#237;da s&#227;o especialmente mais sens&#237;veis ao sal. Apesar de a dieta hiposs&#243;dica reduzir moderadamente (3,7-7,0/0,9-2,5 mmHg) a PA em pacientes hipertensos em geral<sup>57-60</sup>, aqueles com HAR s&#227;o particularmente sal-sens&#237;veis. Um estudo que comparou os efeitos da dieta hiposs&#243;dica em hipertensos resistentes mostrou que uma dieta contendo aproximadamente 2,5 g de sal/dia &#233; capaz de reduzir a PA em at&#233; 23,0/9,0 mmHg. Este estudo demonstra que a redu&#231;&#227;o no consumo de sal (3,0-4,0 g de sal/dia) &#233; imprescind&#237;vel no manejo de pacientes com HAR. &#201; importante ressaltar a dificuldade de se alcan&#231;ar a redu&#231;&#227;o do sal na dieta para os valores recomendados<sup>61</sup>.</p>
    <p>&#193;lcool: existe rela&#231;&#227;o direta entre a quantidade de &#225;lcool consumida e os n&#237;veis press&#243;ricos, de tal forma que o consumo excessivo de &#225;lcool contribui de forma importante para a dificuldade no controle da PA<sup>62</sup>. Homens que consomem quantidade excessiva de &#225;lcool (<underline>&gt;</underline>4 doses/dia) t&#234;m 50% mais chance de apresentar PA fora da meta<sup>63</sup>. Aguilera e cols.<sup>64</sup> avaliaram o efeito da abstin&#234;ncia de &#225;lcool sobre a PA em bebedores inveterados, e verificaram uma redu&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dia de 7,2 e 6,6 mmHg, respectivamente na PA sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica de 24 horas<sup>64</sup>. No mesmo estudo, a preval&#234;ncia de hipertens&#227;o entre os participantes diminuiu de 42% para 12%. Recomenda-se modera&#231;&#227;o no consumo de &#225;lcool (<underline>&lt;</underline> 20 g de etanol ou 2 doses por dia) ou abstin&#234;ncia total para os bebedores inveterados.</p>
    <p>Diminui&#231;&#227;o do peso: a obesidade est&#225; associada com a estimula&#231;&#227;o do sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico, reten&#231;&#227;o de sal e apneia obstrutiva do sono<sup>1,4</sup>. Dessa forma, associa-se &#224; eleva&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis press&#243;ricos e &#224; resist&#234;ncia ao tratamento anti-hipertensivo, e a diminui&#231;&#227;o do peso reduz a PA de forma significativa. Pacientes com &#205;ndice de Massa Corporal (IMC) <underline>&gt;</underline>30 kg/m<sup>2</sup> t&#234;m chance 50% maior de apresentar PA n&#227;o controlada do que aqueles com IMC normal (&lt;25 kg/m<sup>2</sup>)<sup>65</sup>. Um estudo transversal com 45.125 pacientes revelou que, quando comparados &#224;queles com IMC normal, pacientes com IMC &gt;40 kg/m<sup>2</sup> apresentavam risco tr&#234;s vezes maior de requerer o uso de tr&#234;s anti-hipertensivos e cinco vezes maior de necessitar de quatro f&#225;rmacos para controle adequado da PA<sup>66</sup>. Assim, a perda de peso deve ser sempre buscada em indiv&#237;duos com HAR que apresentem sobrepeso ou obesidade.</p>
    <p>Atividade f&#237;sica: os dados dispon&#237;veis apontam para um claro efeito ben&#233;fico da pr&#225;tica regular de atividade f&#237;sica na redu&#231;&#227;o da PA<sup>1,67</sup>. A pr&#225;tica de exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos aer&#243;bicos tem efeito direto na redu&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial e melhora o perfil metab&#243;lico. Exerc&#237;cios resistidos tamb&#233;m parecem exercer efeito ben&#233;fico sobre a press&#227;o arterial, devendo complementar as atividades aer&#243;bicas<sup>4,67</sup>. Dessa forma, pacientes hipertensos resistentes devem ser encorajados a realizar atividade f&#237;sica leve a moderada ap&#243;s avalia&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica. A sess&#227;o de treinamento n&#227;o deve ser iniciada se as press&#245;es arteriais sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica estiverem acima de 160 e/ou 105 mmHg, respectivamente.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Tratamento medicamentoso</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O objetivo do tratamento medicamentoso da HAR &#233; a redu&#231;&#227;o do risco cardiovascular. Para isso preconiza-se atingir a meta press&#243;rica da PA de consult&#243;rio de 130/80 mmHg, na MAPA 24h 125/75 (ideal), podendo ser toler&#225;vel 130/80 mmHg e MRPA 130/80 mmHg<sup>13,19</sup>.</p>
    <p>A verifica&#231;&#227;o do esquema anti-hipertensivo em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224;s combina&#231;&#245;es medicamentosas e sua posologia, para a otimiza&#231;&#227;o adequada, corrigindo sub-doses ou falta de ades&#227;o, bem como a investiga&#231;&#227;o da utiliza&#231;&#227;o de outras classes de f&#225;rmacos que possam interferir na efic&#225;cia anti-hipertensiva, deve sempre ser observada para a confirma&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica da HAR<sup>1</sup>.</p>
    <p>O racional na escolha de um esquema de f&#225;rmacos anti-hipertensivos &#233; o bloqueio de todos os poss&#237;veis mecanismos envolvidos na eleva&#231;&#227;o press&#243;rica. A combina&#231;&#227;o de um f&#225;rmaco que bloqueie o Sistema Renina-Angiotensina-Aldosterona (SRAA), podendo ser utilizado um Inibidor da Enzima Conversora da Angiotensina (IECA) ou Bloqueador do Receptor AT1 da Angiotensina II (BRA), associado a um Antagonista dos Canais de C&#225;lcio (ACC) dihidropiridinicode a&#231;&#227;o prolongada e um diur&#233;tico tipotiaz&#237;dico, costuma ser bastante eficaz e com boa toler&#226;ncia cl&#237;nica. Essa &#233; considerada a melhor combina&#231;&#227;o tripla, a mais eficaz e sin&#233;rgica na busca da meta press&#243;rica preconizada<sup>68,69</sup>. A utiliza&#231;&#227;o de um inibidor da renina como f&#225;rmaco que bloqueie o SRAA tem menor evid&#234;ncia na prote&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular.</p>
    <p>A expans&#227;o volum&#233;trica parece ser o mecanismo fisiopatol&#243;gico mais frequente nessa popula&#231;&#227;o. Diur&#233;ticos tipostiaz&#237;dicos de a&#231;&#227;o prolongada s&#227;o recomendados. A clortalidona, por ter uma pot&#234;ncia anti-hipertensiva maior que a hidroclorotiazida, e uma meia-vida plasm&#225;tica estimada entre 45 e 60 horas, &#233; preferencialmente recomendada para os portadores de HAR com fun&#231;&#227;o renal preservada<sup>1</sup>. Os diur&#233;ticos de al&#231;a estar&#227;o indicados se o <italic>clearance</italic> de creatinina for inferior a 30 mL/min. Pela sua curta dura&#231;&#227;o de a&#231;&#227;o, entre 3 e 6 horas, se recomenda sua utiliza&#231;&#227;o em duas tomadas di&#225;rias.</p>
    <p>V&#225;rias classes de f&#225;rmacos anti-hipertensivos concorrem &#224; posi&#231;&#227;o de quarto f&#225;rmaco, sem que at&#233; o momento tenha sido realizado qualquer estudo comparativo entre eles que demonstre superioridade, tanto em pot&#234;ncia anti-hipertensiva quanto em prote&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular. A adi&#231;&#227;o de bloqueadores dos receptores mineralocorticoides ao tratamento medicamentoso convencional &#233; a estrat&#233;gia de quarto f&#225;rmaco com maior evid&#234;ncia e reduz a PA de forma significativa em pacientes com HAR. Em um subestudo do ASCOT, os participantes que terminaram o estudo e n&#227;o tiveram a PA controlada com tr&#234;s agentes anti-hipertensivos receberam espironolactona (m&#233;dia 25 mg) como quarto medicamento. Ap&#243;s seguimento m&#233;dio de 1,3 ano, a PA sist&#243;lica e a diast&#243;lica reduziram 21,9 e 9,5 mmHg, respectivamente. A redu&#231;&#227;o press&#243;rica com a espironolactona ocorre independentemente da rela&#231;&#227;o aldosterona/atividade plasm&#225;tica da renina<sup>70</sup>.</p>
    <p>A escolha de medicamentos adicionais &#224; combina&#231;&#227;o qu&#225;drupla &#233; emp&#237;rica e deve ser individualizada<sup>4,71</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 2</xref>). A interna&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o &#233; recomendada para a investiga&#231;&#227;o da HA secund&#225;ria ou otimiza&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica, por&#233;m &#233; uma estrat&#233;gia que pode ser utilizada quando dispon&#237;vel, se ap&#243;s seis meses de otimiza&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica n&#227;o se tenha a meta press&#243;rica preconizada, sendo uma alternativa de verifica&#231;&#227;o da ades&#227;o e restri&#231;&#227;o de s&#243;dio.</p>
    <fig id="f02">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-99-01-0576-00002-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>Embora n&#227;o tenhamos evid&#234;ncia da redu&#231;&#227;o do risco cardiovascular, a cronoterapia &#233; uma estrat&#233;gia coadjuvante em pacientes em uso de tr&#234;s f&#225;rmacos e que estejam com a PA fora de controle antes da associa&#231;&#227;o de um quarto agente, pode-se utilizar a administra&#231;&#227;o de um ACC no per&#237;odo noturno<sup>72</sup>. Com essa estrat&#233;gia foi demonstrado efic&#225;cia na implementa&#231;&#227;o da redu&#231;&#227;o press&#243;rica e do descenso do sono.</p>
    <p>A ades&#227;o pode ser implementada com a simplifica&#231;&#227;o do esquema terap&#234;utico pela utiliza&#231;&#227;o de combina&#231;&#245;es medicamentosas fixas. Mesmo que a meta press&#243;rica n&#227;o seja atingida, devemos perseguir o valor press&#243;rico mais pr&#243;ximo poss&#237;vel do objetivo preconizado.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Novos tratamentos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A falta de evid&#234;ncias sobre a melhor terap&#234;utica na HAR levou ao desenvolvimento de novos tratamentos que est&#227;o sendo testados, prioritariamente, em pacientes com m&#225; resposta ao tratamento inicial farmacol&#243;gico.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Estimula&#231;&#227;o direta do seio carot&#237;deo</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O aumento do t&#244;nus simp&#225;tico e a diminui&#231;&#227;o do t&#244;nus parassimp&#225;tico elevam a resist&#234;ncia vascular perif&#233;rica, a reten&#231;&#227;o de s&#243;dio, reduzem o fluxo renal e o metabolismo da glicose, al&#233;m de contribu&#237;rem negativamente para o remodelamento mioc&#225;rdico<sup>73</sup>. A estimula&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica de barorreceptores pode exercer efeito ben&#233;fico sobre a press&#227;o arterial.</p>
    <p>The RheosBaroreflexActivationTherapy System &#233; um dispositivo program&#225;vel tipo marca-passo implantado cirurgicamente e constitu&#237;do por um gerador de impulsos. O ensaio cl&#237;nico RheosPivotalTrial n&#227;o detectou benef&#237;cios significativos com esse sistema e s&#227;o aguardados novos estudos que mostrem o benef&#237;cio do dispositivo<sup>74</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Denerva&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica renal</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Os nervos simp&#225;ticos renais contribuem para o aparecimento e manuten&#231;&#227;o da hipertens&#227;o, e a atividade simp&#225;tica renal est&#225; exacerbada em hipertensos. A abla&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica endovascular renal foi avaliada em s&#233;rie de casos de pacientes com HAR. Em dois anos, verificou-se uma redu&#231;&#227;o de 32 mmHg e 14 mmHg nas PAS e PAD, respectivamente, com taxa de complica&#231;&#245;es muito baixa<sup>75</sup>. No estudo Symplicity-2, em seis meses a diferen&#231;a na queda press&#243;rica entre os grupos foi de 33 mmHg e 11 mmHg nas PAS e PAD, respectivamente. No grupo de interven&#231;&#227;o, 84% dos pacientes tiveram uma redu&#231;&#227;o de pelo menos 10 mmHg, enquanto no grupo controle, essa propor&#231;&#227;o foi de 35%. N&#227;o foram descritas complica&#231;&#245;es maiores relacionadas ao procedimento. Esses achados mostram que a abla&#231;&#227;o endovascular da art&#233;ria renal &#233; um procedimento promissor no contexto de HAR, por&#233;m ainda faltam estudos que mostrem a possibilidade de reprodu&#231;&#227;o dos resultados e a melhor divulga&#231;&#227;o da t&#233;cnica.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Uso de press&#227;o positiva continua (CPAP)</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Os efeitos da CPAP na HAR foram testados em ensaio cl&#237;nico com 75 pacientes que tiveram a sua condi&#231;&#227;o de HAR confirmada por MAPA e que apresentavam &#237;ndice apneia-hipopneia (AIH) <underline>&gt;</underline> 15/h<sup>76</sup>. Ap&#243;s tr&#234;s meses de seguimento, apenas a PAD 24h reduziu significativamente no grupo tratado com CPAP (4,9 &#177; 6,4 mmHg <italic>vs.</italic> 0,1 &#177; 7,3 mmHg no controle). O efeito anti-hipertensivo foi mais acentuado naqueles que toleraram mais que 5,8 h di&#225;rias de CPAP. O conjunto das evid&#234;ncias sobre o efeito anti-hipertensivo da CPAP e os resultados desse ensaio realizado em HAR indicam que essa op&#231;&#227;o pode ser tentada como tratamento auxiliar em pacientes com IAH maior que 15/h e, especialmente, naqueles que toleram a sua utiliza&#231;&#227;o em per&#237;odos maiores que 5 h/dia.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Lista completa dos autores:</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Alexandre Alessi (Universidade Federal do Paran&#225;), Andrea Ara&#250;jo Brand&#227;o (Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro), Antonio Coca (School of Medicine, University of Barcelona, Spain), Antonio Carlos Cordeiro (Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia), Armando da Rocha Nogueira (Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro), Audes Di&#243;genes de Magalh&#227;es Feitosa (Hospital Dom Helder C&#226;mara), Celso Amodeo (Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia), Cibele Isaac Saad Rodrigues (Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas e da Sa&#250;de - PUC/SP), David A. Calhoun (University of Alabama, Birmingham, USA), Eduardo Barbosa Coelho (Liga de Combate &#224; Hipertens&#227;o de Porto Alegre), Eduardo Pimenta (Endocrine Hypertension Research Centre, University of Queensland, Australia), Elizabeth Muxfeldt (Hospital Universit&#225;rio Clementino Fraga Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro), Fernanda Marciano Consolin-Colombo (INCOR), Gil Salles (Hospital Universit&#225;rio Clementino Fraga Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro), Guido Rosito (Universidade Federal de Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de de Porto Alegre), Heitor Moreno Jr. (Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas da Universidade Estadual de Campinas), Jose Fernando Vilela Martin (Faculdade Estadual de Medicina de S&#227;o Jos&#233; do Rio Preto), Juan Carlos Yugar (Faculdade Estadual de Medicina de S&#227;o Jos&#233; do Rio Preto), Luiz Aparecido Bortolotto (INCOR), Lu&#237;z Cesar Naz&#225;rio Scala (Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso), M&#225;rcio Gon&#231;alves de Sousa (Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia), Marco Antonio Mota Gomes (Faculdade de Medicina de Alagoas-UNCISAL), Marcus Bolivar Malachias (Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas de Minas Gerais), Miguel Gus (Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre), Oswaldo Passarelli Jr. (Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia), Paulo C&#233;sar Veiga Jardim (Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s), Paulo Roberto Toscano (Universidade do Estado do Par&#225;), Ramiro A. S&#225;nchez (Fundaci&#243;n Favaloro, Universidad "Dr Ren&#233; G Favaloro", Buenos Aires, Argentina), Roberto D. Miranda (Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo), Rui P&#243;voa (Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo), Weimar Kunz Sebba Barroso (Faculdade de Medicina - Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s)</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="back" fn-type="corresp">
        <p>Correspond&#234;ncia:</p>
        <p> Weimar Sebba Barroso de Souza </p>
        <p> Rua 70, n&#186; 250, apto. 1801, Ed. Lyon, Jardim Goi&#225;s </p>
        <p> CEP 74810-350, Goi&#226;nia, GO - Brasil </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="wsebba@uol.com.br">wsebba@uol.com.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Artigo recebido em 04/06/12 </p>
    <p> Revisado em 04/06/12 </p>
    <p> Aceito em 05/06/12</p>
    <p>
      <bold>ERRATA</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Edi&#231;&#227;o de Julho 2012, vol. 99 (1), p&#225;gs. 576-585</bold>
    </p>
    <p>No artigo especial "I Posicionamento Brasileiro Sobre Hipertens&#227;o Arterial Resistente", p&#225;ginas 576-585, do Departamento de Hipertens&#227;o Arterial da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia pelos autores, incluir e considerar na cita&#231;&#227;o os nomes dos autores: ALESSI A, BRAND&#195;O AA, COCA A, CORDEIRO AC, NOGUEIRA AR, FEITOSA AM, AMODEO C, RODRIGUES CIS, CALHOUN DA, COELHO EB, PIMENTA E, MUXFELDT E, CONSOLIN-COLOMBO FM, SALLES G, ROSITO G, MORENO JR H, MARTIN JFV, YUGAR-TOLEDO JC, BORTOLOTTO LA, SCALA LCN, SOUSA MG, GOMES MAM, MALACHIAS MVB, GUS M, PASSARELLI J&#218;NIOR O, JARDIM PCBV, TOSCANO PR, S&#193;NCHEZ RA, MIRANDA RD, P&#211;VOA RMS, SOUZA WKSB. Na lista completa dos autores, corrigir o nome do autor Antonio Cordeiro para Antonio Carlos Cordeiro, do autor Audes Feitosa para Audes Di&#243;genes de Magalh&#227;es Feitosa, da autora Cibele Rodrigues para Cibele Isaac Saad Rodrigues, do autor David Calhoun para David A. Calhoun, do autor Eduardo Barbosa para Eduardo Barbosa Coelho, da autora Fernanda Consolin-Colombo para Fernanda Marciano Consolin-Colombo, do autor Luiz Bortolotto para Luiz Aparecido Bortolotto, do autor Lu&#237;s Cesar Naz&#225;rio Scala para Lu&#237;z Cesar Naz&#225;rio Scala, do autor M&#225;rcio de Souza para M&#225;rcio Gon&#231;alves de Sousa, do autor Ramiro Sanchez para Ramiro A. S&#225;nchez e do autor Roberto Miranda para Roberto Dischinger Miranda.</p>
  </body>
  <back>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Special Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">First Brazilian position on resistant hypertension</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Hypertension</kwd>
        <kwd>hypertension</kwd>
        <kwd>blood pressure</kwd>
        <kwd>antihypertensive agents</kwd>
        <kwd>antihypertensive agents</kwd>
        <kwd>risk factors</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>SPECIAL ARTICLE</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fn id="top-body2">
          <label>
            <bold>First Brazilian position on resistant hypertension</bold>
          </label>
          <p>
            <bold>Hypertension Department of the Brazilian Society of Cardiology, by the authors</bold>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p>Mailing Address</p>
      <p><bold>Keywords:</bold> Hypertension / physiopathology; hypertension / diet therapy; blood pressure; antihypertensive agents / administration &amp; dosage; antihypertensive agents / therapeutic use &amp; dosage; risk factors.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Definition and epidemiology</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Definition</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Resistant Hypertension (RH) is defined as blood pressure (BP) that remains above the recommended target in spite of the use of three antihypertensive drugs with synergistic actions at maximum recommended and tolerated doses, one of which should preferably be a diuretic, or when four or more different antihypertensive drugs are used, even when BP is controlled<sup>1</sup>.</p>
      <p>True RH must be differentiated from pseudo-resistance, which occurs due to non-adherence to treatment, inadequate blood pressure measurements, use of inadequate doses or therapeutic regimens, or the occurrence of white-coat effect<sup>2</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Control of hypertension in Brazil and worldwide</bold>
      </p>
      <p>An average of 30% of the adult population has high blood pressure (HBP), about 1.2 billion people in the world<sup>3</sup>. In Brazil, 14 population-based studies (1994-2009) revealed low levels of BP control (19.6%)<sup>4</sup>.</p>
      <p>The fact that hypertension control doubled in the U.S. from 1988 to 2008 (27.3% vs. 53.5%)<sup>5</sup>, and increased fivefold in Canada from 1992 to 2009 (13.2% vs. 64.6%)<sup>6</sup>, reflects important advances in HBP detection and treatment in these countries.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Incidence and prevalence of resistant hypertension</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Daugherty et al. found an RH incidence of 1.9% in an 18-month follow-up of hypertensive patients who started treatment. This study involved a large cohort of ethnically diverse patients and took treatment adherence into account, therefore excluding pseudo-resistance<sup>7</sup>.</p>
      <p>Although the exact RH prevalence has not been established yet, it is estimated that the condition affects 12-15% of individuals with high blood pressure<sup>8</sup>. Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) in the period of 2003 to 2008 showed that 12.8% of hypertensive patients taking antihypertensive drugs in the United States had RH<sup>9</sup>. Egan et al.<sup>10</sup> noted that these percentages have increased in the United States.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Factors contributing to resistant hypertension</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Both systolic and diastolic hypertension may be resistant, the former being more prevalent<sup>1</sup>. Causal factors include increased sensitivity to salt, fluid overload (due to increased sodium intake, chronic nephropathy, or inadequate diuretic therapy), exogenous substances (non-hormonal anti-inflammatory drugs, corticosteroids, oral contraceptives, sympathomimetics, chemotherapy drugs, antidepressants, immunosuppressants, decongestants, anorectics, alcohol, and cocaine), and secondary causes of hypertension (emphasizing primary aldosteronism, obstructive sleep apnea, chronic nephropathy, and renal artery stenosis)<sup>11,12</sup>.</p>
      <p>The following characteristics are predominant in patients with resistant hypertension: older age, African descent, obesity, left ventricular hypertrophy, diabetes mellitus, chronic kidney disease, metabolic syndrome, increased salt intake, and reduced physical activity. It should be noted that the white-coat effect is present in about 30% of RH patients<sup>1,13</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Prognostic aspects</bold>
      </p>
      <p>RH is a condition with difficult clinical management and high cardiovascular risk. Most epidemiological studies evaluating the prognosis of resistant hypertension have limitations such as lack of uniformity in definitions and information on drugs used, inclusion of cases of pseudo-hypertension, as well as insufficient follow-up time and exclusion of young patients<sup>1,14</sup>.</p>
      <p>The prognosis is especially associated with the following factors: prolonged exposure to high blood pressure, increased blood pressure, target organ damage and mineralocorticoid (aldosterone) excess, and high rates of sodium intake<sup>15-17</sup>. Several studies show that aldosterone is an important marker of cardiovascular disease severity<sup>18</sup>.</p>
      <p>Ambulatory Blood Pressure Monitoring (ABPM) is an important prognostic marker, especially nocturnal blood pressure and 24-hour pulse pressure<sup>14,19,20</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Assessment flowchart</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The first step in the investigation of resistant hypertension is the exclusion of causes of pseudo-resistance, such as inadequate blood pressure measurement technique, poor adherence to treatment, pseudo-hypertension, and white-coat effect<sup>1</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_02f01-body2">Figure 1</xref>). ABPM is the method of choice for confirmation of inadequate blood pressure control, but if this is not available, Home Blood Pressure Monitoring (HMBP) or Self-Monitoring Blood Pressure (SMBP) are useful<sup>13, 21</sup>.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_02f01-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-99-01-0576-00002-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Target organ damage and associated comorbidities should be investigated with specialized tests, because they influence the stratification of cardiovascular risk, and are prognostic markers<sup>22,23</sup>.</p>
      <p>Among the causes of pseudo-resistance, poor adherence is the major challenge. Therapeutic inertia, prescription of insufficient doses or non-synergistic medications, and poor doctor-patient relationship should be observed, as well as the search for agents that can interfere with blood pressure control. If the goal to be achieved is not reached within six months, a short period hospitalization should be considered<sup>24</sup>.</p>
      <p>Approximately 30% to 50% of patients underestimate their sodium intake. The impact of sodium restriction on resistant hypertension is well established, and the determination of 24-hour urinary sodium excretion should be performed as control<sup>16</sup>. The diagnosis of secondary hypertension should be thoroughly searched for in resistant hypertension.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Blood pressure measurement</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The use of an accurate technique for BP measurement is essential for the accurate diagnosis of resistant hypertension. The patient should be quietly seated for five minutes before the measurement, with the back supported and the arm at heart level. A cuff suitable for the arm circumference should be used (width/length proportion 1:2, and width and length of rubber cuff corresponding to 40% and 80% of arm circumference, respectively)<sup>25</sup>. A minimum of three readings should be taken at intervals of at least one minute, and the average of the last two measurements should be used if the difference between them is less than or equal to 4 mm Hg. BP should be measured in both arms, and the arm with the higher pressures should be used in future measurements. If the difference between the arms is greater than 15 mmHg for systolic blood pressure and/or 10 mmHg for diastolic blood pressure, atherosclerotic<sup>26</sup> vascular disease should be investigated. BP measurements in supine and upright positions should be taken in the follow-up evaluations to assess orthostatic hypotension.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>ABPM</bold>
      </p>
      <p>ABPM is an important tool in the diagnosis of a major cause of pseudo-resistance, in which individuals with a BP supposedly higher than the goal in the clinician's office have a normal ABPM. This difference between office and awake ABPM blood pressure measurements is called white-coat effect. Very high pressure levels may be a limitation to the test, because of patient discomfort. In these situations, HMBP and SMBP are alternative options.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>HMBP</bold>
      </p>
      <p>HMBP is an indirect method of recording the blood pressure, with three measurements in the morning and three at night for five days<sup>4</sup>. HMBP indications are basically the same as for ABPM, but HMBP may be better tolerated in patients with very high blood pressure. HMBP can also identify the white-coat effect, therefore excluding or confirming RH.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>SMBP</bold>
      </p>
      <p>SMBP is a measurement method usually performed at home by patients or family members. The main advantage of SMBP is the possibility of obtaining a more accurate estimate of the actual blood pressure values, because they are obtained in the environment where the patients live, provided that validated and calibrated equipment is used. <xref ref-type="table" rid="t01-body2">Table 1</xref> shows a list of pressure values considered normal for hypertension and for white-coat effect in Office, ABPM, HMBP, and SMBP measurements.</p>
      <table-wrap id="t01-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-99-01-0576-00002-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>
        <bold>Target organ lesions</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Vascular and brain disorders</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Vascular abnormalities may be present in the early stages of hypertensive disease. RH is associated with more severe vascular dysfunction, as assessed by endothelium-dependent vasodilation and serum biomarkers, which may explain an absence of nocturnal blood pressure decline and a higher pulse pressure during ABPM<sup>27,28</sup>. There is a close relationship between high levels of BP, endothelial dysfunction and increased vascular stiffness in patients with resistant hypertension, demonstrated by a reduction in flow-mediated vasodilatation and in a high pulse wave velocity. In this population, higher levels of aldosterone are also observed<sup>29,30</sup>.</p>
      <p>The nervous system may be affected early in RH and it is mostly benefited from adequate BP control. Vascular changes are universal, and cerebral vessels are affected relatively early in the hypertensive process. Retinal microvascular abnormalities reflect what happens in the brain. A retinal exam may show microaneurysms, hemorrhages, hard and soft exudates, pathological arteriovenous crossings, and arterial wall thickening.</p>
      <p>Carotid stenosis, intracranial and aortic arch atherosclerosis, and cardiac lesions may be responsible for ischemic or thromboembolic phenomena. The uncontrolled hypertension can lead, over time, to small brain aneurysms that may rupture, causing large subarachnoid or intracerebral hemorrhage.<sup>31</sup> Lacunar infarcts are small, generally less than 2.0 cm in diameter, and they result from obstruction of small perforating vessels, and may be responsible for progressive dementia.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Cardiac disorders</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The main cardiac damage in patients with resistant hypertension is left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH). In Brazil, the prevalence of LVH, diagnosed by echocardiography, in patients with resistant hypertension is 83.3%<sup>32</sup>. In these patients, ECG changes with T wave inversion and ST segment depression in leads V5 and V6 indicate a worse prognostic<sup>33,34</sup>. LVH is an important independent risk factor for cardiovascular morbidity and mortality, increasing the risk by 1.5 times in individuals with this lesion<sup>35</sup>. This condition predisposes the development of heart failure, ventricular tachyarrhythmias, ischemic or embolic stroke, and atrial fibrillation. In LVH, decreased coronary flow reserve, arterial wall stiffening, and endothelial dysfunction lead to a significant myocardial ischemia. In these individuals, since they present macrovascular and microvascular endothelial dysfunction, chest pain symptoms should be taken seriously, even when angiography shows no evidence of relevant coronary disease<sup>36</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Kidney disorders</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Renal lesions are common and occur early, with hemodynamic changes secondary to glomerular mass loss, but which determine hypertrophy and hyperfiltration of residual normal nephrons.</p>
      <p>The so-called "benign" hypertensive nephrosclerosis is characterized by arteriosclerosis and arteriolosclerosis, hyalinosis, tubular-interstitial lesions, and focal segmental or global glomerulosclerosis<sup>37</sup>. On the other hand, myointimal hyperplasia and fibrinoid necrosis are described as abnormalities that may eventually lead to the lesions caused by malignant hypertension<sup>37</sup>.</p>
      <p>There are several risk factors that may contribute to the development and progression of hypertensive nephrosclerosis: age (over 50), male gender, genetic predisposition and ethnicity (African descent), duration and severity of hypertension, low socioeconomic status, severity of proteinuria, severity of renal dysfunction, dyslipidemia; and other aggressors: smoking habit, excessive salt and protein intake in the diet, use of anti-inflammatory drugs, antibiotics and other nephrotoxic agents<sup>38</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Phenotype of resistant hypertensive patients</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Advanced age is a major factor related to the difficulty in achieving systolic BP goals. Alongside, the Framingham study found a correlation between difficulty of BP control and the presence of a higher baseline systolic blood pressure<sup>39</sup>. LVH and obesity are also strong predictors of failure to control hypertension, the latter being more related to difficulties in controlling the diastolic blood pressure. High rates of sodium intake<sup>18</sup>, chronic kidney disease (glomerular filtration rate <underline>&lt;</underline>60 mL/min), diabetes, and African descent complete the list of clinical characteristics associated with difficulty of BP control<sup>1</sup>. Other conditions have been associated, such as: a) presence of silent and early damage in target organs such as microalbuminuria<sup>23,40,41</sup>, LVH<sup>42,43</sup>, obstructive sleep apnea syndrome<sup>46-44</sup>, and metabolic syndrome<sup>47</sup>. Although a cause and effect relationship with resistant hypertension has not been fully defined yet for the last two conditions, some studies have indicated the existence of common mechanisms for obesity, metabolic syndrome, diabetes, sleep disorders and inflammatory activity in hypertensive patients, in general<sup>48,49</sup>. There is a common association among positive screening test for hypercortisolism and diabetes, advanced age and a non-dipper pattern in a resistant hypertensive population<sup>50</sup>. Furthermore, RH patients with type 2 diabetes have a more severe autonomic dysfunction associated with higher levels of body mass index and reduced plasma levels of adiponectin<sup>51</sup>. The presence of elevated plasma levels of aldosterone has been identified as relevant to the failure of BP control<sup>52</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Secondary hypertension</bold>
      </p>
      <p>There is no evidence to suggest the true prevalence of secondary causes among subjects with resistant hypertension. However, the likelihood of secondary causes among patients with severe and/or difficult-to-control hypertension is notably greater. Obstructive Sleep Apnea (OSA), Primary Aldosteronism (PA), Chronic Renal Parenchymal Disease (CRPD), Renovascular Hypertension (RVH), Pheochromocytoma (PHEO), Cushing's syndrome (CS), Coarctation of the Aorta (CoA), thyroid disorders and the use of some drugs that affect the blood pressure, illicit drugs and alcohol abuse are the most common secondary forms of resistant hypertension. OSA is highly prevalent; in our country, it was found in 64% of patients with resistant hypertension<sup>53</sup>. There was a prevalence of 20% of PA in the resistant hypertensive population<sup>54</sup>. Atherosclerotic RVH is present in 12.5% of resistant hypertensive patients aged over 50 years<sup>55</sup>. PHEO is associated with paroxysmal (30% of cases) or resistant hypertension with or without paroxysms in 50% to 60% of the cases<sup>56</sup>. The possibility of a secondary cause is one of the key points of the evaluation of hypertensive patients. In RH, however, greater emphasis should be put on the investigation of secondary causes, and specific exams and tests should be conducted in suspected cases. <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_02t02-body2">Table 2</xref> shows the main causes of secondary hypertension, suggestive symptoms and the main diagnostic methods for the investigation of these conditions.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_02t02-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-99-01-0576-00002-gt02-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Nonpharmacological measures</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The use of nonpharmacological measures is of great importance in the treatment of RH<sup>1</sup>. Despite the small number of studies evaluating the effectiveness of these measures, they have proven to be effective in the treatment of hypertensive patients in general, and this benefit seems to be higher in severe hypertensive patients than in those with mild/moderate hypertension. Therefore, patients with resistant hypertension should be counseled about the importance of reducing salt in the diet, losing weight, exercising regularly and practicing moderation in consumption of alcohol<sup>1,4</sup>.</p>
      <p>Salt restriction: a high intake of dietary sodium demonstrably contributes to resistance to antihypertensive therapy. Elderly patients of African descent or with impaired renal function are especially sensitive to salt. Despite a low sodium diet moderately lower (3.7 to 7.0/0.9 to 2.5 mmHg) blood pressure in hypertensive patients in general<sup>57-60</sup>, those with resistant hypertension are particularly salt-sensitive. A study comparing the effects of a low sodium diet in patients with resistant hypertension showed that a diet containing approximately 2.5 g salt/day can reduce BP by 23.0/9.0 mmHg. This study demonstrates that the reduction in salt intake (3.0-4.0 g salt/day) is essential in managing patients with resistant hypertension. It is important to emphasize how difficult it is to reduce dietary salt intake to the recommended values<sup>61</sup>.</p>
      <p>Alcohol consumption: There is a direct relationship between the amount of alcohol consumed and blood pressure levels, so that excessive consumption of alcohol contributes significantly to the difficulty in controlling BP. Men who consume excessive amounts of alcohol (<underline>&gt;</underline> 4 doses/day) are 50% more likely to have BP above goal<sup>63</sup>. Aguilera et al.<sup>64</sup> evaluated the effect of abstinence from alcohol on blood pressure in deep-rooted drinkers, and found an average reduction of 7.2 and 6.6 mmHg, respectively, in systolic and diastolic BP over 24 hours<sup>64</sup>. In the same study, the prevalence of hypertension among participants decreased from 42% to 12%. Moderate consumption of alcohol (<underline>&lt;</underline> 20 g of ethanol or two doses per day) or total abstinence is recommended for deep-rooted drinkers.</p>
      <p>Weight loss: obesity is associated with stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system, retention of salt and sleep apnea<sup>1,4</sup>. Therefore, obesity is associated with elevated blood pressure and resistance to antihypertensive treatment, and weight loss significantly reduces blood pressure. Patients with Body Mass Index (BMI) <underline>&gt;</underline>30 kg/m<sup>2</sup> have 50% higher chance of presenting uncontrolled BP than those with normal BMI (&lt;25 kg/m<sup>2</sup>)<sup>65</sup>. A cross-sectional study with 45,125 patients revealed that, compared to those with normal BMI, patients with BMI &gt;40 kg/m<sup>2</sup> were three times more likely to require the use of three anti-hypertensive and five times more likely to need four drugs to achieve adequate control of BP<sup>66</sup>. Therefore, weight loss must always be sought in RH patients who present overweight or obesity.</p>
      <p>Physical activity: the available data point to a clear beneficial effect of regular physical activity in reducing BP<sup>1,67</sup>. The practice of aerobic exercises has a direct effect on lowering blood pressure and improves the metabolic profile. Resistance exercises also seem to have a beneficial effect on blood pressure, and should complement aerobic activity<sup>4,67</sup>. Therefore, patients with resistant hypertension should be encouraged to perform light to moderate physical activity after medical evaluation. The training program should not be started if the systolic and diastolic pressures are above 160 and/ or 105 mmHg, respectively.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Pharmacological treatment</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The purpose of the pharmacological treatment of resistant hypertension is the reduction of cardiovascular risk. For this it is recommended to achieve the following BP goal: Office BP of 130/80 mmHg; 24-hour ABPM of 125/75 (ideal), 130/80 mmHg may be tolerable; and HMBP of 130/80 mmHg<sup>13,19</sup>.</p>
      <p>Verification of the antihypertensive regimen, assessing the combination, dosage and proper optimization of medications, correcting sub-doses or lack of adherence, and investigating the use of other classes of drugs that may interfere with the antihypertensive efficacy, should always be conducted to confirm the diagnosis of RH<sup>1</sup>.</p>
      <p>The rationale in choosing a regimen of antihypertensive drugs is to block all the possible mechanisms involved in blood pressure elevation. The combination of a drug that blocks the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS), which may be an Angiotensin Converting Enzyme Inhibitor (ACEI) or an Angiotensin II AT1 Receptor Blocker (ARB), associated with a prolonged action dihydropiridine Calcium Channel Antagonist (CCA) and a thiazide diuretic, is often very effective and well tolerated clinically. This is considered the best triple combination, the more effective and synergistic one in achieving the recommended BP goal<sup>68,69</sup>. The use of a renin inhibitor as a drug that blocks the RAAS is less evident in terms of cardiovascular protection.</p>
      <p>Fluid overload seems to be the most frequent pathophysiological mechanism in this population. Thiazide diuretics with prolonged action are recommended. Chlorthalidone, having greater antihypertensive efficacy than hydrochlorothiazide, and a plasma half-life estimated between 45 and 60 hours, is preferably recommended for RH patients with preserved renal function.<sup>1</sup> Loop diuretics are indicated if creatinine clearance is below 30 mL/min. Due to its short duration of action (3 to 6 hours), it is recommended that they are used twice a day.</p>
      <p>Several classes of antihypertensive drugs compete to the position of a fourth drug, but so far no comparative study has been conducted with them to demonstrate superiority in terms of anti-hypertensive efficacy or cardiovascular protection. The addition of mineralocorticoid receptor blockers to the treatment with conventional drugs is the four-drug regimen with greater visibility and it significantly reduces blood pressure in patients with resistant hypertension. In an ASCOT sub-study, the participants who completed the study and did not have a controlled BP with three antihypertensive agents received spironolactone (mean 25 mg) as a fourth drug. After a mean follow up of 1.3 years, the systolic and the diastolic BP decreased 21.9 and 9.5 mmHg, respectively. The reduction in blood pressure with spironolactone occurs regardless of the aldosterone/plasma renin activity ratio<sup>70</sup>.</p>
      <p>The choice of additional drugs to the four-drug combination is empirical and should be individualized<sup>4,71</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02-body2">Figure 2</xref>). Hospitalization is not recommended for the investigation of secondary hypertension or therapy optimization, but this is a strategy that can be used when available, if after six months of therapy optimization the recommended BP goal is not achieved, being an alternative verification of adherence and sodium restriction.</p>
      <fig id="f02-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-99-01-0576-00002-gf02-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>Although there is no evidence of reduction of cardiovascular risk, chronotherapy is an adjuvant strategy in patients on three drugs and with the goal BP not reached prior to the combination of a fourth agent; in these cases an ACC may be used in the night period<sup>72</sup>. This strategy has proven effective in the implementation of sleep blood pressure reduction and decrease.</p>
      <p>Adherence can be implemented by simplifying the treatment regimen with the use of fixed drug combinations. Even if the BP goal is not achieved, pressure values should be as close as possible to the recommended goal.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>New treatments</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The lack of evidence about the best therapy in RH led to the development of new treatments which are being prioritarily tested in patients with poor response to the initial pharmacological treatment.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Direct stimulation of the carotid sinus</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The increased sympathetic tone and decreased parasympathetic tone increase peripheral vascular resistance to sodium retention, reduce renal blood flow and glucose metabolism, and contribute negatively to myocardial remodeling<sup>73</sup>. The chronic stimulation of baroreceptors may exert beneficial effects on blood pressure.</p>
      <p>The Rheos Baroreflex Activation Therapy System is a programmable device that resembles a surgically implanted pacemaker and consists of a pulse generator. The Rheos Pivotal Trial found no significant benefits with this system, and further studies are expected to show the benefits of this device<sup>74</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Renal sympathetic denervation</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Renal sympathetic nerves contribute to the development and maintenance of hypertension, and renal sympathetic activity is exacerbated in hypertensive patients. Endovascular renal sympathetic ablation was evaluated in a case series of patients with resistant hypertension. Over two years, there was a decrease of 32 mmHg and 14 mmHg in the SBP and DBP, respectively, with a very low rate of complications.<sup>75</sup> In the study Symplicity-2, in six months, the difference in pressure drop between the groups was 33 mmHg and 11 mmHg in SBP and DBP, respectively. In the intervention group, 84% of patients had a reduction of at least 10 mmHg, whereas in the control group, this proportion was 35%. There were no major complications related to the described procedure. These findings show that endovascular ablation of the renal artery is a promising procedure in the context of RH, but further studies are necessary to show the possibility of reproducible results and better dissemination of the technique.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Use of Continuous Positive Airway Pressure (CPAP)</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The effects of CPAP on RH were tested in a clinical trial with 75 patients who had their RH condition confirmed by ABPM and who had an apnea-hypopnea index (AHI) <underline>&gt;</underline> 15/h<sup>76</sup>. After a three-month follow-up, only 24h-DBP reduced significantly in the group treated with CPAP (4.9 &#177; 6.4 mmHg vs. 0.1 &#177; 7.3 mmHg in control). The antihypertensive effect was more pronounced in those who tolerated the use of CPAP for more than 5.8 h/day. All the evidence concerning the antihypertensive effect of CPAP and the results of this trial in resistant hypertension indicate that this option can be tried as an adjunctive treatment in patients with AHI greater than 15/h, especially those who tolerate their use for more than 5 h/day.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Complete list of authors:</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Alexandre Alessi (Universidade Federal do Paran&#225;), Andrea Ara&#250;jo Brand&#227;o (Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro), Antonio Coca (School of Medicine, University of Barcelona, Spain), Antonio Carlos Cordeiro (Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia), Armando da Rocha Nogueira (Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro), Audes Di&#243;genes de Magalh&#227;es Feitosa (Hospital Dom Helder C&#226;mara), Celso Amodeo (Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia), Cibele Isaac Saad Rodrigues (Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas e da Sa&#250;de - PUC/SP), David A. Calhoun (University of Alabama, Birmingham, USA), Eduardo Barbosa Coelho (Liga de Combate &#224; Hipertens&#227;o de Porto Alegre), Eduardo Pimenta (Endocrine Hypertension Research Centre, University of Queensland, Australia), Elizabeth Muxfeldt (Hospital Universit&#225;rio Clementino Fraga Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro), Fernanda Marciano Consolin-Colombo (INCOR), Gil Salles (Hospital Universit&#225;rio Clementino Fraga Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro), Guido Rosito (Universidade Federal de Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de de Porto Alegre), Heitor Moreno Jr. (Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas da Universidade Estadual de Campinas), Jose Fernando Vilela Martin (Faculdade Estadual de Medicina de S&#227;o Jos&#233; do Rio Preto), Juan Carlos Yugar (Faculdade Estadual de Medicina de S&#227;o Jos&#233; do Rio Preto), Luiz Aparecido Bortolotto (INCOR), Lu&#237;z Cesar Naz&#225;rio Scala (Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso), M&#225;rcio Gon&#231;alves de Sousa (Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia), Marco Antonio Mota Gomes (Faculdade de Medicina de Alagoas-UNCISAL), Marcus Bolivar Malachias (Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas de Minas Gerais), Miguel Gus (Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre), Oswaldo Passarelli Jr. (Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia), Paulo C&#233;sar Veiga Jardim (Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s), Paulo Roberto Toscano (Universidade do Estado do Par&#225;), Ramiro A. S&#225;nchez (Fundaci&#243;n Favaloro, Universidad "Dr Ren&#233; G Favaloro", Buenos Aires, Argentina), Roberto D. Miranda (Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo), Rui P&#243;voa (Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo), Weimar Kunz Sebba Barroso (Faculdade de Medicina - Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s).</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
      </p>
      <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
      </p>
      <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Study Association</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This study is not associated with any post-graduation program.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
</article>
