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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">zhFZYzpsCwF5vqbTpKkDrXJ</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2012000600003</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(12)09800603</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2012005000046</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigos Originais</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>An&#225;lise de causalidade da rela&#231;&#227;o entre sangramento e letalidade de S&#237;ndromes Coronarianas Agudas</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Correia</surname>
            <given-names>Luis Cl&#225;udio Lemos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Sabino</surname>
            <given-names>Michael</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Brito</surname>
            <given-names>Mariana</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Garcia</surname>
            <given-names>Guilherme</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Viana</surname>
            <given-names>Mateus</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Esteves</surname>
            <given-names>J. P&#233;ricles</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Noya</surname>
            <given-names>M&#225;rcia R.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">Bahia</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Escola Bahiana de Medicina e Sa&#250;de P&#250;blica</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>06</month>
        <year>2012</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>98</volume>
      <issue>6</issue>
      <fpage>488</fpage>
      <lpage>496</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>14</day>
          <month>09</month>
          <year>2011</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>27</day>
          <month>01</month>
          <year>2012</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>14</day>
          <month>09</month>
          <year>2011</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>FUNDAMENTO: Eventos hemorr&#225;gicos em S&#237;ndromes Coronarianas Agudas (SCA) apresentam associa&#231;&#227;o independente com &#243;bito em registros multic&#234;ntricos internacionais. No entanto, essa associa&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o foi testada em nosso meio e a verdadeira rela&#231;&#227;o causal entre sangramento e &#243;bito n&#227;o est&#225; plenamente demonstrada. OBJETIVO: Testar as hip&#243;teses de que: (1) sangramento maior &#233; preditor independente de &#243;bito hospitalar em SCA; (2) a rela&#231;&#227;o entre esses dois desfechos &#233; causal. M&#201;TODOS: Inclu&#237;dos pacientes com crit&#233;rios pr&#233;-definidos de angina inst&#225;vel, infarto sem supradesnivelamento do ST ou infarto com supradesnivelamento do ST. Sangramento maior durante o internamento foi definido de acordo com os tipos 3 ou 5 da Classifica&#231;&#227;o Universal de Sangramento. Regress&#227;o log&#237;stica e an&#225;lise da sequ&#234;ncia de eventos foram utilizadas para avaliar a associa&#231;&#227;o entre sangramento e &#243;bito. RESULTADOS: Dentre 455 pacientes estudados, 29 desenvolveram sangramento maior (6,4%; 95%IC = 4,3-9,0%). Esses indiv&#237;duos apresentaram mortalidade hospitalar de 21%, comparados a 5,6% nos pacientes sem sangramento (RR = 4,0; 95%IC = 1,8-9,1; P = 0,001). Ap&#243;s ajuste para escore de propens&#227;o, sangramento maior permaneceu preditor de &#243;bito hospitalar (OR = 3,34; 95%IC = 1,2-9,5; P = 0,02). Houve 6 &#243;bitos dentre 29 pacientes que sangraram. No entanto, an&#225;lise detalhada da sequ&#234;ncia de eventos demonstrou rela&#231;&#227;o causal em apenas um caso. CONCLUS&#195;O: (1) Sangramento maior &#233; preditor independente de &#243;bito hospitalar em SCA; (2) O papel do sangramento como marcador de risco predomina sobre seu papel de fator de risco para &#243;bito. Essa conclus&#227;o deve ser vista como geradora de hip&#243;tese a ser confirmada por estudos de maior tamanho amostral. (Arq Bras Cardiol. 2012; [online].ahead print, PP.0-0)</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>S&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda</kwd>
        <kwd>angina inst&#225;vel</kwd>
        <kwd>infarto do mioc&#225;rdio</kwd>
        <kwd>hemorragia</kwd>
        <kwd>hemorragia</kwd>
        <kwd>hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>17</day>
        <month>05</month>
        <year>2012</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>An&#225;lise de causalidade da rela&#231;&#227;o entre sangramento e letalidade de S&#237;ndromes Coronarianas Agudas</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Luis Cl&#225;udio Lemos Correia<sup>I,II</sup>; Michael Sabino<sup>I,II</sup>; Mariana Brito<sup>I,II</sup>; Guilherme Garcia<sup>I,II</sup>; Mateus Viana<sup>II</sup>; J. P&#233;ricles Esteves<sup>III</sup>; M&#225;rcia R. Noya<sup>I,II</sup></bold>
    </p>
    <p><sup>I</sup>Escola Bahiana de Medicina, Salvador - BA, Brasil </p>
    <p><sup>II</sup>Hospital S&#227;o Rafael, Salvador - BA, Brasil </p>
    <p><sup>III</sup>Hospital Portugu&#234;s, Salvador - BA, Brasil</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end">Endere&#231;o para correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESUMO</bold>
    </p>
    <p><bold>FUNDAMENTO: </bold>Eventos hemorr&#225;gicos em S&#237;ndromes Coronarianas Agudas (SCA) apresentam associa&#231;&#227;o independente com &#243;bito em registros multic&#234;ntricos internacionais. No entanto, essa associa&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o foi testada em nosso meio e a verdadeira rela&#231;&#227;o causal entre sangramento e &#243;bito n&#227;o est&#225; plenamente demonstrada. </p>
    <p><bold>OBJETIVO:</bold> Testar as hip&#243;teses de que: (1) sangramento maior &#233; preditor independente de &#243;bito hospitalar em SCA; (2) a rela&#231;&#227;o entre esses dois desfechos &#233; causal. </p>
    <p><bold>M&#201;TODOS:</bold> Inclu&#237;dos pacientes com crit&#233;rios pr&#233;-definidos de angina inst&#225;vel, infarto sem supradesnivelamento do ST ou infarto com supradesnivelamento do ST. Sangramento maior durante o internamento foi definido de acordo com os tipos 3 ou 5 da <italic>Classifica&#231;&#227;o Universal de Sangramento</italic>. Regress&#227;o log&#237;stica e an&#225;lise da sequ&#234;ncia de eventos foram utilizadas para avaliar a associa&#231;&#227;o entre sangramento e &#243;bito. </p>
    <p><bold>RESULTADOS: </bold>Dentre 455 pacientes estudados, 29 desenvolveram sangramento maior (6,4%; 95%IC = 4,3-9,0%). Esses indiv&#237;duos apresentaram mortalidade hospitalar de 21%, comparados a 5,6% nos pacientes sem sangramento (RR = 4,0; 95%IC = 1,8-9,1; P = 0,001). Ap&#243;s ajuste para escore de propens&#227;o, sangramento maior permaneceu preditor de &#243;bito hospitalar (OR = 3,34; 95%IC = 1,2-9,5; P = 0,02). Houve 6 &#243;bitos dentre 29 pacientes que sangraram. No entanto, an&#225;lise detalhada da sequ&#234;ncia de eventos demonstrou rela&#231;&#227;o causal em apenas um caso. </p>
    <p><bold>CONCLUS&#195;O:</bold> (1) Sangramento maior &#233; preditor independente de &#243;bito hospitalar em SCA; (2) O papel do sangramento como marcador de risco predomina sobre seu papel de fator de risco para &#243;bito. Essa conclus&#227;o deve ser vista como geradora de hip&#243;tese a ser confirmada por estudos de maior tamanho amostral. (Arq Bras Cardiol. 2012; [online].ahead print, PP.0-0)</p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold> S&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda, angina inst&#225;vel, infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, hemorragia/complica&#231;&#245;es, hemorragia/preven&#231;&#227;o &amp; controle, hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Indiv&#237;duos que desenvolvem angina inst&#225;vel ou infarto do mioc&#225;rdio apresentam alto risco de complica&#231;&#245;es isqu&#234;micas durante a fase aguda<sup>1,2</sup>. Dessa forma, condutas farmacol&#243;gicas e intervencionistas agressivas s&#227;o adotadas precocemente no intuito de minimizar a probabilidade de desfechos recorrentes, do tipo angina refrat&#225;ria, infarto ou morte cardiovascular<sup>3,4</sup>. No entanto, essas mesmas condutas aumentam a probabilidade de eventos hemorr&#225;gicos durante a hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o<sup>5</sup>. Por sua vez, esses eventos hemorr&#225;gicos aumentam o risco de eventos isqu&#234;micos<sup>6</sup>. Surge assim um paradoxo, no qual condutas voltadas para reduzir o risco cardiovascular de pacientes com s&#237;ndromes coronarianas agudas (SCA) podem aumentar o risco por interm&#233;dio de complica&#231;&#245;es hemorr&#225;gicas. </p>
    <p>A ideia desse paradoxo tem sido embasada em evid&#234;ncias cient&#237;ficas. Grandes registros prospectivos demonstram de forma consistente maior probabilidade de &#243;bito em indiv&#237;duos que desenvolvem sangramento durante a hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o<sup>6-11</sup>. Acredita-se que haja associa&#231;&#227;o causal entre sangramento e letalidade hospitalar de SCA, visto que h&#225; plausibilidade de que instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica decorrente do sangramento, anemia e necessidade de suspens&#227;o de agentes antitromb&#243;ticos provoquem isquemia mioc&#225;rdica. Essa poss&#237;vel associa&#231;&#227;o causal &#233; refor&#231;ada pelo papel de preditor independente que eventos hemorr&#225;gicos exercem em modelos multivariados que avaliam o desfecho &#243;bito cardiovascular nessa circunst&#226;ncia cl&#237;nica<sup>6-12</sup>. Por outro lado, causalidade n&#227;o se define apenas por plausibilidade ou associa&#231;&#227;o independente, e os grandes registros prospectivos n&#227;o descrevem detalhadamente a sequ&#234;ncia de eventos que levou &#224; morte desses indiv&#237;duos.</p>
    <p>O presente estudo possui dois objetivos: primeiro, testar o valor progn&#243;stico independente de eventos hemorr&#225;gicos maiores durante a fase aguda de s&#237;ndromes coronarianas. Essa ser&#225; a primeira tentativa de reproduzir os dados da literatura internacional em um registro brasileiro. Segundo, analisar individualmente a sequ&#234;ncia de eventos que leva &#224; morte alguns pacientes que sofrem sangramento, no intuito de confirmar a rela&#231;&#227;o causal entre esses dois desfechos. Este representa o primeiro esfor&#231;o de compreens&#227;o da verdadeira natureza causal dessa rela&#231;&#227;o. </p>
    <p>Para essas an&#225;lises, foi utilizado o Registro Prospectivo de S&#237;ndromes Coronarianas Agudas (Resca), que envolveu 455 pacientes inclu&#237;dos a partir de rigorosos crit&#233;rios de sele&#231;&#227;o, onde eventos hemorr&#225;gicos maiores, eventos isqu&#234;micos recorrentes e &#243;bito foram registrados no seguimento hospitalar. Nesta an&#225;lise, os eventos hemorr&#225;gicos foram classificados de acordo com a recente <italic>Classifica&#231;&#227;o Universal de Sangramento</italic><sup>13</sup>. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>M&#233;todos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Sele&#231;&#227;o da popula&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A amostra do estudo foi recrutada em dois hospitais terci&#225;rios de refer&#234;ncia em Cardiologia, com caracter&#237;sticas assistenciais e perfil de pacientes semelhantes. Indiv&#237;duos consecutivamente internados em Unidade Coron&#225;ria com diagn&#243;stico de SCA foram triados para entrada no estudo, no per&#237;odo de agosto de 2007 a setembro de 2009 no primeiro Hospital, e entre maio e dezembro de 2010 no segundo Hospital. </p>
    <p>S&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda sem supradesnivelamento do segmento ST foi definida como desconforto precordial nas &#250;ltimas 48 horas, associado a pelo menos uma das seguintes caracter&#237;sticas: 1) marcador de necrose mioc&#225;rdica positivo, definido por troponina T &#8805; 0,01 ug/L ou troponina I &#8805; 0,034 &#181;g/L, o que corresponde a valores acima do percentil 99 da popula&#231;&#227;o de refer&#234;ncia<sup>14</sup>; 2) altera&#231;&#245;es eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas isqu&#234;micas, consistindo de invers&#227;o de onda T ( 0,1 mV) ou infradesnivelamento transit&#243;rio do segmento ST (&#8805; 0,05 mV); 3) doen&#231;a arterial coronariana previamente documentada, definida por hist&#243;ria de infarto do mioc&#225;rdio ou angiografia pr&#233;via demonstrando obstru&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria &#8805; 50%. </p>
    <p>Infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio com supradesnivelamento do segmento ST foi definido como desconforto precordial nas &#250;ltimas 48 horas, associado a supradesnivelamento do segmento ST &#8805; 1 mm em duas deriva&#231;&#245;es cont&#237;guas e eleva&#231;&#227;o de marcadores de necrose mioc&#225;rdica tal como descrito acima. </p>
    <p>Indiv&#237;duos que completaram crit&#233;rios de inclus&#227;o e forneceram consentimento livre e esclarecido foram inclu&#237;dos no estudo. Este protocolo foi aprovado pelo Comit&#234; de &#201;tica em Pesquisa do Hospital. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Defini&#231;&#227;o de sangramento hospitalar</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Para fins da an&#225;lise dos dados, foram considerados os sangramentos de maior porte, definidos pela <italic>Classifica&#231;&#227;o Universal de Sangramento</italic><sup>13</sup> da seguinte forma: (1) tipo 3a: queda de hemoglobina de 3 a 5 g% ou necessidade de transfus&#227;o sangu&#237;nea; (2) tipo 3b: queda de hemoglobina &#8805; 5 g%, tamponamento card&#237;aco, necessidade de cirurgia para controle ou instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica; (3) tipo 3c: hemorragia intracraniana ou intraocular; (4) tipo 5: sangramento fatal, ou seja, aquele com um claro v&#237;nculo causal com &#243;bito subsequente. Esse v&#237;nculo pode ser de ordem direta (por exemplo, morte por choque hemorr&#225;gico) ou indireta (infarto causado por sangramento, evoluindo para fal&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e &#243;bito). Sangramentos menores (tipo 1 ou 2) ou aqueles decorrentes de cirurgia card&#237;aca (tipo 4) n&#227;o foram considerados na an&#225;lise. Al&#233;m dessa defini&#231;&#227;o, os eventos hemorr&#225;gicos foram classificados quanto ao s&#237;tio de sangramento. Embora a <italic>Classifica&#231;&#227;o Universal de Sangramento</italic> tenha sido publicada recentemente, todos os dados necess&#225;rios para realizar essa classifica&#231;&#227;o foram definidos <italic>a priori</italic>, garantindo o car&#225;ter prospectivo da coleta de dados.</p>
    <p>&#211;bito hospitalar foi registrado prospectivamente e dividido em dois grupos: relacionado ao sangramento ou n&#227;o relacionado a sangramento. Eventos isqu&#234;micos n&#227;o fatais foram definidos por infarto (ou reinfarto) ou angina refrat&#225;ria. Infarto n&#227;o fatal foi registrado durante a hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o quando da eleva&#231;&#227;o de troponina em pacientes cujos valores estavam negativos nas primeiras 24 horas. Para pacientes com infarto na admiss&#227;o, um novo pico de CK-MB (&gt; 50% do valor pr&#233;vio e acima do valor normal) foi necess&#225;rio para a defini&#231;&#227;o de reinfarto. Eleva&#231;&#227;o de marcadores de necrose induzidos por procedimento coronariano percut&#226;neo ou cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o foram registrados como evento recorrente. Angina refrat&#225;ria durante hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o foi definida por dor precordial recorrente, pelo menos duas vezes, a despeito do uso de nitratos e duplo produto controlado. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>An&#225;lise dos dados</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A incid&#234;ncia de sangramento maior foi descrita por frequ&#234;ncia relativa e intervalo de confian&#231;a com 95% de precis&#227;o (95% IC). A associa&#231;&#227;o univariada entre sangramento e &#243;bito hospitalar foi descrita por risco relativo e 95% IC. Inicialmente, caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas pr&#233;vias ao sangramento, terapia antitromb&#243;tica e frequ&#234;ncia de interven&#231;&#227;o percut&#226;nea foram comparadas entre aqueles que sofreram hemorragia e os demais indiv&#237;duos, a fim de identificar potenciais preditores de sangramento (P &#8804; 0,10). Em segundo lugar, esses preditores de sangramento foram comparados entre pacientes que apresentaram &#243;bito e os que n&#227;o apresentaram &#243;bito hospitalar, sendo identificadas as vari&#225;veis associadas a &#243;bito com valor de P &#8804; 0,10. Dessa forma, as vari&#225;veis simultaneamente associadas a sangramento e &#243;bito foram selecionadas para um modelo multivariado, a fim de definir um escore de propens&#227;o para sangramento. Utilizando regress&#227;o log&#237;stica e tendo sangramento maior como desfecho, as vari&#225;veis com valor de P &lt; 0,05 no modelo final constitu&#237;ram o escore de propens&#227;o. A estat&#237;stica-C desse escore foi calculada e descrita juntamente com seu intervalo de confian&#231;a. </p>
    <p>No intuito de avaliar a associa&#231;&#227;o independente de sangramento e &#243;bito, um segundo modelo de regress&#227;o log&#237;stica foi utilizado, tendo &#243;bito hospitalar como vari&#225;vel de desfecho e sangramento como vari&#225;vel preditora, ajustada para o escore de propens&#227;o. Para an&#225;lise estat&#237;stica, SPSS <italic>Statistical Software</italic> (Vers&#227;o 9.0, SPSS Inc., Chicago, Illinois, USA) foi utilizado na an&#225;lise dos dados. </p>
    <p>Finalmente, foi realizada uma an&#225;lise qualitativa da rela&#231;&#227;o causal entre sangramento e &#243;bito, restrita aos pacientes que sangraram e morreram ap&#243;s esse evento. Nessa an&#225;lise, a sequ&#234;ncia dos fatos que levaram &#224; morte foi cuidadosamente detalhada, a fim de inferir se houve rela&#231;&#227;o causal direta entre esses dois desfechos.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Resultados</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Caracter&#237;sticas da amostra</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A amostra consistiu de 455 pacientes, 54% do sexo masculino, idade 67 &#177; 13 anos, 78% internados por SCA sem supradesnivelamento do segmento ST e os demais por infarto com supradesnivelamento do segmento ST. Durante a interna&#231;&#227;o, foi realizada coronariografia em 77% dos pacientes, interven&#231;&#227;o coronariana percut&#226;nea em 37%, e cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o em 8%. A amostra apresentou <italic>Escore de Sangramento Acuity</italic><sup>15</sup> de 16 &#177; 6,8, o que traduz 5% de probabilidade de sangramento maior durante internamento, correspondendo a moderado risco. Vinte e nove indiv&#237;duos desenvolveram sangramento maior durante o internamento, resultando em incid&#234;ncia de 6,4% (95% IC = 4,3 a 9,0%).</p>
    <p>Dentre os sangramentos maiores, predominou aqueles relacionados ao s&#237;tio de inser&#231;&#227;o de cateter femoral para coronariografia (31%) ou angioplastia (48%), correspondendo a 79% dos casos. Outras etiologias foram sangramento digestivo em 14% e sangramento nasal em 6% dos pacientes com sangramento maior. De acordo com a <italic>Classifica&#231;&#227;o Universal</italic><sup>13</sup>, a maioria correspondente a 82% foi classificada como tipo 3a, seguida de 14% do tipo 3b e apenas um caso do tipo 5 (fatal). Cinquenta e cinco por cento dos pacientes que sangraram foram transfundidos, 72% apresentaram queda de hemoglobina &#8805; 3 g% e apenas 14% desenvolveram instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica diretamente decorrente do sangramento. Em apenas 17% dos casos, os agentes antitromb&#243;ticos foram suspensos devido ao sangramento (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="aop04212fig01">fig. 1</xref>).</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="aop04212fig01">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-98-06-0488-00046-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Sangramento e &#243;bito hospitalar</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Indiv&#237;duos que desenvolveram sangramento maior apresentaram mortalidade hospitalar de 21%, significativamente maior do que os 5,6% observados no grupo que n&#227;o apresentou sangramento (Risco Relativo = 4,0; 95% IC = 1,8 - 9,1; P = 0,001). </p>
    <p>No intuito de avaliar a associa&#231;&#227;o independente de sangramento e &#243;bito, um escore de propens&#227;o para sangramento foi desenvolvido. Inicialmente caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas e abordagens pr&#233;vias ao sangramento foram comparadas entre indiv&#237;duos que sangraram e n&#227;o sangraram. Comparados aos pacientes livres de hemorragia, aqueles que sangraram tinham idade superior, frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca superior, maior preval&#234;ncia de troponina positiva e de doen&#231;a coronariana severa. Do ponto de vista de tratamento, pacientes que sangraram fizeram uso mais frequente de antagonistas da glicoprote&#237;na IIb/IIIa, coronariografia e angioplastia coronariana (P &#8804; 0,10 para todos os casos) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="aop04212tab01">tab. 1</xref>). Dentre essas vari&#225;veis, idade, frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, troponina e doen&#231;a severa estiveram associadas a mortalidade (P &lt; 0,05) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="aop04212tab02">tab. 2</xref>). Dessa forma, esses par&#226;metros (associados simultaneamente a sangramento e morte) foram inseridos em modelo de regress&#227;o log&#237;stica, tendo sangramento como vari&#225;vel de desfecho. No modelo final, permaneceram idade e doen&#231;a coronariana severa como preditores independentes de sangramento (<xref ref-type="table" rid="aop04212tab03">tab. 3</xref>). Esse modelo final foi utilizado como escore de propens&#227;o de sangramento, o qual apresentou estat&#237;stica-C de 0,76 (P &lt; 0,001). Ap&#243;s ajuste para o escore de propens&#227;o por regress&#227;o log&#237;stica, sangramento maior permaneceu preditor independente de &#243;bito, com <italic>Odds Ratio</italic> de 3,34 (95% IC = 1,2 - 9,5; P = 0,02) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="aop04212tab04">tab. 4</xref>). </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="aop04212tab01">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-98-06-0488-00046-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="aop04212tab02">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-98-06-0488-00046-gt02.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="aop04212tab03">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-98-06-0488-00046-gt03.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="aop04212tab04">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-98-06-0488-00046-gt04.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>An&#225;lise da rela&#231;&#227;o causal entre sangramento e &#243;bito</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A cronologia dos eventos foi analisada nos seis pacientes que morreram ap&#243;s o sangramento, a fim de avaliar de forma individualizada a poss&#237;vel rela&#231;&#227;o causal entre esses dois desfechos (<xref ref-type="table" rid="aop04212tab05">tab. 5</xref>). </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="aop04212tab05">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-98-06-0488-00046-gt05.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>A Paciente #1 apresentou n&#237;tida rela&#231;&#227;o causal entre sangramento e &#243;bito. Tratou-se de uma mulher, 73 anos, admitida com infarto sem supradesnivelamento do segmento ST. Realizou coronariografia por via femoral, a qual n&#227;o demonstrou obstru&#231;&#245;es coronarianas significativas. No entanto, horas ap&#243;s o procedimento, desenvolveu sangramento profuso pelo local do introdutor, entrando em choque hemorr&#225;gico. Houve eleva&#231;&#227;o substancial de marcadores de necrose mioc&#225;rdica, caracterizando infarto secund&#225;rio ao choque. A paciente n&#227;o recuperou a condi&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica, desenvolvendo choque refrat&#225;rio, seguido de morte no dia seguinte ao sangramento. Dessa forma, essa paciente constitui um caso de sangramento do tipo 5 (fatal).</p>
    <p>Por sua vez, os outros cinco pacientes n&#227;o apresentaram quadro cl&#237;nico que possa ser classificado como sangramento do tipo 5, ou seja, n&#227;o se identifica n&#237;tida rela&#231;&#227;o causal entre a hemorragia e o desfecho fatal. O Paciente #2, homem de 81 anos, internado com infarto sem supradesnivelamento do segmento ST, evoluiu com angina refrat&#225;ria e choque cardiog&#234;nico. Sendo assim, foi submetido a angioplastias do tronco da coron&#225;ria esquerda, descendente anterior, circunflexa e coron&#225;ria direita, sem melhora da condi&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica, evoluindo para &#243;bito ap&#243;s alguns dias. Durante o procedimento prolongado de angioplastia houve queda de hemoglobina, necessitando de transfus&#227;o, caracterizando sangramento tipo 3a. Nesse caso, o choque j&#225; estava presente antes do sangramento, portanto n&#227;o foi a hemorragia que causou a instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica respons&#225;vel pela morte. </p>
    <p>A Paciente #3, mulher de 92 anos, foi admitida com infarto sem supradesnivelamento do segmento ST, culminando com angina refrat&#225;ria e edema agudo de pulm&#227;o, sendo colocada em ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica invasiva. Evoluiu com infec&#231;&#227;o respirat&#243;ria e no curso dessa complica&#231;&#227;o apresentou sangramento digestivo, considerado do tipo maior (3a) em raz&#227;o da queda de hemoglobina. Culminou com choque s&#233;ptico e &#243;bito. Nesse caso, a paciente j&#225; apresentava insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca grave antes da hemorragia, sendo o sangramento consequ&#234;ncia da gravidade da paciente. </p>
    <p>O Paciente #4, homem de 71 anos, foi trombolisado na vig&#234;ncia de infarto com supradesnivelamento do segmento ST anterior extenso, o que provocou sangramento nasal, sem repercuss&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica, caracterizado como tipo 3a em raz&#227;o da queda de hemoglobina. A coronariografia mostrou padr&#227;o de doen&#231;a coronariana difusa, sem condi&#231;&#227;o de angioplastia ou cirurgia. Dias depois o paciente evoluiu para choque cardiog&#234;nico, provavelmente decorrente da perda de fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular em raz&#227;o do infarto, sem aparente associa&#231;&#227;o com o evento hemorr&#225;gico.</p>
    <p>A Paciente #5, mulher de 73 anos, foi internada com apresenta&#231;&#227;o tardia de infarto com supradesnivelamento do segmento ST, Killip I. A coronariografia mostrou descendente anterior oclu&#237;da, n&#227;o sendo realizada angioplastia, pelo car&#225;ter tardio da apresenta&#231;&#227;o. Evoluiu com sangramento na retirada do introdutor, classificado como tipo 3a, em raz&#227;o da necessidade de transfus&#227;o sangu&#237;nea, sem repercuss&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica. No entanto, desenvolveu insufici&#234;ncia renal ap&#243;s contraste, culminando com necessidade de di&#225;lise, complicando para infec&#231;&#227;o e &#243;bito. Como n&#227;o houve instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica, n&#227;o podemos atribuir a insufici&#234;ncia renal ao sangramento.</p>
    <p>Finalmente, a Paciente #6, mulher de 63 anos, foi internada por infarto com supradesnivelamento do segmento ST, Killip I. Foi submetida a angioplastia tardia da art&#233;ria circunflexa, evoluindo com sangramento no local do procedimento, necessidade de transfus&#227;o e hipotens&#227;o (tipo 3b). Evoluiu com estabiliza&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica, sendo planejada eletivamente revasculariza&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica da descendente anterior e coron&#225;ria direita. O &#243;bito ocorreu por complica&#231;&#245;es no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio, n&#227;o caracterizando uma rela&#231;&#227;o causal com o sangramento ocorrido durante a angioplastia.</p>
    <p>Dessa forma, entre os pacientes que sangraram e evolu&#237;ram para &#243;bito, apenas em um dos seis casos o &#243;bito foi diretamente relacionado ao evento hemorr&#225;gico. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Discuss&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O presente estudo avalia o impacto cl&#237;nico de eventos hemorr&#225;gicos no curso hospitalar de SCA, evidenciando dois principais resultados: primeiro, sangramento maior durante SCA possui associa&#231;&#227;o independente com mortalidade hospitalar; segundo, an&#225;lise individualizada da sequ&#234;ncia de eventos que levou &#224; morte dos pacientes que sangraram indica que a minoria dos &#243;bitos &#233; direta ou indiretamente causada pelo sangramento.</p>
    <p>Quanto &#224; primeira observa&#231;&#227;o, o risco de morte foi quatro vezes maior nos pacientes que apresentaram hemorragia durante internamento, comparados aos indiv&#237;duos livres de hemorragia. Considerando a possibilidade de que os fatores que levam a sangramento poderiam ser os mesmos que predisp&#245;em a morte, a associa&#231;&#227;o observada poderia ser decorrente de efeito de confus&#227;o. Dessa forma, um escore de propens&#227;o para sangramento foi criado e ap&#243;s ajuste para esse escore, o sangramento permaneceu preditor independente de &#243;bito hospitalar. Apesar da predi&#231;&#227;o independente de sangramento em rela&#231;&#227;o a &#243;bito ter sido descrita em v&#225;rios registros multic&#234;ntricos<sup>6-11</sup>, este &#233; o primeiro trabalho brasileiro a reproduzir essa informa&#231;&#227;o. </p>
    <p>Embora associa&#231;&#227;o independente seja um dos crit&#233;rios necess&#225;rios para definir causalidade, essa n&#227;o representa uma condi&#231;&#227;o suficiente. Portanto, a independente predi&#231;&#227;o de morte a partir do sangramento, descrita nos grandes registros multic&#234;ntricos, n&#227;o indica necessariamente que os &#243;bitos sejam decorrentes dos eventos hemorr&#225;gicos. A causalidade dessa associa&#231;&#227;o &#233; apenas uma infer&#234;ncia sugerida pelos estudos pr&#233;vios, a qual n&#227;o poderia ser resolvida apenas com a an&#225;lise multivariada. Para resolver essa quest&#227;o, de forma in&#233;dita, realizamos uma an&#225;lise descritiva da sequ&#234;ncia de eventos que precederam o &#243;bito. Essa an&#225;lise trouxe a percep&#231;&#227;o n&#237;tida de que o sangramento atua predominantemente como um marcador de risco, e apenas secundariamente como um fator de risco para morte. Seis &#243;bitos ocorreram ap&#243;s sangramento maior: em dois deles as condi&#231;&#245;es de isquemia recorrente e fal&#234;ncia card&#237;aca que levaram &#224; morte se instalaram antes do evento hemorr&#225;gico; em um terceiro caso de morte por fal&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, o sangramento de s&#237;tio nasal (sem repercuss&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica) ocorreu dias antes da manifesta&#231;&#227;o de disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular; em quarto caso, o &#243;bito ocorreu por complica&#231;&#245;es de di&#225;lise; no quinto caso, o &#243;bito decorreu de complica&#231;&#245;es em p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica. Sendo assim, em apenas um caso a morte foi definitivamente decorrente do sangramento, o qual levou a paciente a choque hemorr&#225;gico e consequente infarto do mioc&#225;rdio. Vale salientar que esse tipo de an&#225;lise n&#227;o est&#225; presente nos trabalhos pr&#233;vios provavelmente por causa da dificuldade log&#237;stica em realizar t&#227;o detalhada avalia&#231;&#227;o em estudos de grande porte e multic&#234;ntricos, que disp&#245;em apenas da informa&#231;&#227;o dicot&#244;mica da presen&#231;a das vari&#225;veis de predi&#231;&#227;o e desfecho. </p>
    <p>Dessa forma, fica evidente que an&#225;lises de regress&#227;o log&#237;stica ou Cox, utilizando covari&#225;veis isoladas ou escores de propens&#227;o, n&#227;o s&#227;o suficientes para ajustar plenamente o efeito do sangramento para fatores de confus&#227;o. Ap&#243;s essas an&#225;lises, efeito de confus&#227;o residual provavelmente mant&#233;m uma associa&#231;&#227;o superestimada entre sangramento e &#243;bito. Na verdade, sangramento parece ser um excelente marcador de risco, pela sua rela&#231;&#227;o com diversas caracter&#237;sticas do paciente que o tornam mais vulner&#225;vel a desfechos fatais. Nesse contexto, a recente <italic>Classifica&#231;&#227;o Universal de Sangramento</italic><sup>13</sup> prop&#245;e que esses eventos sejam classificados de 1 a 5, de acordo com a sua consequ&#234;ncia. Nosso trabalho representa o primeiro relato da distribui&#231;&#227;o do tipo de sangramento de acordo com essa classifica&#231;&#227;o, e o tipo 5 significa que o &#243;bito decorreu diretamente do sangramento. </p>
    <p>Devemos salientar que nossa an&#225;lise n&#227;o vai de encontro &#224; atual &#234;nfase na necessidade de medidas para reduzir desfechos hemorr&#225;gicos, tais como racionaliza&#231;&#227;o da terapia antitromb&#243;tica de acordo com an&#225;lise de risco/beneficio<sup>15-17</sup>, utiliza&#231;&#227;o de estrat&#233;gias farmacol&#243;gicas mais seguras<sup>18-20</sup>, aten&#231;&#227;o especial na manipula&#231;&#227;o dos locais de pun&#231;&#227;o e introdutores femorais<sup>21</sup>. Ao passo que o presente estudo ameniza o impacto cl&#237;nico dos sangramentos, este n&#227;o exclui de todo sua rela&#231;&#227;o causal com eventos fatais, visto que houve uma morte decorrente de sangramento neste trabalho de pequeno tamanho amostral. Al&#233;m disso, eventos hemorr&#225;gicos n&#227;o fatais causam desconforto, prolongamento do tempo de interna&#231;&#227;o, necessidade de transfus&#227;o e suspens&#227;o de agentes necess&#225;rios. Portanto, independentemente de seu potencial fatal, sangramentos devem ser prevenidos.</p>
    <p>Por sua vez, considerando que a maioria dos &#243;bitos n&#227;o decorre de sangramento, nosso estudo sugere que, em situa&#231;&#245;es dicot&#244;micas, a decis&#227;o cl&#237;nica deve priorizar a preven&#231;&#227;o de eventos isqu&#234;micos recorrentes, em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; preven&#231;&#227;o de hemorragia. Por exemplo, apesar de alto risco de sangramento (Escore CRUSADE<sup>22</sup> elevado), um paciente com risco isqu&#234;mico alto (Escore GRACE<sup>2</sup>) deve ser submetido a estrat&#233;gia invasiva. Assim, a avalia&#231;&#227;o do risco de sangramento deve servir de est&#237;mulo a medidas preventivas de sangramento, por&#233;m n&#227;o deve inibir procedimentos invasivos ou intensidade da terapia antitromb&#243;tica em paciente de risco elevado. </p>
    <p>Al&#233;m disso, nosso estudo indica que a maior aten&#231;&#227;o deve residir na preven&#231;&#227;o das hemorragias relacionadas a s&#237;tios de pun&#231;&#227;o, pois esses foram respons&#225;veis por 80% dos casos de sangramento maior. Alguns autores referem que o s&#237;tio mais frequente de sangramento &#233; o digestivo<sup>23</sup>. No entanto, devemos diferenciar hemorragias ocorridas na fase hospitalar de s&#237;ndromes coronarianas e aquelas ocorridas ap&#243;s a alta. Os estudos que mostram sangramento digestivo como mais frequente s&#227;o os que inclu&#237;ram o seguimento ambulatorial nessa an&#225;lise<sup>24-26</sup>. Nossos dados mostram de forma clara que, em n&#237;vel hospitalar, o mais frequente &#233; sangramento relacionado a pun&#231;&#227;o femoral, decorrente tanto de angioplastia como de coronariografia diagn&#243;stica.</p>
    <p>O presente estudo apresenta limita&#231;&#245;es que devem ser discutidas. Embora de tamanho amostral moderado, foram apenas seis casos de &#243;bito dentre os pacientes que sangraram. Esse pequeno n&#250;mero de casos decorreu do fato de analisarmos um subgrupo pequeno (&#243;bito) dentro de outro subgrupo pequeno (sangramento), o que faz que essa limita&#231;&#227;o seja inerente a esse tipo de an&#225;lise. Portanto, devemos reconhecer a an&#225;lise sequencial como apenas geradora de hip&#243;tese, a qual deve ser explorada por estudos futuros, cuja coorte contenha informa&#231;&#245;es que permitam avaliar detalhadamente a sequ&#234;ncia dos fatos. Segundo, essa &#233; uma an&#225;lise qualitativa, que lida com a percep&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica de causalidade, tendo sido descrita aus&#234;ncia de rela&#231;&#227;o causal n&#237;tida em cinco dos seis casos. Embora pouco prov&#225;vel, devemos reconhecer que o sangramento pode ter contribu&#237;do indiretamente para a morte em alguns casos. </p>
    <p>Em conclus&#227;o, o presente estudo confirma em nosso meio a associa&#231;&#227;o independente entre eventos hemorr&#225;gicos e &#243;bito hospitalar. Essa associa&#231;&#227;o &#233; primariamente mediada pelo efeito do sangramento como marcador de risco em vez de fator de risco. Essa segunda observa&#231;&#227;o deve ser vista como geradora de hip&#243;tese a ser confirmada por estudos de maior tamanho amostral.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="end" fn-type="corresp">
        <label>
          <bold> Correspond&#234;ncia:</bold>
        </label>
        <p> Luis Cl&#225;udio Lemos Correia </p>
        <p> Av. Princesa Leopoldina, 19/402 - 40150-080 - Salvador - BA, Brasil </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="lccorreia@cardiol.br">lccorreia@cardiol.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Artigo recebido em 14/09/11; </p>
    <p> revisado recebido em 14/09/11; </p>
    <p> aceito em 27/01/12. </p>
  </body>
  <back>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Articles</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Causality analysis of the relationship between bleeding and lethality in Acute Coronary Syndromes</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>BACKGROUND: Hemorrhagic events in Acute Coronary Syndromes (ACS) have been independently associated with death in international multicenter registries. However, that association has not been tested in Brazil and the true causal relationship between bleeding and death has not been completely shown. OBJECTIVE: To test the following hypotheses: (1) major bleeding is an independent predictor of in-hospital death in ACS; (2) the relationship between those two endpoints is causal. METHODS: This study included patients meeting predefined criteria of unstable angina, non-ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction or ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction. Major bleeding during hospitalization was defined according to the Bleeding Academic Research Consortium (types 3 or 5). Logistic regression and analysis of the sequence of events were used to assess the association between bleeding and death. RESULTS: Of the 455 patients studied, 29 experienced major bleeding (6.4%; 95% CI = 4.3-9.0%). They had in-hospital mortality of 21%, as compared with 5.6% of those not experiencing bleeding (RR = 4.0; 95% CI = 1.8-9.1; P = 0.001). After adjusting for the propensity score, major bleeding remained as a predictor of in-hospital death (OR = 3.34; 95% CI = 1.2-9.5; P = 0.02). Of the 29 patients who experienced bleeding, six died. However, the detailed analysis of the sequence of events showed causal relationship only in one case. CONCLUSION: (1) Major bleeding is an independent predictor of in-hospital death in ACS; (2) the role of bleeding as a risk marker overcomes that as a risk factor for death. This conclusion should be seen as a hypothesis generator to be confirmed by larger-sample studies. (Arq Bras Cardiol. 2012; [online].ahead print, PP.0-0)</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Acute coronary syndrome</kwd>
        <kwd>angina, unstable</kwd>
        <kwd>myocardial infarction</kwd>
        <kwd>hemorrhage</kwd>
        <kwd>hemorrhage</kwd>
        <kwd>hospitalization</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p><undefined id="top-body2"/>Causality analysis of the relationship between bleeding and lethality in Acute Coronary Syndromes </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Luis Cl&#225;udio Lemos Correia<sup>I,II</sup>; Michael Sabino<sup>I,II</sup>; Mariana Brito<sup>I,II</sup>; Guilherme Garcia<sup>I,II</sup>; Mateus Viana<sup>II</sup>; J. P&#233;ricles Esteves<sup>III</sup>; M&#225;rcia R. Noya<sup>I,II</sup></bold>
      </p>
      <p><sup>I</sup>Escola Bahiana de Medicina, Salvador - BA, Brasil</p>
      <p><sup>II</sup>Hospital S&#227;o Rafael, Salvador - BA, Brasil</p>
      <p><sup>III</sup>Hospital Portugu&#234;s, Salvador - BA, Brasil</p>
      <p>Correspondence</p>
      <p>
        <bold>ABSTRACT</bold>
      </p>
      <p><bold>BACKGROUND:</bold> Hemorrhagic events in Acute Coronary Syndromes (ACS) have been independently associated with death in international multicenter registries. However, that association has not been tested in Brazil and the true causal relationship between bleeding and death has not been completely shown.</p>
      <p><bold>OBJECTIVE: </bold>To test the following hypotheses: (1) major bleeding is an independent predictor of in-hospital death in ACS; (2) the relationship between those two endpoints is causal.</p>
      <p><bold>METHODS:</bold> This study included patients meeting predefined criteria of unstable angina, non-ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction or ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction. Major bleeding during hospitalization was defined according to the Bleeding Academic Research Consortium (types 3 or 5). Logistic regression and analysis of the sequence of events were used to assess the association between bleeding and death.</p>
      <p><bold>RESULTS:</bold> Of the 455 patients studied, 29 experienced major bleeding (6.4%; 95% CI = 4.3-9.0%). They had in-hospital mortality of 21%, as compared with 5.6% of those not experiencing bleeding (RR = 4.0; 95% CI = 1.8-9.1; P = 0.001). After adjusting for the propensity score, major bleeding remained as a predictor of in-hospital death (OR = 3.34; 95% CI = 1.2-9.5; P = 0.02). Of the 29 patients who experienced bleeding, six died. However, the detailed analysis of the sequence of events showed causal relationship only in one case.</p>
      <p><bold>CONCLUSION: </bold>(1) Major bleeding is an independent predictor of in-hospital death in ACS; (2) the role of bleeding as a risk marker overcomes that as a risk factor for death. This conclusion should be seen as a hypothesis generator to be confirmed by larger-sample studies. (Arq Bras Cardiol. 2012; [online].ahead print, PP.0-0)</p>
      <p><bold>Keywords: </bold>Acute coronary syndrome; angina, unstable; myocardial infarction; hemorrhage/complications; hemorrhage/prevention &amp; control; hospitalization</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Individuals developing unstable angina or myocardial infarction are at high risk for ischemic complications during the acute phase<sup>1,2</sup>. Thus, aggressive pharmacological and interventional therapies have been early adopted to minimize the likelihood of recurrent endpoints, such as refractory angina, infarction or cardiovascular death<sup>3,4</sup>. However, those same therapies increase the likelihood of hemorrhagic events during hospitalization<sup>5</sup>, which, in turn, increase the risk of ischemic events<sup>6</sup>. Thus a paradox emerges, in which treatments aimed at reducing the cardiovascular risk of patients with acute coronary syndromes (ACS) might increase their risk through hemorrhagic complications. </p>
      <p>That paradox has been supported by scientific evidence. Large prospective registries have consistently shown that individuals experiencing bleeding during hospitalization have a higher probability of death<sup>6-11</sup>. A causal association is believed to exist between bleeding and in-hospital lethality in ACS, because there is plausibility in the statement that the hemodynamic instability due to bleeding, anemia and need for suspending antithrombotic agents causes myocardial ischemia. This possible causal association is reinforced by the independent predictive role played by hemorrhagic events in multivariate models assessing the cardiovascular death endpoint in that clinical circumstance<sup>6-12</sup>. On the other hand, causality is defined by not only plausibility or independent association, and the large prospective registries have not described in details the sequence of events leading to death in those individuals.</p>
      <p>The present study has two objectives: first, to test the independent prognostic value of major hemorrhagic events during the acute phase of coronary syndromes. This will be the first attempt to reproduce the data of the international literature in a Brazilian registry. Second, to analyze individually the sequence of events leading some patients experiencing bleeding to death, aiming at confirming the causal relationship between those two endpoints. This is the first attempt to understand the true causal nature of that relationship. </p>
      <p>The analysis used the Prospective Registry of Acute Coronary Syndromes (Resca), including 455 patients meeting strict selection criteria, in which major hemorrhagic events, recurrent ischemic events and death were registered during hospital follow-up. In that analysis, the hemorrhagic events were classified according to the recent <italic>Bleeding Academic Research Consortium (BARC)</italic><sup>13</sup>. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Methods</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Selection of the population</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The study sample was recruited from two tertiary hospitals, which are referral centers of cardiology and have similar characteristics regarding health care and patients' profile. Patients consecutively admitted to the Coronary Unit diagnosed with ACS were screened to enter the study, from August 2007 to September 2009 in the first hospital, and from May to December 2010 in the second one. </p>
      <p>Acute coronary syndrome without ST-segment elevation has been defined as a chest discomfort in the previous 48 hours, associated with at least one of the following characteristics: 1) positive marker of myocardial necrosis, defined by troponin T &#8805; 0.01 ug/L or troponin I &#8805; 0.034 &#181;g/L, corresponding to values over the 99th percentile of the reference population<sup>14</sup>; 2) ischemic electrocardiographic changes, consisting in T wave inversion (&#8805; 0.1 mV) or transient depression of the ST segment (&#8805; 0.05 mV); 3) and previously documented coronary artery disease, defined as a history of myocardial infarction or previous angiography showing coronary obstruction &#8805; 50%. </p>
      <p>ST-segment elevation acute myocardial infarction (STEMI) has been defined as chest discomfort in the preceding 48 hours, associated with ST-segment elevation &#8805; 1 mm in two contiguous leads and elevated serum markers of myocardial necrosis, as previously described. </p>
      <p>Patients meeting the inclusion criteria and providing written informed consent were included in the study. The study protocol was approved by the Committee on Ethics and Research of the hospital. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Definition of in-hospital bleeding</bold>
      </p>
      <p>For the purpose of data analysis, major bleedings were considered, defined according to the <italic>BARC</italic><sup>13</sup> as follows: (1) type 3a: 3% to 5 g% hemoglobin drop or need for blood transfusion; (2) type 3b: hemoglobin drop &#8805; 5 g%, cardiac tamponade, bleeding requiring surgical intervention or intravenous vasoactive agents; (3) type 3c: intracranial hemorrhage or intraocular bleeding; (4) type 5: fatal bleeding, that is, that with a clear causal relationship to subsequent death. That relationship can be direct (for example, death due to hemorrhagic shock) or indirect (infarction caused by bleeding, evolving to heart failure and death). Minor bleedings (type 1 or 2) or those resulting from heart surgery (type 4) were not considered in this analysis. In addition to this definition, the hemorrhagic events were classified according to the bleeding site. Although the <italic>BARC</italic> has been published recently, all data necessary for that classification were defined <italic>a priori</italic>, assuring the prospective character of data collection.</p>
      <p>In-hospital death was prospectively recorded and divided into two groups as follows: bleeding-related and non-bleeding-related death. Non-fatal ischemic events were defined as infarction (or reinfarction) or refractory angina. Non-fatal infarction was recorded during hospitalization in the presence of an elevation in troponin levels, which had been negative in the first 24 hours. For patients with infarction on admission, a new peak of CK-MB (&gt; 50% of the previous level and above the normal value) was required for defining reinfarction. The elevation in the markers of necrosis induced by a percutaneous coronary procedure or coronary artery bypass grafting was not recorded as a recurrent event. Refractory angina during hospitalization was defined as recurrent chest pain, at least twice, regardless of the use of nitrates and of the double product control. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Data analysis </bold>
      </p>
      <p>The incidence of major bleeding was described as relative frequency and confidence interval with 95% precision (95% CI). The univariate association between bleeding and in-hospital death was described as relative risk and 95% CI. Initially, the clinical characteristics prior to bleeding, antithrombotic therapy and frequency of the percutaneous intervention were compared between those experiencing bleeding and the other patients to identify potential predictors of bleeding (P &#8804; 0.10). Then, those predictors of bleeding were compared between patients who died and those who did not die while hospitalized, and the variables associated with death were identified by use of a P value &#8804; 0.10. Thus, the variables simultaneously associated with bleeding and death were selected for a multivariate model, to define a propensity score for bleeding. By using logistic regression and major bleeding as endpoint, the variables with P value &lt; 0.05 in the final model comprised the propensity score. The C-statistics of that score was calculated and described with its confidence interval. </p>
      <p>Aiming at assessing the independent association of bleeding and death, a second logistic regression model was used, with in-hospital death as the endpoint variable and bleeding as the predictive variable, adjusted for the propensity score. For the statistical analysis, the SPSS Statistical Software (Version 9.0, SPSS Inc., Chicago, Illinois, USA) was used. </p>
      <p>Finally, a qualitative analysis of the causal relationship between bleeding and death, restricted to patients who bled and died, was performed. In that analysis, the sequence of the facts leading to death was carefully detailed, to assess the existence of direct causal relationship between those two endpoints.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Results</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Characteristics of the sample</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The sample consisted in 455 patients (54% of the male sex; mean age, 67 &#177; 13 years), 78% of whom were hospitalized due to ACS without ST-segment elevation, and the others due to STEMI. During hospitalization, coronary angiography was performed in 77% of the patients, percutaneous coronary artery intervention in 37%, and coronary artery bypass grafting in 8%. The sample showed a bleeding score acuity<sup>15</sup> of 16 &#177; 6.8, indicating a 5% higher probability of major bleeding during hospitalization, corresponding to moderate risk. Major bleeding during hospitalization was observed in 29 patients, resulting in a 6.4% incidence (95% CI: 4.3 - 9.0%).</p>
      <p>Regarding the major bleedings, those related to the femoral catheter insertion site for coronary angiography (31%) or angioplasty (48%) predominated, corresponding to 79% of the cases. Digestive bleeding (14%) and nasal bleeding (6%) were also observed. According to the <italic>BARC</italic><sup>13</sup>, most bleedings (82%) were classified as type 3a, followed by type 3b (14%), and type 5 (only one fatal case). Considering the patients who bled, 55% received transfusion, 72% showed a hemoglobin drop &#8805; 3g%, and only 14% developed hemodynamic instability directly due to bleeding. Only in 17% of the patients, the antithrombotic agents were suspended due to bleeding (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_aop04212fig01-body2">fig. 1</xref>).</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_aop04212fig01-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-98-06-0488-00046-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Bleeding and in-hospital death</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Patients experiencing major bleeding had an in-hospital mortality of 21%, significantly greater than the 5.6% observed in those without bleeding (Relative Risk = 4.0; 95% CI: 1.8 - 9.1; P = 0.001). </p>
      <p>To assess the independent association between bleeding and death, a propensity score for bleeding was developed. Initially, the clinical characteristics and the approaches preceding the bleeding were compared between patients who experienced bleeding and those who did not. Compared with the latter, the former were older, had a higher heart rate, and a higher prevalence of positive troponin and of severe coronary artery disease. Regarding treatment, patients who bled used more frequently glycoprotein (GP) IIb/IIIa inhibitors, and underwent coronary angiography and coronary angioplasty (P &#8804; 0.10 for all patients) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop04212tab01-body2">tab. 1</xref>). Of those variables, age, heart rate, troponin and severe disease were associated with mortality (P &lt; 0.05) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop04212tab02-body2">tab. 2</xref>). Thus, those parameters (associated simultaneously with bleeding and death) entered a logistic regression model, bleeding being the endpoint variable. In the final model, age and severe coronary artery disease remained as independent predictors of bleeding (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop04212tab03-body2">tab. 3</xref>). That final model was used as a propensity score for bleeding, showing a C-statistics of 0.76 (P &lt; 0.001). After adjusting for the propensity score by use of logistic regression, major bleeding remained an independent predictor of death, with Odds Ratio of 3.34 (95% CI: 1.2 - 9.5; P = 0.02) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop04212tab04-body2">tab. 4</xref>). </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_aop04212tab01-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-98-06-0488-00046-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_aop04212tab02-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-98-06-0488-00046-gt02-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_aop04212tab03-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-98-06-0488-00046-gt03-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_aop04212tab04-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-98-06-0488-00046-gt04-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Analysis of the causal relationship between bleeding and death</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The chronology of the events was assessed in the six patients who died after bleeding, to individually analyze the possible causal relationship between those two endpoints (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop04212tab05-body2">tab. 5</xref>). </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_aop04212tab05-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-98-06-0488-00046-gt05-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>Patient #1, a 73-year-old woman, admitted with non-ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (NSTEMI), showed a clear causal relationship between bleeding and death. She underwent coronary angiography via the femoral route, which showed no significant coronary artery obstruction. However, hours after the procedure, she developed profuse bleeding through the introducer sheath site, progressing to hemorrhagic shock. A substantial elevation in myocardial necrosis markers was observed, characterizing infarction secondary to shock. The patient did not manage to recover her hemodynamic condition, progressing to refractory shock, followed by death one day after bleeding. Thus, patient #1 is a case of type 5 (fatal) bleeding.</p>
      <p>The other five patients could not be classified as type 5 bleeding, that is, no clear causal relationship between bleeding and fatal endpoint could be identified. Patient #2, an 81-year-old man, was admitted with NSTEMI, evolving with refractory angina and cardiogenic shock. He underwent angioplasties of the left main coronary artery, anterior descending artery, and circumflex and right coronary arteries, without improving his hemodynamic condition, and evolving to death after a few days. During the prolonged angioplasty, hemoglobin drop occurred, requiring blood transfusion, and characterizing type 3a bleeding. This patient had already had shock prior to bleeding, and, thus, the hemodynamic instability responsible for his death was not caused by hemorrhage.</p>
      <p>Patient #3, a 92-year-old woman, was admitted with NSTEMI, which culminated in refractory angina and acute pulmonary edema, being placed on invasive mechanical ventilation. She progressed with respiratory infection, during which she experienced digestive bleeding, considered a type 3a major bleeding because of the hemoglobin drop. She progressed to septic shock and eventually died. Before the hemorrhage, the patient had already had severe heart failure, her bleeding resulting from the severity of her condition.</p>
      <p>Patient #4, a 71-year-old man, underwent thrombolysis during an extensive anterior STEMI, which caused nasal bleeding with no hemodynamic repercussion, characterized as type 3a major bleeding because of the hemoglobin drop. The coronary angiography evidenced diffuse coronary disease, which could be approached through neither angioplasty nor surgery. A few days later, the patient developed cardiogenic shock, probably due to her ventricular function loss consequent to infarction, with no apparent association with the hemorrhagic event.</p>
      <p>Patient #5, a 73-year-old woman, was admitted with late STEMI, Killip class I. Her coronary angiography evidenced obstruction of the anterior descending artery, and no angioplasty was performed because of the late character of the presentation. She experienced bleeding during the introducer sheath withdrawal, classified as type 3a, because it required blood transfusion and had no hemodynamic repercussion. However, the patient developed renal failure due to contrast medium, which culminated in dialysis need, and complicated with infection and, eventually, death. Because no hemodynamic instability occurred, her renal failure could not be attributed to bleeding.</p>
      <p>Finally, patient #6, a 63-year-old woman, was admitted with STEMI, Killip class I. She underwent late angioplasty of the circumflex artery, evolving to bleeding on the procedure site, need for blood transfusion and hypotension (type 3b bleeding). Hemodynamic stabilization occurred, and elective coronary artery bypass grafting of the anterior descending and right coronary arteries was planned. Death resulted from post-operative complications, not characterizing a causal relationship with the bleeding occurred during the angioplasty.</p>
      <p>Thus, of the six patients who bled and died, in only one the death was directly related to the hemorrhagic event. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Discuss&#227;o</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The present study assessed the clinical impact of hemorrhagic events occurring during hospitalization due to ACS, and evidenced two major results: major bleeding during ACS associates independently with in-hospital mortality; and the individualized analysis of the sequence of events leading patients who bled to death indicates that the minority of deaths is directly or indirectly caused by the bleeding.</p>
      <p>Regarding the first observation, the risk of death was four-fold greater in patients who bled during hospitalization as compared with those who did not. Considering the possibility that the factors leading to bleeding might be the same predisposing to death, the association observed could result from a confounding effect. Thus, a propensity score for bleeding was created and, after adjusting for it, bleeding remained as an independent predictor of in-hospital death. Although that independence has been described in several multicenter registries<sup>6-11</sup>, this is the first Brazilian study to reproduce that information. </p>
      <p>Although the independent association is one of the criteria required to define causality, it does not represent a sufficient condition. Thus, the independent prediction of death based on bleeding, already described in large multicenter registries, does not necessarily indicate that deaths result from hemorrhagic events. The causality of that association is only an inference suggested in previous studies, which could not be solved with only multivariate analysis. To solve that question in an unprecedented way, we performed a descriptive analysis of the sequence of events preceding death. That analysis provided the clear perception that bleeding acts predominantly as a risk marker, and only secondarily as a risk factor for death. Six deaths occurred after major bleeding: in two, the conditions of recurrent ischemia and heart failure that led to death had installed before the hemorrhagic event; in a third case of death due to heart failure, the nasal bleeding (with no hemodynamic repercussion) preceded the manifestation of ventricular dysfunction by days; in a fourth case, the death resulted from dialysis complications; in a fifth case, death resulted from post-operative complications of coronary artery bypass grafting. Thus, in only one case, death resulted definitively from bleeding, which led the patient to hemorrhagic shock and consequent myocardial infarction. It is worth emphasizing that the previous studies have not used that type of analysis probably due to logistic difficulty in performing such a detailed assessment in large and multicenter studies, which use only dichotomous information regarding the prediction and endpoint variables. </p>
      <p>Thus, it is evident that logistic regression or Cox analyses, using isolated covariables or propensity scores, are not sufficient to completely adjust the effect of bleeding for confounding factors. After those analyses, the effect of residual confusion probably maintains an overestimated association between bleeding and death. In reality, bleeding seems an excellent risk marker, because of its relationship with several characteristics of the patient, increasing the patient's vulnerability to fatal endpoints. In this context, the recent <italic>BARC</italic><sup>13</sup> has proposed that those events be classified into types 1 to 5, according to their consequences. Our study represents the first report about the distribution of the type of bleeding according to that classification, type 5 meaning that death resulted directly from bleeding. </p>
      <p>It is worth noting that our study is in accordance with the current emphasis put on the need for measures to reduce hemorrhagic endpoints, such as rationalization of the antithrombotic therapy according to the risk/benefit analysis<sup>15-17</sup>, use of safer pharmacological strategies<sup>18-20</sup>, and special attention to the manipulation of puncture sites and femoral introducer sheaths<sup>21</sup>. Although the present study reduces the clinical impact of bleedings, it does not completely exclude their causal relationship with fatal events, because of the one death resulting from bleeding in this small-sample study. In addition, non-fatal hemorrhagic events cause discomfort, prolongation of the hospitalization time, need for blood transfusion and suspension of required agents. Thus, independently of their fatal potential, bleedings should be prevented.</p>
      <p>Considering that most deaths do not result from bleeding, our study suggests that, in dichotomous situations, the clinical decision should prioritize the prevention of recurring ischemic events rather than the prevention of hemorrhage. For example, despite the high risk of bleeding (high CRUSADE Bleeding Score<sup>22</sup>), a patient at high risk for ischemia (GRACE Score<sup>2</sup>) should undergo an invasive strategy. Thus, assessing the risk of bleeding should stimulate preventive measures against bleeding, but should inhibit neither invasive procedures nor the intensity of the antithrombotic therapy in high-risk patients. </p>
      <p>In addition, our study indicates that greater attention should be paid to prevent hemorrhages related to puncture sites, because they accounted for 80% of the cases of major bleeding. Some authors have reported that the digestive tract is the most frequent bleeding site<sup>23</sup>. However, hemorrhages occurring during hospitalization due to coronary syndromes should be differentiated from those occurring after hospital discharge. The studies reporting digestive bleeding as the most frequent one are those including the outpatient clinic follow-up<sup>24-26</sup>. Our data show clearly that, during hospitalization, bleeding related to the femoral puncture site, resulting from both angioplasty and diagnostic coronary angiography, is the most frequent.</p>
      <p>The present study has some limitations that should be discussed. Despite the moderate sample size, considering the patients who bled, only six died. That small number resulted from the fact that we analyzed a small subgroup (death) inside another small subgroup (bleeding), making that limitation inherent to that type of analysis. Thus, we should recognize the sequential analysis as only a generator of hypothesis, which should be explored in further studies, whose cohorts contain information allowing the detailed assessment of the sequence of facts. In addition, this is a qualitative analysis, dealing with the clinical perception of causality, and lack of clear causal relationship was reported in five of the six cases. Although less likely, we should recognize that bleeding might have contributed indirectly to death in some cases. </p>
      <p>In conclusion, the present study confirms the independent association between hemorrhagic events and in-hospital death. That association is primarily mediated by the effect of bleeding as a risk marker rather than a risk factor. That second observation should be considered as hypothesis generator to be confirmed by studies with larger samples.</p>
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        <bold>References</bold>
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