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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">QZFh38KCKp5RNHNywdWKtDn</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2012000500012</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(12)09800512</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2012000500012</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico e microRNAs: novas fronteiras na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Fernandes-Silva</surname>
            <given-names>Miguel Morita</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Carvalho</surname>
            <given-names>Vagner Oliveira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Guimar&#227;es</surname>
            <given-names>Guilherme Veiga</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Bacal</surname>
            <given-names>Fernando</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Bocchi</surname>
            <given-names>Edimar Alcides</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o </institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff02">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Curitiba</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">Paran&#225;</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Cardiol&#243;gico Costantini</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>05</month>
        <year>2012</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>98</volume>
      <issue>5</issue>
      <fpage>459</fpage>
      <lpage>466</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>29</day>
          <month>09</month>
          <year>2011</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>03</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2011</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>25</day>
          <month>10</month>
          <year>2011</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>Embora recentemente tenha sido questionado o impacto do exerc&#237;cio na sobrevida de pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, o treinamento f&#237;sico melhora a qualidade de vida, a capacidade funcional, a inflama&#231;&#227;o, a fun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica e a fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial. Nos &#250;ltimos anos, vem crescendo o interesse em um grupo de pequenos RNAs n&#227;o codificadores de prote&#237;na chamados microRNAs. Estudos t&#234;m demonstrado que a express&#227;o dessas mol&#233;culas se modifica em diversas condi&#231;&#245;es patol&#243;gicas, como a hipertrofia mioc&#225;rdica, a isquemia mioc&#225;rdica e a insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, e, quando ocorre melhora cl&#237;nica, elas parecem se normalizar. Com o potencial de aplicabilidade pr&#225;tica, j&#225; foram identificados marcadores que poder&#227;o ser &#250;teis na avalia&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica e progn&#243;stica da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, como o miR-423-5p. Al&#233;m disso, resultados de estudos experimentais indicam haver poss&#237;veis efeitos terap&#234;uticos dos microRNAs. Implicados na regula&#231;&#227;o da express&#227;o gen&#233;tica durante o desenvolvimento fetal e no indiv&#237;duo adulto, os microRNAs aumentam ou diminuem no cora&#231;&#227;o em resposta a estresse fisiol&#243;gico, inj&#250;ria ou sobrecarga hemodin&#226;mica. Assim, o estudo do comportamento dessas mol&#233;culas no exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico vem trazendo informa&#231;&#245;es importantes quanto aos efeitos dessa modalidade terap&#234;utica e representa uma nova era no entendimento da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. Esta revis&#227;o tem por objetivo integrar as evid&#234;ncias sobre microRNAs na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca com maior relev&#226;ncia no estudo do exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>Exerc&#237;cio</kwd>
        <kwd>microRNAs</kwd>
        <kwd>insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>31</day>
        <month>07</month>
        <year>2012</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>ARTIGO DE REVIS&#195;O</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico e microRNAs: novas fronteiras na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Miguel Morita Fernandes-Silva<sup>I, II</sup>; Vagner Oliveira Carvalho<sup>I</sup>; Guilherme Veiga Guimar&#227;es<sup>I</sup>; Fernando Bacal<sup>I</sup>; Edimar Alcides Bocchi<sup>I</sup></bold>
    </p>
    <p><sup>I</sup>Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas de S&#227;o Paulo-INCOR, S&#227;o Paulo, SP </p>
    <p><sup>II</sup>Hospital Cardiol&#243;gico Costantini, Curitiba, PR, Brasil</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="back">Endere&#231;o para correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESUMO</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Embora recentemente tenha sido questionado o impacto do exerc&#237;cio na sobrevida de pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, o treinamento f&#237;sico melhora a qualidade de vida, a capacidade funcional, a inflama&#231;&#227;o, a fun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica e a fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial. Nos &#250;ltimos anos, vem crescendo o interesse em um grupo de pequenos RNAs n&#227;o codificadores de prote&#237;na chamados microRNAs. </p>
    <p> Estudos t&#234;m demonstrado que a express&#227;o dessas mol&#233;culas se modifica em diversas condi&#231;&#245;es patol&#243;gicas, como a hipertrofia mioc&#225;rdica, a isquemia mioc&#225;rdica e a insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, e, quando ocorre melhora cl&#237;nica, elas parecem se normalizar. Com o potencial de aplicabilidade pr&#225;tica, j&#225; foram identificados marcadores que poder&#227;o ser &#250;teis na avalia&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica e progn&#243;stica da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, como o miR-423-5p. Al&#233;m disso, resultados de estudos experimentais indicam haver poss&#237;veis efeitos terap&#234;uticos dos microRNAs. </p>
    <p> Implicados na regula&#231;&#227;o da express&#227;o gen&#233;tica durante o desenvolvimento fetal e no indiv&#237;duo adulto, os microRNAs aumentam ou diminuem no cora&#231;&#227;o em resposta a estresse fisiol&#243;gico, inj&#250;ria ou sobrecarga hemodin&#226;mica. Assim, o estudo do comportamento dessas mol&#233;culas no exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico vem trazendo informa&#231;&#245;es importantes quanto aos efeitos dessa modalidade terap&#234;utica e representa uma nova era no entendimento da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. </p>
    <p> Esta revis&#227;o tem por objetivo integrar as evid&#234;ncias sobre microRNAs na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca com maior relev&#226;ncia no estudo do exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico.</p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold> Exerc&#237;cio, microRNAs, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca / fisiopatologia.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Diversos avan&#231;os no entendimento da fisiopatologia da Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca (IC) permitiram desenvolver novas modalidades terap&#234;uticas, ou at&#233; mesmo otimiz&#225;-las com consequente aumento na sobrevida. Apesar disso, a IC ainda &#233; uma condi&#231;&#227;o com elevada mortalidade e morbidade, sendo a principal causa de interna&#231;&#227;o por doen&#231;a cardiovascular no Brasil<sup>1</sup>.</p>
    <p>Apesar de evid&#234;ncias recentes questionando o impacto do exerc&#237;cio na sobrevida<sup>2</sup>, o treinamento f&#237;sico melhora a qualidade de vida<sup>3</sup>, a capacidade funcional<sup>4</sup>, a inflama&#231;&#227;o<sup>5</sup>, a fun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica<sup>4</sup> e a fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial<sup>4</sup>. Os mecanismos envolvidos nesse fen&#244;meno ainda n&#227;o est&#227;o totalmente esclarecidos. Nos &#250;ltimos anos, vem crescendo o interesse em uma &#225;rea de pesquisa que envolve aspectos relacionados &#224; resposta do organismo ao exerc&#237;cio em &#226;mbito gen&#233;tico, em que os microRNAs parecem exercer um papel fundamental.</p>
    <p>Est&#225; cada vez mais evidente que os microRNAs t&#234;m um papel cr&#237;tico em diversos processos biol&#243;gicos, e as pesquisas em neoplasias e doen&#231;as cardiovasculares v&#234;m sendo o principal foco na medicina translacional. Estudos recentes avaliaram a express&#227;o de diversos microRNAs em hipertrofia mioc&#225;rdica, infarto do mioc&#225;rdio e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, e isso permitir&#225; melhorar o entendimento da fisiopatologia dessas condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas, al&#233;m de ter seu uso promissor no diagn&#243;stico e progn&#243;stico das principais doen&#231;as cardiovasculares<sup>6,7</sup>. Ainda, possibilidades de mimetizar microRNAs com sua express&#227;o reduzida, ou de antagonizar aqueles cuja express&#227;o aumentada teria uma rela&#231;&#227;o causal com determinada patologia, representam um potencial terap&#234;utico e um novo paradigma no manejo das doen&#231;as card&#237;acas.</p>
    <p>Implicados na regula&#231;&#227;o da express&#227;o gen&#233;tica durante o desenvolvimento fetal e no indiv&#237;duo adulto<sup>8,9</sup>, muitos desses microRNAs aumentam ou diminuem no cora&#231;&#227;o em resposta ao estresse fisiol&#243;gico, inj&#250;ria ou sobrecarga hemodin&#226;mica<sup>10</sup>. O estudo do comportamento dessas mol&#233;culas no exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico representa, portanto, um grande potencial de novas descobertas dessa modalidade terap&#234;utica na IC.</p>
    <p>Esta revis&#227;o tem por objetivo integrar as evid&#234;ncias sobre microRNAs na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca com maior relev&#226;ncia no estudo do exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>MicroRNAs</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Em resposta a est&#237;mulos externos, como o exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico, a express&#227;o dos genes pode ser modulada mediante diferentes mecanismos, entre eles o silenciamento g&#234;nico mediante pequenos RNAs, incluindo os chamados microRNAs (miRNAs)<sup>11</sup>.</p>
    <p>Os miRNAs, descritos inicialmente em 1993 ao ser estudado o desenvolvimento de nemat&#243;deos<sup>12</sup>, s&#227;o caracterizados como um grupo de pequenos RNAs, n&#227;o codificadores de prote&#237;nas, com aproximadamente 19-25 nucleot&#237;deos de extens&#227;o. Diferindo da ampla gama de RNAs codificados pelo genoma humano, essa variedade de RNA tem se destacado por sua singular habilidade de modular uma enorme e complexa rede regulat&#243;ria de express&#227;o dos genes<sup>13</sup>.</p>
    <p>Atualmente sabe-se que, em geral, os miRNAs s&#227;o sintetizados a partir de genes espec&#237;ficos ou de determinadas regi&#245;es g&#234;nicas que n&#227;o est&#227;o associadas &#224; produ&#231;&#227;o de prote&#237;nas (introns)<sup>11</sup>. O processo de matura&#231;&#227;o dos miRNAs envolve uma complexa via metab&#243;lica que se inicia no n&#250;cleo e se estende at&#233; o citoplasma celular (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">fig. 1</xref>). O primeiro passo para a matura&#231;&#227;o do miRNA &#233; a transcri&#231;&#227;o de uma longa fita de miRNA prim&#225;rio (pri-miRNA) a partir de um determinado gene<sup>14</sup>. O pri-miRNA &#233; clivado por um complexo enzim&#225;tico chamado Drosha, liberando regi&#245;es precursoras, chamadas pre-miRNAs, que ir&#227;o formar os miRNAs distintos<sup>15</sup>. No citoplasma, ap&#243;s serem exportados do n&#250;cleo pela exportina-5<sup>16</sup>, o pre-miRNA &#233; clivado pela enzima Dicer, formando um RNA de dupla fita com aproximadamente 22 nucleot&#237;deos<sup>17</sup>. As duas fitas s&#227;o ent&#227;o separadas, por&#233;m, apenas uma delas ir&#225; potencialmente atuar como um miRNA funcional, enquanto a outra geralmente &#233; degradada<sup>18</sup>.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="f01">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-98-05-0459-00012-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>Em sua forma madura, os miRNAs, com o aux&#237;lio de um complexo enzim&#225;tico denominado Complexo de Indu&#231;&#227;o do Silenciamento do RNA (RISC), se ligam ao RNA mensageiro (RNAm)-alvo. Essa liga&#231;&#227;o impossibilita que os ribossomos consigam acessar a informa&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica contida nos RNAm, acarretando na diminui&#231;&#227;o da s&#237;ntese proteica do gene-alvo<sup>19,20</sup>. De modo geral, a fun&#231;&#227;o dos miRNAs &#233; servir como um componente de reconhecimento para o complexo enzim&#225;tico de silenciamento RISC, uma vez que eles se ligam ao RNAm, identificando-o como um alvo. A complexidade da regula&#231;&#227;o da express&#227;o proteica pelo miRNA &#233; ilustrada pelo fato de que um &#250;nico miRNA pode regular centenas de genes-alvo distintos, e por outro lado, cooperam no controle de um &#250;nico gene-alvo<sup>12,13</sup>.</p>
    <p>Mais de 700 miRNAs humanos j&#225; foram identificados e parece haver 150 a 200 expressos no cora&#231;&#227;o<sup>10</sup>. Esse n&#250;mero tende a crescer ainda mais, devido ao recente desenvolvimento de tecnologias de sequenciamento e m&#233;todos de predi&#231;&#227;o computacional<sup>19,20</sup>.Embora as fun&#231;&#245;es biol&#243;gicas dos miRNAs n&#227;o estejam totalmente compreendidas, acredita-se que 30% a 60% dos genes codificadores de prote&#237;na sejam regulados pelos miRNAs<sup>11</sup>.</p>
    <p>Estudos mostraram que apesar de os miRNAs serem expressos em diversos tipos celulares, miRNAs espec&#237;ficos s&#227;o sintetizados exclusivamente em determinados tecidos ou grupos de c&#233;lulas<sup>19,20</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>MicroRNAs e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Nos &#250;ltimos anos, tem se demonstrado que diversos miRNAs se expressam de maneira espec&#237;fica em algumas condi&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares. Especialmente, observa-se uma express&#227;o diferenciada na hipertrofia, na isquemia mioc&#225;rdica e na disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial.</p>
    <p>A IC sist&#243;lica &#233; caracterizada por remodelamento e dilata&#231;&#227;o ventricular parecendo haver ativa&#231;&#227;o de um programa gen&#233;tico fetal que desencadeia altera&#231;&#245;es patol&#243;gicas no mioc&#225;rdio associadas com disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular progressiva<sup>21</sup>. No cora&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com IC em est&#225;gio avan&#231;ado, foi encontrado um padr&#227;o de express&#227;o do miRNA muito similar ao encontrado nos cora&#231;&#245;es fetais<sup>21</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, em um estudo<sup>22</sup> avaliando indiv&#237;duos com miocardiopatia dilatada, isqu&#234;mica e valvar (estenose a&#243;rtica), o perfil de express&#227;o foi diferente conforme a etiologia da IC, e a assinatura do miRNA foi capaz de predizer o diagn&#243;stico com uma acur&#225;cia de 70%.</p>
    <p>Quatro fam&#237;lias de miRNAs s&#227;o altamente expressos no cora&#231;&#227;o: miR-1, miR-133, miR-208 e miR-499. A fam&#237;lia miR-1 representa 40% de todo o miRNA expresso no cora&#231;&#227;o, enquanto o miR-208 &#233; o &#250;nico conhecido como cardiacoespec&#237;fico. A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">tabela 1</xref> cont&#233;m alguns miRNAs e seus poss&#237;veis efeitos biol&#243;gicos no cora&#231;&#227;o adulto.</p>
    <table-wrap id="t1">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-98-05-0459-00012-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>O miR-1 est&#225; diminu&#237;do na hipertrofia mioc&#225;rdica, e estudos <italic>in vitro</italic><sup>23</sup> e <italic>in vivo</italic><sup>24</sup> indicam haver uma rela&#231;&#227;o causal, em que a redu&#231;&#227;o desse miRNA &#233; uma condi&#231;&#227;o necess&#225;ria para o aumento da massa celular<sup>25</sup>. Experimento em ratos<sup>26</sup> demonstrou que uma das altera&#231;&#245;es mais precoces observadas ap&#243;s uma sobrecarga press&#243;rica ao cora&#231;&#227;o &#233; a redu&#231;&#227;o do miR-1, antes mesmo do aumento na massa card&#237;aca. O miR-1 est&#225; reduzido no ventr&#237;culo hipertr&#243;fico de indiv&#237;duos com acromegalia<sup>26</sup> e estenose a&#243;rtica<sup>22</sup> com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o preservada.</p>
    <p>Por outro lado, a express&#227;o do miR-1 tem achados divergentes na IC. Enquanto alguns autores<sup>22,27,28</sup> observaram redu&#231;&#227;o do miR-1 na cardiomiopatia dilatada isqu&#234;mica e n&#227;o isqu&#234;mica, outros<sup>21,29</sup> observaram aumento. Han e cols.<sup>25</sup> sugerem a possibilidade de que o miR-1 esteja reduzido na hipertrofia, mas volta ao normal ou acima do normal quando evolui para IC.</p>
    <p>A fam&#237;lia do miR-208 &#233; restrita ao cora&#231;&#227;o e &#233; composta pelos miRs-208a e -208b, os quais s&#227;o codificados nos introns dos genes da cadeia pesada de miosina (MHC) &#945; e &#946; respecitivamente<sup>30,31</sup>. Intera&#231;&#245;es desses miRNAs com os genes da MHC est&#227;o implicadas no desenvolvimento de hipertrofia em adultos.</p>
    <p>Outros miRNAs tamb&#233;m apresentam express&#227;o diferenciada na hipertrofia e na isquemia mioc&#225;rdica. Alguns exemplos est&#227;o descritos na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">tabela 2</xref>.</p>
    <table-wrap id="t2">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-98-05-0459-00012-gt02.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>Modifica&#231;&#245;es na express&#227;o do miRNA em resposta a altera&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas funcionais tamb&#233;m j&#225; foi demonstrada. Em um estudo interessante<sup>29</sup>, foram avaliados os perfis de RNAm e do miRNA em 10 cora&#231;&#245;es tratados com dispositivo de assist&#234;ncia ventricular esquerda (DAVE), 17 cora&#231;&#245;es de indiv&#237;duos com IC n&#227;o tratados com DAVE e 11 controles (sem IC). Nos cora&#231;&#245;es dos indiv&#237;duos com IC sem DAVE, foi encontrado aumento significativo na express&#227;o de 28 miRNAs, enquanto naqueles tratados com DAVE, 20 desses miRNAs estavam completamente normalizados, e os outros 8 apresentavam uma tend&#234;ncia a normaliza&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>Estudos experimentais<sup>32</sup> t&#234;m demonstrado que &#233; poss&#237;vel reverter um fen&#243;tipo, atrav&#233;s da inibi&#231;&#227;o de determinado miRNA que tem sua express&#227;o aumentada nessa condi&#231;&#227;o. Isso pode ser realizado pela administra&#231;&#227;o de um oligonucleot&#237;deo anti-miRNA, que age como inibidor competitivo do miRNA em quest&#227;o e &#233; chamado antagomiR. Recentemente, Montgomery e cols.<sup>33</sup> demonstraram que a administra&#231;&#227;o de um antagomiR anti-miR-208a foi capaz de prevenir a hipertrofia mioc&#225;rdica, o remodelamento card&#237;aco e a letalidade por IC em ratos Dahl (sens&#237;veis ao sal) submetidos a uma dieta hipers&#243;dica. O estudo sugere fortemente que os efeitos desse antagomiR foram decorrentes da redu&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de miR-208a. Esse resultado estabelece n&#227;o somente uma correla&#231;&#227;o causal desse miRNA no mecanismo da hipertrofia, mas tamb&#233;m traz uma aplica&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica bastante promissora na revers&#227;o do remodelamento. No entanto, em ratos adultos, o perfil miR-208a/&#945;-MHC &#233; predominante, e quando ocorre uma sobrecarga press&#243;rica, h&#225; um desvio da produ&#231;&#227;o de &#945; para &#946;-MHC<sup>30,31</sup>. J&#225; em humanos, o papel desse mecanismo na hipertrofia ainda precisa ser esclarecido, j&#225; que essa esp&#233;cie n&#227;o &#233; capaz de inverter as isoformas de MHC, al&#233;m de o &#946;-MHC j&#225; ser a forma predominante, juntamente ao miR-208b<sup>31</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, modelos experimentais devem ser observados com cautela na extrapola&#231;&#227;o dos seus dados, j&#225; que eles s&#227;o artificiais e podem n&#227;o mimetizar com precis&#227;o as condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas observadas em humanos<sup>10</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>MicroRNA como biomarcador na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Para que haja uso disseminado do miRNA como biomarcador na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, a sua determina&#231;&#227;o deve ser simples e confi&#225;vel, dispensando, preferivelmente, a necessidade de realiza&#231;&#227;o de um procedimento invasivo como a bi&#243;psia. Embora a pesquisa dos miRNAs no tecido e c&#233;lulas venha ocorrendo a algum tempo, somente recentemente &#233; que vem se descobrindo a exist&#234;ncia de uma s&#233;rie destes miRNAs no sangue circulante. Mitchell e cols.<sup>34</sup> demonstraram em pacientes com c&#226;ncer de pr&#243;stata que miRNAs circulantes espec&#237;ficos do tecido poderiam ser detectados no plasma. Os mecanismos pelos quais eles s&#227;o liberados s&#227;o incertos, mas postula-se que seja por meio da secre&#231;&#227;o dentro de microves&#237;culas chamadas exossomos<sup>35</sup>. N&#227;o se sabe se isso ocorre com outros miRNAs, mas caracter&#237;sticas como especificidade e estabilidade no plasma tornam-no bastante promissor como marcador de les&#227;o tecidual<sup>36</sup>.</p>
    <p>Os miRs-208a, -208b e -499 s&#227;o espec&#237;ficos do cardiomi&#243;cito e foram avaliados no diagn&#243;stico de condi&#231;&#245;es que provocam les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica. Observou-se um aumento acima de 1.000 vezes no IAM<sup>6,37-39</sup> dos miRs-208b e -499. Nessa condi&#231;&#227;o, eles refletem inj&#250;ria tecidual e morte celular. Al&#233;m disso, o miR-208a apresentou acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica semelhante &#224; troponina, com a vantagem de ser detectado mais precocemente no plasma<sup>6</sup>.</p>
    <p>No intuito de determinar qual(is) miRNA(s) poderiam ser biomarcardores na Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca (IC), Tijsen e cols.<sup>40</sup> compararam o perfil de express&#227;o dos miRNAs no plasma de 12 indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis com 12 pacientes admitidos por IC aguda. Dentre os 108 miRNAs que apresentaram diferenc&#807;a significativa entre os grupos, foram selecionados 16 e validados em um grupo maior, incluindo 30 pacientes com IC, 20 que tinham dispneia por outras causas que n&#227;o a IC, e um terceiro grupo de 39 indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis. Nessa coorte de valida&#231;&#227;o, o aumento do miR-423-5p foi um forte preditor do diagn&#243;stico de IC em um modelo de regress&#227;o log&#237;stica, incluindo idade e sexo. Os mecanismos pelos quais existe aumento nesse marcador em pacientes com IC ainda &#233; desconhecido. Se isto &#233; decorrente de les&#227;o celular e consequente libera&#231;&#227;o do mesmo no plasma, ou se est&#225; relacionado a uma via secret&#243;ria espec&#237;fica de determinada c&#233;lula ainda precisa ser esclarecido<sup>41</sup>. Em outro estudo<sup>7</sup>, concentra&#231;&#245;es plasm&#225;ticas do miR-126 apresentaram correla&#231;&#227;o inversa com os n&#237;veis de pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico cerebral (BNP). No entanto, a amostra de pacientes foi heterog&#234;nea e os crit&#233;rios de defini&#231;&#227;o de IC n&#227;o foram muito bem estabelecidos. Mais estudos ainda s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para definir o papel desses miRNAs como biomarcadores na IC.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>MicroRNA e exerc&#237;cio</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico, gesta&#231;&#227;o e o pr&#243;prio crescimento do indiv&#237;duo s&#227;o est&#237;mulos para o crescimento fisiol&#243;gico do cora&#231;&#227;o. Em meados do s&#233;culo XIX, descri&#231;&#245;es referentes ao chamado "cora&#231;&#227;o de atleta" tinham conota&#231;&#227;o delet&#233;ria<sup>8</sup>. Mais recentemente, os diversos benef&#237;cios do treinamento f&#237;sico na sobrevida e os efeitos mal&#233;ficos da inatividade tornaram essa modalidade terap&#234;utica obrigat&#243;ria no tratamento de pacientes com doen&#231;as card&#237;acas, incluindo aqueles com disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular sist&#243;lica, os quais j&#225; apresentam aumento patol&#243;gico dos volumes e massas ventriculares. Seus benef&#237;cios na capacidade funcional podem ser explicados pelos efeitos na fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, resist&#234;ncia vascular perif&#233;rica e modifica&#231;&#245;es na estrutura da musculatura esquel&#233;tica, embora n&#227;o tenha sido demonstrado melhora significativa na fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo.</p>
    <p>O estudo dos microRNAs pode gerar hip&#243;teses quanto aos mecanismos pelos quais o exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico interfere na fisiopatologia da IC. Interessante notar que as vias de sinaliza&#231;&#227;o que levam a hipertrofia decorrente do est&#237;mulo fisiol&#243;gico, como exerc&#237;cio, s&#227;o diversas daquelas que provocam a hipertrofia patol&#243;gica e, consequentemente, podem desencadear express&#227;o diferente nos miRNAs<sup>8</sup>. O pr&#233;-condicionamento isqu&#234;mico e sua rela&#231;&#227;o com o miRNA j&#225; come&#231;ou a ser avaliada em estudos experimentais<sup>42</sup>.</p>
    <p>Ao analisar as respostas individuais do treinamento f&#237;sico, d&#250;vidas s&#227;o levantadas quanto &#224;s raz&#245;es da variabilidade de seus resultados. H&#225; ind&#237;cios de que a adaptabilidade fisiol&#243;gica ao exerc&#237;cio tenha um paralelo com a express&#227;o gen&#233;tica<sup>43</sup>. Entretanto, a complexidade da intera&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica limita a identifica&#231;&#227;o de genes individuais que possam explicar essa variabilidade<sup>44</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, a sua express&#227;o se modifica de acordo com o est&#237;mulo que o organismo recebe e &#233; nesse aspecto que o estudo dos miRNAs tem um papel promissor.</p>
    <p>O m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico tamb&#233;m &#233; um &#243;rg&#227;o que apresenta uma elevada plasticidade, capaz de alterar o fen&#243;tipo em resposta a uma sobrecarga mec&#226;nica<sup>45</sup>. Estudos experimentais permitiram identificar mudan&#231;as no perfil muscular esquel&#233;tico de miRNAs espec&#237;ficas do exerc&#237;cio aer&#243;bico e do exerc&#237;cio resistido<sup>46</sup> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t03">tab. 3</xref>).</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="t03">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-98-05-0459-00012-gt03.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>H&#225; v&#225;rios miRNAs presentes no m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico, e os miRs-1, -133a, -133b e -206 compreendem 25% deles, sendo muitas vezes referidos como "miomirs"<sup>47</sup>. Em indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis,esses quatro miomirs diminuem significativamente ap&#243;s 12 semanas de treinamento aer&#243;bico<sup>48</sup>, indicando que eles se ajustam rapidamente ao n&#237;vel de atividade f&#237;sica. Interessante notar que esses n&#237;veis voltam aos valores basais ap&#243;s 14 dias da sua interrup&#231;&#227;o. Quando avaliada a resposta a uma &#250;nica sess&#227;o de exerc&#237;cio, foi encontrado aumento na express&#227;o dos miR-1 e -133a somente antes do per&#237;odo de treinamento.</p>
    <p>Com rela&#231;&#227;o a exerc&#237;cio resistido, o ganho em massa muscular tamb&#233;m &#233; altamente vari&#225;vel entre os indiv&#237;duos. Essa variabilidade &#233; acompanhada por diferen&#231;as no comportamento dos miRNAs. Um estudo<sup>47</sup> que analisou bi&#243;psias do m&#250;sculo vasto lateral de 56 homens submetidos a treinamento resistido por 12 semanas encontrou que a express&#227;o do miR-378 reduziu e a do miR-478 aumentou, ambos significativamente, somente naqueles que responderam pouco ao treinamento. Al&#233;m disso, houve uma forte correla&#231;&#227;o entre a varia&#231;&#227;o na express&#227;o do miR-378 com o ganho em massa magra. J&#225; os miomirs miRs-1 e -133 n&#227;o se modificaram com o exerc&#237;cio resistido.</p>
    <p>Com rela&#231;&#227;o aos n&#237;veis de miRNAs no sangue circulante, Baggish e cols.<sup>49</sup> estudaram o comportamento de miRNAs que foram previamente implicados na angiog&#234;nese (miR-20a, miR-210, miR-221, miR-222, miR-328), inflama&#231;&#227;o (miR-21, miR-146a), contratilidade muscular card&#237;aca e esquel&#233;tica (miR- 21, miR-133a) e adapta&#231;&#227;o muscular &#225; hip&#243;xia e isquemia (miR-21, miR-146a, e miR-210). Os resultados deste e outros estudos envolvendo o comportamento dos miRNAs no exerc&#237;cio em humanos est&#227;o resumidos na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t04">tabela 4</xref>.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="t04">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-98-05-0459-00012-gt04.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>O estudo dos miRNAs pode contribuir tamb&#233;m no entendimento dos efeitos do exerc&#237;cio na resposta imune, cujos mecanismos ainda n&#227;o est&#227;o esclarecidos. Por exemplo, a partir da an&#225;lise de citocinas, observou-se que ambas as vias pro-inflamat&#243;rias e anti-inflamat&#243;rias s&#227;o ativadas ap&#243;s exerc&#237;cio estenuante<sup>50</sup>. Estudando o comportamento de neutr&#243;filos no sangue perif&#233;rico<sup>51</sup> ap&#243;s uma sess&#227;o de exerc&#237;cio, foi poss&#237;vel observar altera&#231;&#227;o no perfil de express&#227;o dos miRNAs, sugerindo que esses contribuem para altera&#231;&#245;es na express&#227;o gen&#233;tica de c&#233;lulas imunocompetentes<sup>52</sup>.</p>
    <p>At&#233; o momento da publica&#231;&#227;o desta revis&#227;o, n&#227;o temos conhecimento de estudos que tenham avaliado o comportamento dos miRNAs em resposta ao treinamento f&#237;sico especificamente em pacientes com IC.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Perspectivas</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Muito j&#225; foi descoberto quanto aos efeitos do treinamento f&#237;sico na IC. Al&#233;m da melhora na capacidade funcional e na sobrevida, evid&#234;ncias tem demonstrado outros resultados positivos dessa terapia, como aumento nas c&#233;lulas progenitoras endoteliais circulantes<sup>53</sup>, efeitos anti-inflamat&#243;rios e no endot&#233;lio, com modifica&#231;&#245;es nos n&#237;veis de interleucinas-1&#946;<sup>54</sup>, -6<sup>54,55</sup>, -10<sup>56</sup>, fator de necrose tumoral &#945; e seus receptores 1 e 2 e da prote&#237;na C reativa<sup>56</sup>, &#243;xido n&#237;trico sintase induz&#237;vel (iNOS)<sup>54</sup>, mol&#233;cula de ades&#227;o intracelular sol&#250;vel (sICAM)<sup>55</sup>, adiponectina<sup>57,58</sup>, pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico cerebral (BNP)<sup>59</sup> e outros (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">fig. 2</xref>). Surge, portanto, uma promissora ferramenta de avalia&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica e diagn&#243;stica de tratamento na IC, que permitir&#225; ampliar os conhecimentos dos efeitos do exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico nesses pacientes, indo mais a fundo nos mecanismos moleculares, com a vantagem de refletir de maneira mais direta as vias de sinaliza&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica, conectando o est&#237;mulo ambiental aos aspectos heredit&#225;rios do indiv&#237;duo. Os microRNAs representam uma nova era no conhecimento da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e dos poss&#237;veis efeitos que o exerc&#237;cio exerce sobre ela.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="f02">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-98-05-0459-00012-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O presente estudo foi financiado pela Funda&#231;&#227;o de Apoio &#224; Pesquisa do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo (FAPESP).</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Este artigo &#233; parte do projeto de doutorado de Miguel Morita Fernandes da Silva pela Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="back" fn-type="corresp">
        <p>Endere&#231;o para correspond&#234;ncia:</p>
        <p> Miguel Morita Fernandes da Silva </p>
        <p> Avenida En&#233;as de Carvalho Aguiar, 44, Bloco I, 1&#176; Andar, Bairro Cerqueira Cesar </p>
        <p> CEP 05403-000, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p><email xlink:href="miguelmorita@cardiol.br">miguelmorita@cardiol.br</email>, </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="miguelmorita@me.com">miguelmorita@me.com</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Artigo recebido em 29/09/11 </p>
    <p> Revisado recebido em 25/10/11 </p>
    <p> Aceito em 03/11/11</p>
  </body>
  <back>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Physical exercise and microRNAs: new frontiers in heart failure</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>Although the impact of exercise on survival of patients with heart failure has been recently questioned, exercise training improves quality of life, functional capacity, inflammation, endothelial and autonomic function. In recent years, interest has increased regarding a group of small non-protein coding RNAs called microRNAs. Studies have shown that the expression of these molecules changes in several pathological conditions, such as myocardial infarction, myocardial ischemia and heart failure, and when clinical improvement occurs, they seem to normalize. With the potential for practical applicability, markers that may be useful in diagnostic and prognostic assessment of heart failure have been identified, such as miR-423-5p. In addition, results of experimental studies have indicated that there are potential therapeutic effects of microRNAs. MicroRNAs are involved in the regulation of gene expression during fetal development and in adult individuals, increasing or decreasing in the heart in response to physiological stress, injury or hemodynamic overload. Thus, the study of the behavior of these molecules in physical exercise has brought important information about the effects of this therapeutic modality and represents a new era in the understanding of heart failure. This review aims to integrate the evidence on microRNAs in heart failure with greater relevance in the study of physical exercise.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Exercise</kwd>
        <kwd>microRNAs</kwd>
        <kwd>heart rate</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>REVIEW ARTICLE</bold>
      </p>
      <p><undefined id="top-body2"/>Physical exercise and microRNAs: new frontiers in heart failure</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Miguel Morita Fernandes-Silva<sup>I, II</sup>; Vagner Oliveira Carvalho<sup>I</sup>; Guilherme Veiga Guimar&#227;es<sup>I</sup>; Fernando Bacal<sup>I</sup>; Edimar Alcides Bocchi<sup>I</sup></bold>
      </p>
      <p><sup>I</sup>Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas de S&#227;o Paulo-INCOR, S&#227;o Paulo, SP</p>
      <p><sup>II</sup>Hospital Cardiol&#243;gico Costantini, Curitiba, PR, Brasil</p>
      <p>Correspondence</p>
      <p>
        <bold>ABSTRACT</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Although the impact of exercise on survival of patients with heart failure has been recently questioned, exercise training improves quality of life, functional capacity, inflammation, endothelial and autonomic function. In recent years, interest has increased regarding a group of small non-protein coding RNAs called microRNAs.</p>
      <p> Studies have shown that the expression of these molecules changes in several pathological conditions, such as myocardial infarction, myocardial ischemia and heart failure, and when clinical improvement occurs, they seem to normalize. With the potential for practical applicability, markers that may be useful in diagnostic and prognostic assessment of heart failure have been identified, such as miR-423-5p. In addition, results of experimental studies have indicated that there are potential therapeutic effects of microRNAs.</p>
      <p> MicroRNAs are involved in the regulation of gene expression during fetal development and in adult individuals, increasing or decreasing in the heart in response to physiological stress, injury or hemodynamic overload. Thus, the study of the behavior of these molecules in physical exercise has brought important information about the effects of this therapeutic modality and represents a new era in the understanding of heart failure.</p>
      <p> This review aims to integrate the evidence on microRNAs in heart failure with greater relevance in the study of physical exercise.</p>
      <p><bold>Keywords:</bold> Exercise; microRNAs; heart rate / physiopathology.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Several advances in the understanding of the physiopathology of heart failure (HF) allowed the development of new therapeutic modalities, or even optimized them, with a consequent increase in survival. Nevertheless, HF is still a condition with high mortality and morbidity, being the leading cause of hospitalization due to cardiovascular disease in Brazil<sup>1</sup>.</p>
      <p>In spite of recent evidence questioning the impact of exercise on survival<sup>2</sup>, physical training improves quality of life<sup>3</sup>, functional capacity<sup>4</sup>, inflammation<sup>5</sup>, and autonomic<sup>4</sup> and endothelial function<sup>4</sup>. The mechanisms involved in this phenomenon are not yet fully understood. In recent years, interest has increased in the area of research involving aspects related to the body's response to exercise in the genetic scenario, in which microRNAs appear to play a key role.</p>
      <p>It has become increasingly evident that microRNAs play a critical role in many biological processes, and research in cancer and cardiovascular diseases have been the main focus in translational medicine. Recent studies have evaluated the expression of several microRNAs in myocardial hypertrophy, myocardial infarction and heart failure, which will improve the understanding of the physiopathology of these clinical conditions, in addition to their promising use in the diagnosis and prognosis of major cardiovascular diseases<sup>6,7</sup>. Moreover, the possibility of mimicking microRNAs with reduced expression or antagonizing those of which increased expression would be causally linked to a specific pathology, represent a therapeutic potential and new paradigm in the management of heart diseases.</p>
      <p>Implicated in the regulation of gene expression during fetal development and in adult individuals<sup>8,9</sup>, many of these microRNAs increase or decrease in the heart in response to physiological stress, injury or hemodynamic overload<sup>10</sup>. The study of the behavior of these molecules in physical exercise therefore represents a great potential for new discoveries of this type of therapeutic modality in HF.</p>
      <p>This review aims to integrate the evidence for microRNAs in heart failure with greater relevance in the study of physical exercise.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>MicroRNAs</bold>
      </p>
      <p>In response to external stimuli such as exercise, gene expression can be modulated by different mechanisms, including gene silencing by small RNAs, including the microRNAs (miRNAs)<sup>11</sup>.</p>
      <p>The miRNAs, initially described in 1993 when studying the development of nematodes<sup>12</sup>, are characterized as a group of small non-protein-coding RNAs, with approximately 19-25 nucleotides in length. Unlike the wide range of RNAs encoded by the human genome, this variety of RNA has been noted for its unique ability to modulate an enormous and complex regulatory network of gene expression<sup>13</sup>.</p>
      <p>It is currently known that, in general, miRNAs are synthesized from specific genes or certain genetic regions that are not associated with protein production (introns)<sup>11</sup>. The maturation process of miRNAs involves a complex metabolic pathway that begins in the nucleus and extends to the cell cytoplasm (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="eng12f01-body2">Fig. 1</xref>). The first step in the miRNA maturation is the transcription of a long primary miRNA strand (pri-miRNA) from a certain gene<sup>14</sup>. The pri-miRNA is cleaved by an enzyme complex called <italic>Drosha</italic>, releasing precursor regions called pre-miRNAs, which will form distinct miRNAs<sup>15</sup>. In the cytoplasm, after being exported from the nucleus by exportin-5<sup>16</sup>, the pre-miRNA is cleaved by the <italic>Dicer</italic> enzyme, forming a double-stranded RNA with approximately 22 nucleotides<sup>17</sup>. The two strands are then separated; however, only one of them will potentially act as a functional miRNA, while the other is generally degraded<sup>18</sup>.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="eng12f01-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-98-05-0459-00012-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>In its mature form, miRNAs, with the help of an enzyme complex called RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC), binds to the target messenger RNA (mRNA). This binding prevents the ribosomes from accessing the genetic information contained in the mRNA, resulting in decreased protein synthesis of the target gene<sup>19,20</sup>.</p>
      <p>In general, the function of miRNAs is to act as a recognition component for RISC, as they bind to mRNA, identifying it as a target. The complexity of protein expression regulation by miRNA is illustrated by the fact that a single miRNA can regulate hundreds of distinct target genes, and otherwise cooperate to control a single target gene <sup>2,13</sup>.</p>
      <p>More than 700 human miRNAs have been identified and there seems to be 150 to 200 of them expressed in the heart<sup>10</sup>. This number is expected to grow even further, due to the recent development of sequencing technologies and computational prediction methods<sup>19,20</sup>. Although the biological functions of miRNAs are not fully understood, it is believed that 30% to 60% of the protein-coding genes are regulated by miRNAs<sup>11</sup>.</p>
      <p>Studies have shown that although miRNAs are expressed in various cell types, specific miRNAs are synthesized exclusively in certain tissues or cell groups<sup>19,20</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>MicroRNAs and heart failure</bold>
      </p>
      <p>In recent years, it has been shown that many miRNAs are expressed in a specific way in some cardiovascular conditions. Specifically, there is a differential expression in hypertrophy, myocardial ischemia and endothelial dysfunction.</p>
      <p>Systolic HF is characterized by ventricular dilatation and remodeling and there seems to be an activation of a fetal gene program that triggers pathological changes in the myocardium, associated with progressive ventricular dysfunction<sup>21</sup>. A pattern of miRNA expression very similar to that found in fetal hearts has been identified in the heart of patients with advanced-stage HF<sup>21</sup>. Moreover, in a study evaluating<sup>22</sup> patients with dilated, ischemic and valvular cardiomyopathy (aortic stenosis), the expression profile was different according to the etiology of HF, and the miRNA signature was able to predict diagnosis with an accuracy of 70%.</p>
      <p>Four families of miRNAs are highly expressed in the heart: miR-1, miR-133, miR-208 and miR-499. The miR-1 family represents 40% of all miRNAs expressed in the heart, whereas the miR-208 is the only one known as cardio-specific. <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1-body2">Table 1</xref> contains some miRNAs and their possible biological effects on the adult heart.</p>
      <table-wrap id="t1-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-98-05-0459-00012-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>The miR-1 is reduced in myocardial hypertrophy, and <italic>in vitro</italic><sup>23</sup> and <italic>in vivo</italic><sup>24</sup> studies indicate that there is a causal relationship, in which the reduction of this miRNA is a necessary condition for cell mass increasing<sup>25</sup>. An experiment in rats<sup>26</sup> showed that one of the earliest changes observed after pressure overload to the heart is the reduction in miR-1, even before the increase in cardiac mass. The miR-1 is reduced in the hypertrophic ventricle of patients with acromegaly<sup>26</sup> and aortic stenosis<sup>22</sup> with preserved ejection fraction.</p>
      <p>On the other hand, the expression of miR-1 shows different findings in HF. While some authors<sup>22,27,28</sup> observed a reduction in miR-1 in ischemic and non-ischemic dilated cardiomyopathy, others observed an increase<sup>21,29</sup>. Han et al<sup>25</sup> suggest the possibility that miR-1 is reduced in hypertrophy, but returns to normal or above normal when the condition progresses to HF.</p>
      <p>The family of miR-208 is restricted to the heart and consists of the miRs-208a and -208b, which are encoded in introns of genes of myosin heavy chains (MHC) &#945; and &#946;, respectively<sup>30,31</sup>. The interactions of these miRNAs with the MHC genes are involved in the development of hypertrophy in adults.</p>
      <p>Other miRNAs also show a differentiated expression in hypertrophy and myocardial ischemia. Some examples are shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2-body2">Table 2</xref>.</p>
      <table-wrap id="t2-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-98-05-0459-00012-gt02-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>Changing in miRNA expression in response to heart functional alterations have also been demonstrated. An interesting study<sup>29</sup> evaluated the profiles of mRNA and miRNA in 10 hearts treated with left ventricular assistance device (LVAD), 17 hearts of individuals with HF not treated with LVAD and 11 controls (no HF). In the hearts of individuals with HF without LVAD, a significant increase in the expression of 28 miRNAs was observed, while in those treated with LVAD, 20 of these miRNAs were completely normalized, and the other eight tended to normalization. Experimental studies<sup>32</sup> have shown that a phenotype can be reversed through the inhibition of a specific miRNA that has an increased expression in this condition. This can be accomplished by administering an anti-miRNA oligonucleotide, which acts as a competitive inhibitor of that miRNA and is called antagomiR. Recently, Montgomery et al<sup>33</sup> demonstrated that administration of an anti-miR-208a antagomiR was able to prevent ventricular hypertrophy, cardiac remodeling and mortality in Dahl rats due to HF (sensitive to salt) subjected to a hypersodic diet.</p>
      <p>The study strongly suggests that the effects of antagomiR were due to reduced levels of miR-208a. This result not only establishes a causal correlation of this miRNA with the mechanism of hypertrophy, but also brings a very promising therapeutic use to reverse remodeling. However, in adult rats, the profile miR-208a/&#945;-MHC is predominant, and when pressure overload occurs, there is a shift in the production from &#945; to &#946;-MHC<sup>30,31</sup>. In humans, the role of this mechanism in hypertrophy remains to be clarified, as this species is not able to reverse the MHC isoforms, and the &#946;-MHC is the predominant form, together with the miR-208b<sup>31</sup>. In addition, experimental models must be viewed with caution when extrapolating data, as they are artificial and may not accurately mimic the clinical conditions observed in humans<sup>10</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>MicroRNA as biomarker in heart failure</bold>
      </p>
      <p>For a widespread use of miRNA as a biomarker in heart failure, its determination must be simple and reliable, preferably dispensing with the need to perform an invasive procedure such as a biopsy. Although the research of miRNAs in tissues and cells have been carried out for some time, only recently it was found the existence of a series of these miRNAs in circulating blood. Mitchell et al<sup>34</sup> demonstrated in patients with prostate cancer that tissue-specific circulating miRNAs could be detected in plasma. The mechanisms by which they are released are uncertain, but it has been postulated to be through the secretion within microvesicles called exosomes<sup>35</sup>. It is unknown whether this occurs with other miRNAs, but characteristics such as specificity and stability in plasma make it very promising as a marker of tissue injury<sup>36</sup>.</p>
      <p>The miRs-208a, -208b and -499 miRNAs are specific to cardiomyocytes and were evaluated in the diagnosis of conditions that cause myocardial injury. There was an increase of more than 1,000-fold in acute myocardial infarction<sup>6,37-39</sup> of miRs-208b and-499. In this condition, they reflect tissue injury and cell death. In addition, miR-208a showed diagnostic accuracy that was similar to troponin, with the advantage of being detected earlier in plasma<sup>6</sup>.</p>
      <p>In order to determine which could be used as biomarkers in HF, Tijsen et al<sup>40</sup> compared the expression profile of miRNAs in the plasma of 12 healthy subjects with 12 patients admitted for acute HF. Among 108 miRNAs that showed significant difference between the groups, 16 were selected and validated in a larger group, including 30 patients with HF, 20 who had dyspnea due to other causes rather than the HF, and a third group of 39 healthy individuals. In this validation cohort, an elevated level of mir-423-5p was strongly associated with the diagnosis of HF in a logistic regression model including age and sex. The mechanisms by which there is an increase in this marker in patients with HF remains unknown. Whether this is due to cell damage and subsequent release of that in plasma, or is related to a specific secretory pathway of a given cell, it remains to be clarified<sup>41</sup>. In another study<sup>7</sup>, plasma concentrations of miR-126 showed an inverse correlation with the levels of brain natriuretic peptide (BNP). However, the patient sample was heterogeneous and the criteria for HF were not well established. More studies are needed to define the role of these miRNAs as biomarkers in HF.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>MicroRNA and exercise</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Physical exercise, pregnancy and the individual's growth are stimuli for physiological increase of the heart. In the mid-nineteenth century, descriptions of the so-called "athlete's heart" had deleterious connotations<sup>8</sup>. More recently, the multiple benefits of physical training on survival and the harmful effects of a sedentary lifestyle made this therapeutic modality required to treat patients with heart disease, including those with systolic ventricular dysfunction, who have already shown a pathological increasing in ventricular volumes and masses. Its benefits regarding functional capacity can be explained by effects on endothelial function, peripheral vascular resistance and changes in the structure of skeletal muscle, although significant improvement in left ventricular ejection fraction have not been demonstrated.</p>
      <p>The study of microRNAs may generate hypotheses about the mechanisms by which exercise affects the pathophysiology of HF. Interestingly, the signaling pathways leading to hypertrophy due to physiological stimuli such as exercise, are different from those that cause pathological hypertrophy and thus may trigger different expressions in miRNAs<sup>8</sup>. Ischemic preconditioning and its relationship with the miRNA is already being evaluated in experimental studies<sup>42</sup>.</p>
      <p>When analyzing individual responses to physical training, doubts are raised concerning the reasons for the variability of their results. There is evidence that physiological adaptability to exercise has a parallel with gene expression<sup>43</sup>. However, the complexity of the genetic interaction limits the identification of individual genes that may explain this variability<sup>44</sup>. Moreover, its expression changes according to the stimulus that the body receives and it is in this aspect that the study of miRNAs has a promising role.</p>
      <p>The skeletal muscle is also an organ with high plasticity, capable of altering the phenotype in response to mechanical overload<sup>45</sup>. Experimental studies have identified changes in the skeletal muscle profile of specific miRNAs in aerobic and resistance exercises<sup>46</sup> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="eng12t03-body2">Table 3</xref>).</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="eng12t03-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-98-05-0459-00012-gt03-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>There are several miRNAs present in skeletal muscle, and miRs-1, -133a, -133b and -206 comprise 25% of them, often being referred to as "myomirs"<sup>47</sup>. In healthy subjects, these four myomirs decrease significantly after 12 weeks of aerobic training<sup>48</sup>, indicating that they adjust quickly to the level of physical activity. Interestingly, these levels return to baseline after 14 days of its discontinuation. When evaluating their response to a single exercise session, an increased expression of miR-1 and 133a was observed only before the training period.</p>
      <p>With respect to resistance exercise, the gain in muscle mass is also highly variable among individuals. This variability is also accompanied by differences in the behavior of miRNAs. A study<sup>47</sup> that analyzed biopsies of the vastus lateralis muscle of 56 men undergoing resistance training for 12 weeks found that the expression of miR-378 decreased and that of miR-478 increased, both significantly, only in those who responded little to the training. In addition, there was a strong correlation between the variation in the expression of miR-378 with the gain in lean body mass. With respect to myomirs, resistance exercise did not change miRs-1 and -133 in this study.</p>
      <p>With respect to the levels of miRNAs in circulating blood, Baggish et al<sup>49</sup> studied the behavior of miRNAs that were previously implicated in angiogenesis (miR-20a, miR-210, miR-221, miR-222, miR-328), inflammation (miR-21, miR-146a), cardiac and skeletal muscle contractility (miR-21, miR-133a) and muscular adaptation to hypoxia and ischemia (miR-21, miR-146a, and miR-210). The results of this and other studies involving the behavior of miRNAs in exercise in humans are summarized in <xref ref-type="table" rid="eng12t04-body2">Table 4</xref>.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="eng12t04-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-98-05-0459-00012-gt04-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>The study of miRNAs can also help to understand the effects of exercise on immune response, of which mechanisms remain unclear. For instance, based on the analysis of cytokines, it was observed that both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory pathways are activated after strenuous exercise<sup>50</sup>. Studying the behavior of neutrophils in peripheral blood<sup>51</sup> after a workout, it was possible to observe changes in the expression profile of miRNAs, suggesting that these contribute to changes in gene expression of immunocompetent cells<sup>52</sup>.</p>
      <p>By the time of publication of this review, we are not aware of studies that have evaluated the behavior of miRNAs in response to physical training specifically in patients with HF.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Perspectives</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Much has been discovered on the effects of exercise training on HF. In addition to improving functional capacity and survival, other evidence has shown positive results of this therapy, such as an increasing in circulating endothelial progenitor cells<sup>53</sup>, anti-inflammatory effects and effects on the endothelium, and changing in levels of interleukin-1&#946;<sup>54</sup>, -6<sup>54,55</sup>, -10<sup>56</sup>, tumor necrosis factor-&#945; and its receptors 1 and 2 and C-reactive protein<sup>56</sup>, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS)<sup>54</sup>, soluble intracellular adhesion molecule (sICAM)<sup>55</sup>, adiponectin<sup>57,58</sup>, brain natriuretic peptide (BNP)<sup>59</sup> and others (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="eng12f02-body2">Fig. 2</xref>). Therefore, a promising tool emerges for diagnostic and prognostic evaluation of treatment in HF, which will increase the knowledge of the effects of physical exercise in these patients, going deeper into the molecular mechanisms, with the advantage of reflecting more directly the genetic signaling pathways, linking environmental stimuli to the hereditary aspects of the individual. MicroRNAs represent a new era in knowledge of heart failure and the possible effects that exercise has on it.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="eng12f02-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-98-05-0459-00012-gf02-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
      </p>
      <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This study was funded by Funda&#231;&#227;o de Apoio &#224; Pesquisa do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo (FAPESP).</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Study Association</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This article is part of the thesis of doctoral submitted by Miguel Morita Fernandes da Silva, from Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
</article>
