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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">z9yW3cwx55wy9jKv8kwmFwN</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00013</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2011000100013</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(11)09600113</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2011000100013</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>S&#237;tios endoc&#225;rdicos alternativos na estimula&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca artificial</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Silva J&#250;nior</surname>
            <given-names>Otaviano da</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Melo</surname>
            <given-names>Celso Salgado de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Marra</surname>
            <given-names>Marcelo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Correia</surname>
            <given-names>Dalmo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Uberaba</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">Minas Gerais</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Tri&#226;ngulo Mineiro</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas </institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>01</month>
        <year>2011</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>96</volume>
      <issue>1</issue>
      <fpage>76</fpage>
      <lpage>85</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>21</day>
          <month>10</month>
          <year>2009</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>26</day>
          <month>10</month>
          <year>2009</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>30</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2009</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>A estimula&#231;&#227;o ventricular direita convencional pode estar associada a efeitos delet&#233;rios sobre a fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca. A necessidade de uma estimula&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca artificial mais fisiol&#243;gica &#233;, indiscutivelmente, um dos pontos mais importantes na &#225;rea da eletroterapia card&#237;aca. Os algoritmos de programa&#231;&#227;o para a manuten&#231;&#227;o da condu&#231;&#227;o atrioventricular pr&#243;pria, a estimula&#231;&#227;o de s&#237;tios endoc&#225;rdicos alternativos e a terapia de ressincroniza&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca s&#227;o utilizados com o intuito de alcan&#231;ar este objetivo. A estimula&#231;&#227;o do feixe de His e a estimula&#231;&#227;o septal t&#234;m sido estudadas como s&#237;tios endoc&#225;rdicos alternativos para o posicionamento do eletrodo no ventr&#237;culo direito. A estimula&#231;&#227;o septal representa uma alternativa simples, pr&#225;tica e sem custos adicionais e com potenciais benef&#237;cios na redu&#231;&#227;o dos efeitos delet&#233;rios da estimula&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo direito. Entretanto, esse s&#237;tio alternativo envolve um grupo heterog&#234;neo de pacientes e apresenta resultados conflitantes quanto ao seu benef&#237;cio cl&#237;nico a longo prazo. Este artigo faz uma revis&#227;o das evid&#234;ncias cient&#237;ficas sobre os s&#237;tios alternativos de estimula&#231;&#227;o ventricular direita, com &#234;nfase na seguran&#231;a do procedimento, na medida dos par&#226;metros eletrofisiol&#243;gicos, na avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda e no acompanhamento cl&#237;nico dos pacientes.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>Marcapasso artificial</kwd>
        <kwd>estimula&#231;&#227;o septal</kwd>
        <kwd>fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>04</day>
        <month>02</month>
        <year>2011</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>ARTIGO DE REVIS&#195;O</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>S&#237;tios endoc&#225;rdicos alternativos na estimula&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca artificial</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Otaviano da Silva J&#250;nior; Celso Salgado de Melo; Marcelo Marra; Dalmo Correia</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas da Universidade Federal do Tri&#226;ngulo Mineiro, Uberaba, MG - Brasil</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="nota1">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESUMO</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A estimula&#231;&#227;o ventricular direita convencional pode estar associada a efeitos delet&#233;rios sobre a fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca. A necessidade de uma estimula&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca artificial mais fisiol&#243;gica &#233;, indiscutivelmente, um dos pontos mais importantes na &#225;rea da eletroterapia card&#237;aca. Os algoritmos de programa&#231;&#227;o para a manuten&#231;&#227;o da condu&#231;&#227;o atrioventricular pr&#243;pria, a estimula&#231;&#227;o de s&#237;tios endoc&#225;rdicos alternativos e a terapia de ressincroniza&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca s&#227;o utilizados com o intuito de alcan&#231;ar este objetivo. A estimula&#231;&#227;o do feixe de His e a estimula&#231;&#227;o septal t&#234;m sido estudadas como s&#237;tios endoc&#225;rdicos alternativos para o posicionamento do eletrodo no ventr&#237;culo direito. A estimula&#231;&#227;o septal representa uma alternativa simples, pr&#225;tica e sem custos adicionais e com potenciais benef&#237;cios na redu&#231;&#227;o dos efeitos delet&#233;rios da estimula&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo direito. Entretanto, esse s&#237;tio alternativo envolve um grupo heterog&#234;neo de pacientes e apresenta resultados conflitantes quanto ao seu benef&#237;cio cl&#237;nico a longo prazo. </p>
    <p> Este artigo faz uma revis&#227;o das evid&#234;ncias cient&#237;ficas sobre os s&#237;tios alternativos de estimula&#231;&#227;o ventricular direita, com &#234;nfase na seguran&#231;a do procedimento, na medida dos par&#226;metros eletrofisiol&#243;gicos, na avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda e no acompanhamento cl&#237;nico dos pacientes.</p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold> Marcapasso artificial, estimula&#231;&#227;o septal, fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Na era da ressincroniza&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, a terapia antibradicardia, por meio do implante de marcapasso definitivo convencional, ainda representa o maior n&#250;mero de procedimentos realizados na &#225;rea da estimula&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca artificial<sup>1</sup>. Desde o in&#237;cio da estimula&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca endoc&#225;rdica, em 1958<sup>2</sup>, e durante mais de 4 d&#233;cadas, o prolongamento da vida atrav&#233;s de implante do eletrodo na regi&#227;o da ponta do ventr&#237;culo direito, em fun&#231;&#227;o da facilidade de acesso e menor risco de complica&#231;&#245;es, representou o escopo terap&#234;utico.</p>
    <p>Desde a d&#233;cada de 1980, h&#225; evid&#234;ncias dos efeitos delet&#233;rios da estimula&#231;&#227;o apical do ventr&#237;culo direito (VD) a longo prazo<sup>3-6</sup>. Nos &#250;ltimos 12 anos, v&#225;rios estudos t&#234;m sido realizados com o objetivo de buscar s&#237;tios alternativos para o implante do eletrodo na estimula&#231;&#227;o endoc&#225;rdica do VD. Foram avaliadas a regi&#227;o do feixe de His<sup>7-12</sup>, a via de sa&#237;da do ventr&#237;culo direito (VSVD)<sup>13-23 </sup>e a regi&#227;o septal m&#233;dia<sup>24-26</sup>. </p>
    <p>A maioria dos estudos envolveu um n&#250;mero pequeno de pacientes, sem randomiza&#231;&#227;o, e os crit&#233;rios utilizados para defini&#231;&#227;o do s&#237;tio de estimula&#231;&#227;o podem ter levado &#224; avalia&#231;&#227;o de grupos heterog&#234;neos. No mesmo sentido, foram utilizados m&#233;todos diferentes para a avalia&#231;&#227;o da repercuss&#227;o funcional da estimula&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca. </p>
    <p>Sendo assim, apesar da demonstra&#231;&#227;o dos efeitos delet&#233;rios da estimula&#231;&#227;o apical do VD em pacientes e potenciais benef&#237;cios dos s&#237;tios alternativos, h&#225; resultados conflitantes e ainda n&#227;o est&#225; definido o local de escolha para o implante do eletrodo ventricular direito. </p>
    <p>O objetivo deste artigo &#233; discorrer sobre os s&#237;tios alternativos de estimula&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca artificial no contexto da cardiologia baseada em evid&#234;ncias. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Aspectos hist&#243;ricos da estimula&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca artificial</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O complexo estimulante card&#237;aco &#233; resultante de um processo de especializa&#231;&#227;o celular e traduz o esfor&#231;o de milh&#245;es de anos na evolu&#231;&#227;o filogen&#233;tica para a manuten&#231;&#227;o da vida. Naturalmente, a substitui&#231;&#227;o de componentes desse sistema de condu&#231;&#227;o, com a manuten&#231;&#227;o das suas propriedades, sempre constituiu um desafio colossal no campo da eletroterapia card&#237;aca.</p>
    <p>Desde os primeiros estudos experimentais, as diferen&#231;as entre o est&#237;mulo artificial e a ativa&#231;&#227;o fisiol&#243;gica n&#227;o passaram despercebidas<sup>27,28</sup>. Em 1924, Wiggers demonstrou que o est&#237;mulo artificial resulta na redu&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o de bomba em um estudo experimental em c&#227;es<sup>28</sup>. </p>
    <p>A era da estimula&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca endoc&#225;rdica inicia-se em agosto de 1958, quando Seymour Furman descreveu a t&#233;cnica transvenosa de implante de marcapasso<sup>2</sup>. Em outubro do mesmo ano, na Su&#233;cia, foi realizado o primeiro implante de marcapasso endoc&#225;rdico definitivo<sup>29</sup>. </p>
    <p>O acesso transvenoso passou a substituir o acesso epic&#225;rdico nos implantes de marcapasso, permitindo que os procedimentos fossem realizados sem toracotomia e sem anestesia geral. O posicionamento do eletrodo passou a ser realizado sob vis&#227;o radiosc&#243;pica, com aux&#237;lio da anatomia radiol&#243;gica.</p>
    <p>Durante mais de 4 d&#233;cadas, a regi&#227;o da ponta do ventr&#237;culo direito (VD) foi utilizada em todo o mundo como s&#237;tio preferencial para o posicionamento do eletrodo ventricular<sup>30</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig1">Figura 1</xref>). Esse fato deveu-se principalmente a quest&#245;es de seguran&#231;a. Em fun&#231;&#227;o da tecnologia incipiente utilizada na fabrica&#231;&#227;o dos eletrodos, havia maiores riscos de deslocamento, perfura&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, aumento do limiar e consequente perda de comando. Os eletrodos, ent&#227;o de fixa&#231;&#227;o passiva, ficavam bem ancorados na regi&#227;o da ponta, com uma curvatura favor&#225;vel e com redu&#231;&#227;o dos riscos de deslocamento.</p>
    <fig id="fig1">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-96-01-0076-00013-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>Foi a partir da d&#233;cada de 1980 que surgiram as primeiras evid&#234;ncias experimentais dos efeitos delet&#233;rios da estimula&#231;&#227;o da ponta do VD<sup>3-6</sup>. Em seguida, na d&#233;cada de 1990, os primeiros estudos cl&#237;nicos de compara&#231;&#227;o da posi&#231;&#227;o convencional com s&#237;tios alternativos de estimula&#231;&#227;o foram publicados e o s&#237;tio de escolha na estimula&#231;&#227;o ventricular direita nos marcapassos convencionais ainda n&#227;o foi definido<sup>31</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Evid&#234;ncias cient&#237;ficas dos efeitos delet&#233;rios da estimula&#231;&#227;o ventricular direita unifocal</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O complexo QRS estreito &#233; fundamental para o rendimento card&#237;aco e seu alargamento promove preju&#237;zo significativo da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular<sup>32-35</sup>. De forma geral, quanto mais estreito o QRS, melhor a fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda<sup>36</sup>. </p>
    <p>Apesar da seguran&#231;a do posicionamento do eletrodo ventricular na ponta do VD na corre&#231;&#227;o das bradiarritmias, observada ao longo de d&#233;cadas, os estudos da repercuss&#227;o funcional e seguimento cl&#237;nico passaram a evidenciar os efeitos delet&#233;rios desta posi&#231;&#227;o e nortearam a necessidade de reavalia&#231;&#227;o do s&#237;tio preferencial de estimula&#231;&#227;o endoc&#225;rdica<sup>37-54</sup>. O desenvolvimento tecnol&#243;gico aplicado na fabrica&#231;&#227;o dos eletrodos representou um aliado fundamental na busca de posi&#231;&#245;es alternativas, conferindo seguran&#231;a ao processo de mudan&#231;a. </p>
    <p>A estimula&#231;&#227;o da ponta do ventr&#237;culo direito promove uma invers&#227;o da sequ&#234;ncia natural de ativa&#231;&#227;o el&#233;trica card&#237;aca, gera um bloqueio de ramo esquerdo (BRE) artificial, com complexo QRS alargado, que &#233; preditor de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca em portadores de marcapasso definitivo<sup>55-57</sup>. Essas altera&#231;&#245;es promovem efeitos adversos na estrutura e na fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="qua1">Quadro 1</xref>) e podem desenvolver ou agravar insufici&#234;ncia mitral<sup>38,39</sup>, aumentar o risco de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial (FA), insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC) e aumentar a mortalidade<sup>41-47</sup>, nos pacientes com disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica.</p>
    <fig id="qua1">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-96-01-0076-00013-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>Em uma an&#225;lise retrospectiva do estudo MOST (<italic>Mode Selection Trial) </italic>ficou demonstrado que o risco de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por IC e FA est&#225; diretamente relacionado &#224; porcentagem cumulativa de estimula&#231;&#227;o no &#225;pice do VD<sup>44</sup>. </p>
    <p>O estudo DAVID (<italic>The Dual Chamber and VVI Implantable Defibrillator Trial</italic>) foi interrompido precocemente e de forma n&#227;o esperada, em fun&#231;&#227;o do aumento de IC e mortalidade no grupo com predom&#237;nio de estimula&#231;&#227;o ventricular (modo DDDR a 70 bpm). No grupo controle, a estimula&#231;&#227;o ventricular era m&#237;nima, j&#225; que o marcapasso era programado em VVI, com frequ&#234;ncia de 40 ppm. Ficava demonstrado o efeito delet&#233;rio da estimula&#231;&#227;o ventricular unifocal<sup>41,47</sup>. Uma an&#225;lise do estudo MADIT II mostrou correla&#231;&#227;o entre o &#237;ndice de estimula&#231;&#227;o do VD e IC, arritmias ventriculares e mortalidade<sup>49</sup>. </p>
    <p>Zhang e cols.<sup>58</sup> demonstraram que a estimula&#231;&#227;o da ponta do VD foi associada ao desenvolvimento de IC em 26% dos pacientes submetidos ao implante de marcapasso por bloqueio AV adquirido, ap&#243;s um seguimento m&#233;dio de 7,9 anos. </p>
    <p>O cora&#231;&#227;o estruturalmente normal, sem disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica, pode at&#233; ser capaz de compensar esses efeitos delet&#233;rios<sup>51</sup>. Um estudo, envolvendo 268 pacientes com fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica normal (FE &gt; 55%) e estimula&#231;&#227;o apical do VD por bloqueio AV total, mostrou baixas taxas de remodelamento ventricular (5,3%), em um seguimento de 80,2 meses<sup>58</sup>. J&#225; nos pacientes com disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, pode haver o surgimento de sintomas ou a descompensa&#231;&#227;o do quadro de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, com a estimula&#231;&#227;o apical do ventr&#237;culo direito<sup>51</sup>. </p>
    <p>Com o objetivo de alcan&#231;ar uma estimula&#231;&#227;o artificial mais fisiol&#243;gica, as estrat&#233;gias para manuten&#231;&#227;o da condu&#231;&#227;o atrioventricular (AV) pr&#243;pria, quando poss&#237;vel, e os s&#237;tios alternativos de estimula&#231;&#227;o t&#234;m sido estudados<sup>54,59,60</sup>. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>S&#237;tios alternativos de estimula&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca endoc&#225;rdica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Na Am&#233;rica Latina, a import&#226;ncia da etiologia chag&#225;sica, associada aos implantes de marcapasso card&#237;aco, levou &#224; necessidade de buscar um local alternativo para o posicionamento do eletrodo ventricular, tendo-se em vista algumas peculiaridades da doen&#231;a. A regi&#227;o da ponta do ventr&#237;culo direito em cardiopatas chag&#225;sicos pode apresentar adelga&#231;amento endoc&#225;rdico em 20%-30% dos pacientes, al&#233;m da presen&#231;a de trombo intracavit&#225;rio em um n&#250;mero expressivo dos casos<sup>61</sup>. </p>
    <p>Em fun&#231;&#227;o dessas caracter&#237;sticas, Kormann e Jatene<sup>62</sup> descreveram a posi&#231;&#227;o subtricusp&#237;dea (tri&#226;ngulo v&#233;rtebro-costo-diafragm&#225;tico) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="a13fig02">Figura 2</xref>) para reduzir os riscos de perfura&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca e fen&#244;menos tromboemb&#243;licos desencadeados pelo eletrodo ventricular. Esse estudo representou um marco para a mudan&#231;a da conduta de v&#225;rios cirurgi&#245;es na Am&#233;rica Latina, que passaram a utilizar a posi&#231;&#227;o da via de entrada do VD como s&#237;tio preferencial de implante do eletrodo ventricular direito em pacientes chag&#225;sicos<sup>62-64</sup>. Dentre os pacientes acompanhados no Laborat&#243;rio de Marcapassos do Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, em 2006, 77,8% tinham eletrodos ventriculares fixados na regi&#227;o subtricusp&#237;dea<sup>63</sup>. Entretanto, n&#227;o h&#225; evid&#234;ncias cient&#237;ficas da repercuss&#227;o funcional desse s&#237;tio de estimula&#231;&#227;o e n&#227;o h&#225; estudos de compara&#231;&#227;o com os outros locais de implante do eletrodo ventricular direito.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="a13fig02">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-96-01-0076-00013-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>As evid&#234;ncias cient&#237;ficas na era da ressincroniza&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, a partir da d&#233;cada de 1990, levaram &#224; introdu&#231;&#227;o da estimula&#231;&#227;o seletiva. O princ&#237;pio b&#225;sico de tal t&#233;cnica &#233; buscar reproduzir a sequ&#234;ncia natural de despolariza&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, atrav&#233;s do posicionamento do eletrodo nas &#225;reas mais pr&#243;ximas poss&#237;veis do sistema de condu&#231;&#227;o, aproveitando a complexa rede de distribui&#231;&#227;o el&#233;trica natural<sup>54</sup>. Nesse sentido, t&#234;m sido avaliadas a estimula&#231;&#227;o do feixe de His ou para-His<sup>7-12 </sup>e a estimula&#231;&#227;o da regi&#227;o endoc&#225;rdica do ventr&#237;culo direito mais pr&#243;xima do sistema de condu&#231;&#227;o, ao longo das por&#231;&#245;es m&#233;dia e alta do septo interventricular<sup>13-26</sup>. </p>
    <p>Na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica, durante os implantes de marcapasso definitivo, a localiza&#231;&#227;o anat&#244;mica do feixe de His &#233; de dif&#237;cil reprodutibilidade. N&#227;o obstante essas quest&#245;es t&#233;cnicas, h&#225; relatos da superioridade da estimula&#231;&#227;o do feixe de His em rela&#231;&#227;o ao grau de estreitamento do complexo QRS estimulado e sobre a fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica, em compara&#231;&#227;o com a ponta do VD<sup>9,11</sup><sub>.</sub></p>
    <p>Por outro lado, o posicionamento do eletrodo ventricular direito nas regi&#245;es m&#233;dia e alta do septo interventricular, com o aux&#237;lio da anatomia radiol&#243;gica e avalia&#231;&#227;o do tra&#231;ado eletrocardiogr&#225;fico &#233; simples e de f&#225;cil reprodutibilidade (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="a13fig03">Figuras 3</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="a13fig04">4</xref>). Esse s&#237;tio de estimula&#231;&#227;o tem sido avaliado como uma alternativa muito interessante para o implante do eletrodo ventricular em fun&#231;&#227;o de gerar complexos QRS mais estreitos, com eixo de ativa&#231;&#227;o mais fisiol&#243;gico<sup>24</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="a13fig05">Figuras 5</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="a13fig06">6</xref>) e por ser exequ&#237;vel em qualquer servi&#231;o que rotineiramente realize implantes de marcapasso card&#237;aco convencional<sup>25-27</sup>. </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="a13fig03">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-96-01-0076-00013-gf04.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="a13fig04">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-96-01-0076-00013-gf05.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="a13fig05">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-96-01-0076-00013-gf06.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="a13fig06">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-96-01-0076-00013-gf07.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>Os crit&#233;rios para obten&#231;&#227;o da posi&#231;&#227;o septal foram padronizados e descritos, em 2004, por Lieberman e cols.<sup>65</sup>. A valida&#231;&#227;o da posi&#231;&#227;o septal depende principalmente da incid&#234;ncia radiosc&#243;pica em obl&#237;qua anterior esquerda (OAE), na qual o eletrodo ventricular est&#225; voltado para a coluna, numa dire&#231;&#227;o oposta &#224; parede livre do ventr&#237;culo direito. </p>
    <p>H&#225; outros par&#226;metros radiol&#243;gicos utilizados para defini&#231;&#227;o das posi&#231;&#245;es septal m&#233;dia e alta<sup>32</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="a13fig03">Figuras 3</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="a13fig04">4</xref>).</p>
    <p>Al&#233;m dos crit&#233;rios radiol&#243;gicos, alguns cuidados devem ser tomados para utiliza&#231;&#227;o da posi&#231;&#227;o septal<sup>15,66</sup>:</p>
    <disp-quote>
      <p>&#149; Mapeamento do septo com a busca exaustiva do complexo QRS mais estreito (sempre menor de que 150 ms).</p>
      <p>&#149; Obten&#231;&#227;o de complexos QRS apresentando eixo el&#233;trico com varia&#231;&#227;o inferior a 30&#186; do eixo el&#233;trico basal do paciente.</p>
      <p>&#149; Limiar menor que um volt, para garantir a estimula&#231;&#227;o da parte muscular do septo.</p>
    </disp-quote>
    <p>N&#227;o obstante os crit&#233;rios radiol&#243;gicos e eletrocardiogr&#225;ficos para obten&#231;&#227;o da posi&#231;&#227;o septal, h&#225; a possibilidade de estimula&#231;&#227;o da parede livre do ventr&#237;culo direito, considerada uma das principais limita&#231;&#245;es da t&#233;cnica<sup>67</sup>. H&#225; tamb&#233;m a dificuldade de delimita&#231;&#227;o das por&#231;&#245;es alta, m&#233;dia e baixa do septo. Tais caracter&#237;sticas contribuem para transformar a posi&#231;&#227;o septal em um grupo heterog&#234;neo que engloba diferentes locais de estimula&#231;&#227;o do VD e traduz a necessidade de padroniza&#231;&#227;o do m&#233;todo<sup>68,69</sup>.</p>
    <p>Avalia&#231;&#227;o da repercuss&#227;o funcional dos s&#237;tios alternativos de estimula&#231;&#227;o ventricular direita (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="a13qua02"><bold>Quadro 2</bold></xref>)</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="a13qua02">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-96-01-0076-00013-gf08.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>Na d&#233;cada de 1990, surgiram os primeiros estudos cl&#237;nicos para compara&#231;&#227;o entre os diferentes s&#237;tios de estimula&#231;&#227;o ventricular direita<sup>13,70</sup>. Blanc e cols.<sup>70</sup> avaliaram os efeitos hemodin&#226;micos agudos em 27 portadores de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca congestiva (ICC). N&#227;o foram observadas diferen&#231;as entre a estimula&#231;&#227;o da VSVD e a estimula&#231;&#227;o apical atrav&#233;s da an&#225;lise da press&#227;o capilar pulmonar e press&#227;o sist&#243;lica. </p>
    <p>Outro estudo envolvendo 14 pacientes na fase aguda do implante de marcapasso dupla-c&#226;mara por bloqueio AV total foi realizado por Schwaab e cols.<sup>66</sup>. O septo foi cuidadosamente mapeado e o eletrodo posicionado no local que gerou o complexo QRS mais estreito. A redu&#231;&#227;o do tempo do QRS correlacionou-se com a homogeneiza&#231;&#227;o da contra&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda e a melhora da fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica. Foram obtidos resultados semelhantes por Mera e cols.<sup>15</sup> em 12 pacientes submetidos a implante de marcapasso unicameral, ap&#243;s abla&#231;&#227;o da jun&#231;&#227;o AV. Nesse segundo relato, foram observados valores de fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (FEVE), em repouso, maiores na estimula&#231;&#227;o septal em compara&#231;&#227;o com a estimula&#231;&#227;o apical do VD<sub>.</sub></p>
    <p>Uma melhora significativa da FEVE foi relatada por Deshmukh e cols.<sup>8</sup> em 12 pacientes submetidos a implante de marcapasso com a estimula&#231;&#227;o do feixe de His. Tais pacientes apresentavam complexos QRS estreitos, fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial (FA) cr&#244;nica e redu&#231;&#227;o da FEVE (&lt; 40%). </p>
    <p>Tse e cols.<sup>71</sup> demonstraram que a estimula&#231;&#227;o da regi&#227;o da VSVD n&#227;o provoca os mesmos efeitos delet&#233;rios de redu&#231;&#227;o na FEVE nem os defeitos de perfus&#227;o em compara&#231;&#227;o com a estimula&#231;&#227;o da ponta do VD.</p>
    <p>Victor e cols.<sup>72</sup> publicaram um estudo prospectivo, randomizado, com <italic>crossover</italic> a cada tr&#234;s meses, para avalia&#231;&#227;o da qualidade de vida e da fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica em 103 pacientes submetidos a implante de marcapasso definitivo. Esses pacientes apresentavam ICC, disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (FEVE <underline>&lt;</underline> 40%) e FA cr&#244;nica. Foram comparados tr&#234;s tipos de estimula&#231;&#227;o: apical, VSVD e bifocal de VD. A conclus&#227;o foi que a estimula&#231;&#227;o da VSVD e bifocal de VD promovem estreitamento do intervalo QRS, mas n&#227;o melhoram consistentemente os escores de qualidade de vida ou outros desfechos cl&#237;nicos ap&#243;s tr&#234;s meses de evolu&#231;&#227;o, quando comparadas &#224; estimula&#231;&#227;o apical. </p>
    <p>Cai e cols.<sup>73</sup> demonstraram que a estimula&#231;&#227;o da VSVD e do feixe de His, al&#233;m de proporcionar complexos QRS mais estreitos, mostraram melhores &#237;ndices de sincronismo mec&#226;nico avaliado pelo ecocardiograma, em compara&#231;&#227;o com a estimula&#231;&#227;o apical. </p>
    <p>Em 2008, Erdo&#287;an e cols.<sup>22</sup> demonstraram que a estimula&#231;&#227;o da VSVD &#233; segura e apresenta par&#226;metros eletrofisiol&#243;gicos compar&#225;veis com a estimula&#231;&#227;o convencional da ponta do VD a longo prazo. </p>
    <p>Van&#233;rio e cols.<sup>20</sup> avaliaram retrospectivamente 150 pacientes submetidos a implante de marcapasso definitivo, com idade m&#233;dia de 72 &#177; 7 anos. Os pacientes foram divididos em dois grupos: estimula&#231;&#227;o da ponta (95) e da via de sa&#237;da do VD (55). O seguimento m&#233;dio dos pacientes foi de 3,4 &#177; 2 anos, entre 1999-2004. A an&#225;lise multivariada mostrou que a estimula&#231;&#227;o da VSVD e a fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do VE (FEVE) correlacionaram-se de forma independente com a sobrevida (p = 0,006 e p = 0,003, respectivamente). A mortalidade com a estimula&#231;&#227;o da VSVD foi 37,3% menor (<italic>long-rank</italic> = 0,02). Os autores ressaltam a necessidade da realiza&#231;&#227;o de estudos prospectivos randomizados, envolvendo um n&#250;mero maior de pacientes, para confirmar esses achados<sup>20</sup>. </p>
    <p>Por outro lado, Ten Cate e cols.<sup>21</sup> demonstraram que tanto a estimula&#231;&#227;o da ponta quanto a estimula&#231;&#227;o da VSVD agudamente apresentam dissincronia mec&#226;nica ao ecocardiograma (eco) em pacientes com fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica normal. De forma similar, foram observadas altera&#231;&#245;es nos par&#226;metros ecocardiogr&#225;ficos indicadores de dissincronia mec&#226;nica em todos os s&#237;tios de estimula&#231;&#227;o unifocal avaliados (ponta, VSVD e regi&#227;o septal m&#233;dia) em um estudo apresentado na reuni&#227;o do <italic>Heart Rhythm</italic><sup>74</sup>. </p>
    <p>Kypta e cols.<sup>75</sup> conduziram um estudo prospectivo e randomizado para compara&#231;&#227;o dos efeitos da estimula&#231;&#227;o septal e da ponta do VD sobre a fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca. Foram avaliados 98 pacientes, com um seguimento de 18 meses, atrav&#233;s da avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica, dosagem de pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico cerebral (BNP), avalia&#231;&#227;o da capacidade funcional e da FEVE. N&#227;o foram observadas diferen&#231;as significativas nos par&#226;metros avaliados entre os dois grupos. A conclus&#227;o do estudo foi de que a estimula&#231;&#227;o septal n&#227;o &#233; superior &#224; estimula&#231;&#227;o apical em portadores de bloqueio atrioventricular submetidos a implante de marcapasso definitivo em uma popula&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o selecionada<sup>75</sup>.</p>
    <p>Ng e cols.<sup>69</sup> publicaram um estudo longitudinal, prospectivo, para avalia&#231;&#227;o do benef&#237;cio da estimula&#231;&#227;o septal a longo prazo. Foram inclu&#237;dos 55 pacientes e a m&#233;dia de acompanhamento foi de 436 dias para a posi&#231;&#227;o septal e 2.398 dias para os pacientes com eletrodo na ponta do VD. Foram avaliados os par&#226;metros ecocardiogr&#225;ficos das dimens&#245;es das c&#226;maras esquerdas e a FEVE, al&#233;m de medidas de dissincronia ventricular, assim como a dura&#231;&#227;o do QRS. A dura&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dia do QRS foi maior nos pacientes com eletrodo na ponta do VD (p &lt; 0,001). Foi observado que os crit&#233;rios eletrocardiogr&#225;ficos e radiol&#243;gicos utilizados para o implante septal resultam em um grupo heterog&#234;neo, com diferentes locais de estimula&#231;&#227;o. O estudo concluiu que a estimula&#231;&#227;o septal foi associada a uma pior fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica e com um maior grau de dissincronia em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; ponta do VD<sup>69</sup>. </p>
    <p>Os 4 &#250;ltimos recentes relatos<sup>21,69,74,75</sup>, associados &#224; descri&#231;&#227;o de Victor e cols.<sup>72</sup>, sugerem que, n&#227;o obstante a proximidade do est&#237;mulo el&#233;trico artificial em rela&#231;&#227;o ao feixe de His, a estimula&#231;&#227;o unifocal n&#227;o &#233; capaz de substituir &#224; altura a ativa&#231;&#227;o natural atrav&#233;s das m&#250;ltiplas ramifica&#231;&#245;es das fibras especializadas de Purkinje. Outro aspecto interessante &#233; que representam evid&#234;ncias conflitantes quanto ao real benef&#237;cio da posi&#231;&#227;o septal mostrado em outros estudos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="a13qua02">Quadro 2</xref>). </p>
    <p>Em fun&#231;&#227;o do grande n&#250;mero de pacientes acompanhados com sucesso na corre&#231;&#227;o das bradiarritmias, alguns centros permanecem fi&#233;is &#224; ponta do VD e &#224; regi&#227;o subtricusp&#237;dea, principalmente nos pacientes sem cardiopatia estrutural, com fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica normal e nos casos em que &#233; poss&#237;vel minimizar a estimula&#231;&#227;o no canal ventricular<sup>76</sup>. Nesse sentido, ainda h&#225; estudos sendo realizados utilizando o implante na ponta do VD em todos os pacientes<sup>77,78</sup>. Essa quest&#227;o aponta a necessidade de comprovar o real benef&#237;cio da estimula&#231;&#227;o septal no contexto da medicina baseada em evid&#234;ncias. </p>
    <p>Outro aspecto a ser considerado &#233; que os estudos para avalia&#231;&#227;o dos s&#237;tios alternativos de estimula&#231;&#227;o do ventricular direito englobaram todas as etiologias relacionadas ao implante de marcapasso e h&#225; poucos relatos sobre a estimula&#231;&#227;o septal em portadores de doen&#231;a de Chagas<sup>27,79</sup><sub>.</sub></p>
    <p>Finalmente, com o objetivo de tentar responder definitivamente &#224; quest&#227;o da superioridade da posi&#231;&#227;o septal em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; ponta do VD, est&#227;o sendo realizados tr&#234;s estudos cl&#237;nicos multic&#234;ntricos, prospectivos, randomizados e cegos (OPTIMIZE RV, PROTECT E RASP)<sup>32</sup>. No total, est&#227;o envolvidos 58 centros, com a estimativa de 800 pacientes. O desfecho prim&#225;rio &#233; a avalia&#231;&#227;o da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o atrav&#233;s da ecocardiografia e da ventriculografia radioisot&#243;pica. Os objetivos secund&#225;rios incluem eventos cl&#237;nicos, teste de caminhada de 6 minutos, dosagem de BNP e medidas ecocardiogr&#225;ficas das c&#226;maras esquerdas. O tempo de seguimento dos pacientes &#233; de at&#233; 36 meses.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Discuss&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Durante cerca de 40 anos, desde o advento da estimula&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca artificial, a ponta do ventr&#237;culo direito foi considerada como local preferencial para o implante do eletrodo ventricular nos marcapassos convencionais. &#201; relativamente recente a preocupa&#231;&#227;o com a avalia&#231;&#227;o dos preju&#237;zos causados pelo bloqueio de ramo esquerdo iatrog&#234;nico produzido pela estimula&#231;&#227;o do &#225;pice do ventr&#237;culo direito nos marcapassos card&#237;acos convencionais. </p>
    <p>Apesar dos dados resultantes de estudos experimentais e cl&#237;nicos, os efeitos delet&#233;rios associados &#224; estimula&#231;&#227;o apical do ventr&#237;culo direito dependem da intera&#231;&#227;o entre fatores espec&#237;ficos de cada paciente (ritmo atrial de base, condu&#231;&#227;o atrioventricular e intraventricular intr&#237;nseca, FEVE e da miocardiopatia de base). Al&#233;m desses, h&#225; condi&#231;&#245;es relacionadas &#224; estimula&#231;&#227;o artificial, como o modo de programa&#231;&#227;o, dura&#231;&#227;o do complexo QRS estimulado, porcentagem e dura&#231;&#227;o da estimula&#231;&#227;o artificial no canal ventricular. </p>
    <p>Desde 1997, t&#234;m sido estudadas alternativas &#224; posi&#231;&#227;o da ponta do VD, tendo como base racional a busca de uma despolariza&#231;&#227;o mais fisiol&#243;gica, decorrente do est&#237;mulo unifocal artificial<sup>57</sup>. Entretanto, em fun&#231;&#227;o do pequeno n&#250;mero de pacientes avaliados, da aus&#234;ncia de randomiza&#231;&#227;o em algumas publica&#231;&#245;es, dificuldade de padroniza&#231;&#227;o dos crit&#233;rios para defini&#231;&#227;o dos s&#237;tios alternativos e diferentes m&#233;todos de avalia&#231;&#227;o da repercuss&#227;o sobre a fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, h&#225; importantes limita&#231;&#245;es nos estudos realizados. </p>
    <p>A estimula&#231;&#227;o do feixe de His apresenta dificuldades t&#233;cnicas que inviabilizaram a sua aplica&#231;&#227;o pr&#225;tica<sup>68</sup>. Os crit&#233;rios eletrocardiogr&#225;ficos e radiol&#243;gicos utilizados para o implante septal n&#227;o s&#227;o t&#227;o precisos e resultam em um grupo heterog&#234;neo de diferentes locais de estimula&#231;&#227;o<sup>69</sup>. Para tornar a quest&#227;o ainda mais complexa, o estreitamento do complexo QRS na posi&#231;&#227;o septal, em compara&#231;&#227;o com a ponta do VD, n&#227;o correspondeu &#224; melhora de par&#226;metros cl&#237;nicos, funcionais e ecocardiogr&#225;ficos no seguimento dos pacientes em alguns estudos<sup>75</sup>. </p>
    <p>Outro aspecto a ser definido &#233; se os pacientes com disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica n&#227;o deveriam ser tratados com ressincroniza&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, tendo-se em vista as limita&#231;&#245;es da estimula&#231;&#227;o unifocal do ventr&#237;culo direito<sup>75</sup>. </p>
    <p>Apesar de todos os avan&#231;os da eletroterapia card&#237;aca nos &#250;ltimos 50 anos, a estimula&#231;&#227;o artificial do ventr&#237;culo direito ainda n&#227;o &#233; capaz de substituir &#224; altura a ativa&#231;&#227;o natural atrav&#233;s das fibras especializadas do sistema His-Purkinje. Essa limita&#231;&#227;o pode ser prejudicial para a fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, principalmente nos pacientes com disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica, e justifica a busca intensiva de estrat&#233;gias para minimizar esse efeito delet&#233;rio. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Conclus&#245;es</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Existem relatos da seguran&#231;a e potenciais benef&#237;cios dos s&#237;tios alternativos de estimula&#231;&#227;o ventricular direita sobre a fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca. Entretanto, o s&#237;tio endoc&#225;rdico mais estudado, a posi&#231;&#227;o septal, engloba um grupo heterog&#234;neo de diferentes locais de estimula&#231;&#227;o e h&#225; somente uma modesta concord&#226;ncia entre os crit&#233;rios para sua obten&#231;&#227;o. Dessa forma, ainda h&#225; necessidade de aguardar os resultados de estudos prospectivos, envolvendo um n&#250;mero significativo de pacientes, incluindo todas as etiologias associadas ao implante de marcapasso card&#237;aco e com um acompanhamento a longo prazo, para a defini&#231;&#227;o do s&#237;tio seletivo de escolha para a estimula&#231;&#227;o unifocal do ventr&#237;culo direito.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de tese de Doutorado de Otaviano da Silva J&#250;nior pela Universidade Federal do Tri&#226;ngulo Mineiro.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Refer&#234;ncias</bold>
    </p>
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    <p>
      <fn id="nota1" fn-type="corresp">
        <label>
          <bold>Correspond&#234;ncia:</bold>
        </label>
        <p> Otaviano da Silva J&#250;nior </p>
        <p> Rua Constitui&#231;&#227;o, 730 - Abadia </p>
        <p> 38081-300 - Uberaba, MG - Brasil </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="osilvajr@hotmail.com">osilvajr@hotmail.com</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Artigo recebido em 21/10/09; revisado recebido em 26/10/09; aceito em 30/11/09.</p>
  </body>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRes" xml:lang="es">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories/>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="es">Sitios endoc&#225;rdicos alternativos en la estimulaci&#243;n card&#237;aca artificial</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="es">
        <p>La estimulaci&#243;n ventricular derecha convencional puede estar asociada a efectos delet&#233;reos sobre la funci&#243;n card&#237;aca. La necesidad de una estimulaci&#243;n card&#237;aca artificial m&#225;s fisiol&#243;gica es, indiscutiblemente, uno de los puntos m&#225;s importantes en el &#225;rea de la electroterapia card&#237;aca. Los algoritmos de programaci&#243;n para la manutenci&#243;n de la conducci&#243;n atrioventricular propia, la estimulaci&#243;n de sitios endoc&#225;rdicos alternativos y la terapia de resincronizaci&#243;n card&#237;aca son utilizados con el prop&#243;sito de alcanzar este objetivo. La estimulaci&#243;n del haz de His y la estimulaci&#243;n septal han sido estudiadas como sitios endoc&#225;rdicos alternativos para el posicionamiento del electrodo en el ventr&#237;culo derecho. La estimulaci&#243;n septal representa una alternativa simple, pr&#225;ctica y sin costos adicionales y con potenciales beneficios en la reducci&#243;n de los efectos delet&#233;reos de la estimulaci&#243;n del ventr&#237;culo derecho. Entre tanto, ese sitio alternativo envuelve un grupo heterog&#233;neo de pacientes y presenta resultados conflictivos en cuanto a su beneficio cl&#237;nico a largo plazo. Este art&#237;culo hace una revisi&#243;n de las evidencias cient&#237;ficas sobre los sitios alternativos de estimulaci&#243;n ventricular derecha, con &#233;nfasis en la seguridad del procedimiento, en la medida de los par&#225;metros electrofisiol&#243;gicos, en la evaluaci&#243;n de la funci&#243;n ventricular izquierda y en el control cl&#237;nico de los pacientes.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="es">
        <kwd>Marcapasos artificial</kwd>
        <kwd>estimulaci&#243;n septal</kwd>
        <kwd>funci&#243;n ventricular izquierda</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>ART&#205;CULO DE REVISI&#211;N</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sitios endoc&#225;rdicos alternativos en la estimulaci&#243;n card&#237;aca artificial</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Otaviano da Silva J&#250;nior; Celso Salgado de Melo; Marcelo Marra; Dalmo Correia</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas da Universidade Federal do Tri&#226;ngulo Mineiro, Uberaba, MG - Brasil</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="nota1-body2">Correspondencia</xref>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>RESUMEN</bold>
      </p>
      <p>La estimulaci&#243;n ventricular derecha convencional puede estar asociada a efectos delet&#233;reos sobre la funci&#243;n card&#237;aca. La necesidad de una estimulaci&#243;n card&#237;aca artificial m&#225;s fisiol&#243;gica es, indiscutiblemente, uno de los puntos m&#225;s importantes en el &#225;rea de la electroterapia card&#237;aca. Los algoritmos de programaci&#243;n para la manutenci&#243;n de la conducci&#243;n atrioventricular propia, la estimulaci&#243;n de sitios endoc&#225;rdicos alternativos y la terapia de resincronizaci&#243;n card&#237;aca son utilizados con el prop&#243;sito de alcanzar este objetivo. La estimulaci&#243;n del haz de His y la estimulaci&#243;n septal han sido estudiadas como sitios endoc&#225;rdicos alternativos para el posicionamiento del electrodo en el ventr&#237;culo derecho. La estimulaci&#243;n septal representa una alternativa simple, pr&#225;ctica y sin costos adicionales y con potenciales beneficios en la reducci&#243;n de los efectos delet&#233;reos de la estimulaci&#243;n del ventr&#237;culo derecho. Entre tanto, ese sitio alternativo envuelve un grupo heterog&#233;neo de pacientes y presenta resultados conflictivos en cuanto a su beneficio cl&#237;nico a largo plazo.</p>
      <p> Este art&#237;culo hace una revisi&#243;n de las evidencias cient&#237;ficas sobre los sitios alternativos de estimulaci&#243;n ventricular derecha, con &#233;nfasis en la seguridad del procedimiento, en la medida de los par&#225;metros electrofisiol&#243;gicos, en la evaluaci&#243;n de la funci&#243;n ventricular izquierda y en el control cl&#237;nico de los pacientes.</p>
      <p><bold>Palabras clave:</bold> Marcapasos artificial, estimulaci&#243;n septal, funci&#243;n ventricular izquierda.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Introducci&#243;n</bold>
      </p>
      <p>En la era de la resincronizaci&#243;n card&#237;aca, la terapia antibradicardia, por medio del implante de marcapasos definitivo convencional, aun representa el mayor n&#250;mero de procedimientos realizados en el &#225;rea de la estimulaci&#243;n card&#237;aca artificial<sup>1</sup>. Desde el comienzo de la estimulaci&#243;n card&#237;aca endoc&#225;rdica, en 1958<sup>2</sup>, y durante m&#225;s de 4 d&#233;cadas, la prolongaci&#243;n de la vida a trav&#233;s de implante del electrodo en la regi&#243;n de la punta del ventr&#237;culo derecho, en funci&#243;n de la facilidad de acceso y menor riesgo de complicaciones, represent&#243; el objetivo terap&#233;utico.</p>
      <p>Desde la d&#233;cada de 1980, hay evidencias de los efectos delet&#233;reos de la estimulaci&#243;n apical del ventr&#237;culo derecho (VD) a largo prazo<sup>3-6</sup>. En los &#250;ltimos 12 a&#241;os, varios estudios han sido realizados con el objetivo de buscar sitios alternativos para el implante del electrodo en la estimulaci&#243;n endoc&#225;rdica del VD. Fueron evaluadas la regi&#243;n del haz de His<sup>7-12</sup>, la v&#237;a de salida del ventr&#237;culo derecho (VSVD)<sup>13-23</sup> y la regi&#243;n septal media<sup>24-26</sup>.</p>
      <p>La mayor&#237;a de los estudios incluy&#243; un n&#250;mero peque&#241;o de pacientes, sin randomizaci&#243;n, y los criterios utilizados para definici&#243;n del sitio de estimulaci&#243;n pueden haber llevado a la evaluaci&#243;n de grupos heterog&#233;neos. En el mismo sentido, fueron utilizados m&#233;todos diferentes para la evaluaci&#243;n de la repercusi&#243;n funcional de la estimulaci&#243;n card&#237;aca. </p>
      <p>Siendo as&#237;, a pesar de la demostraci&#243;n de los efectos delet&#233;reos de la estimulaci&#243;n apical del VD en pacientes y potenciales beneficios de los sitios alternativos, hay resultados conflictivos y aun no est&#225; definido el lugar de elecci&#243;n para el implante del electrodo ventricular derecho. </p>
      <p>El objetivo de este art&#237;culo es discurrir sobre los sitios alternativos de estimulaci&#243;n card&#237;aca artificial en el contexto de la cardiolog&#237;a basada en evidencias. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Aspectos hist&#243;ricos de la estimulaci&#243;n card&#237;aca artificial </bold>
      </p>
      <p>El complejo estimulante card&#237;aco es resultante de un proceso de especializaci&#243;n celular y traduce el esfuerzo de millones de a&#241;os en la evoluci&#243;n filogen&#233;tica para la manutenci&#243;n de la vida. Naturalmente, la sustituci&#243;n de componentes de ese sistema de conducci&#243;n, con la manutenci&#243;n de sus propiedades, siempre constituy&#243; un desaf&#237;o colosal en el campo de la electroterapia card&#237;aca. </p>
      <p>Desde los primeros estudios experimentales, las diferencias entre el est&#237;mulo artificial y la activaci&#243;n fisiol&#243;gica no pasaron inadvertidas<sup>27,28</sup>. En 1924, Wiggers demostr&#243; que el est&#237;mulo artificial resulta en la reducci&#243;n de la funci&#243;n de bomba en un estudio experimental en canes<sup>28</sup>. </p>
      <p>La era de la estimulaci&#243;n card&#237;aca endoc&#225;rdica se inicia en agosto de 1958, cuando Seymour Furman describi&#243; la t&#233;cnica transvenosa de implante de marcapasos<sup>2</sup>. En octubre del mismo a&#241;o, en Suecia, fue realizado el primer implante de marcapasos endoc&#225;rdico definitivo<sup>29</sup>. </p>
      <p>El acceso transvenoso comenz&#243; a sustituir el acceso epic&#225;rdico en los implantes de marcapasos, permitiendo que los procedimientos fuesen realizados sin toracotom&#237;a y sin anestesia general. El posicionamiento del electrodo comenz&#243; a ser realizado bajo visi&#243;n radiosc&#243;pica, con auxilio de la anatom&#237;a radiol&#243;gica.</p>
      <p>Durante m&#225;s de 4 d&#233;cadas, la regi&#243;n de la punta del ventr&#237;culo derecho (VD) fue utilizada en todo el mundo como sitio preferencial para el posicionamiento del electrodo ventricular<sup>30</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig1-body2">Figura 1</xref>). Ese hecho se debi&#243; principalmente a cuestiones de seguridad. En funci&#243;n de la tecnolog&#237;a incipiente utilizada en la fabricaci&#243;n de los electrodos, hab&#237;a mayores riesgos de desplazamiento, perforaci&#243;n card&#237;aca, aumento del umbral y consecuente p&#233;rdida de comando. Los electrodos, entonces de fijaci&#243;n pasiva, quedaban bien anclados en la regi&#243;n de la punta, con una curvatura favorable y con reducci&#243;n de los riesgos de desplazamiento.</p>
      <fig id="fig1-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-96-01-0076-00013-gf01-es.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>Fue a partir de la d&#233;cada de 1980 que surgieron las primeras evidencias experimentales de los efectos delet&#233;reos de la estimulaci&#243;n de la punta del VD<sup>3-6</sup>. En seguida, en la d&#233;cada de 1990, los primeros estudios cl&#237;nicos de comparaci&#243;n de la posici&#243;n convencional con sitios alternativos de estimulaci&#243;n fueron publicados y el sitio de elecci&#243;n en la estimulaci&#243;n ventricular derecha en los marcapasos convencionales aun no fue definido<sup>31</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Evidencias cient&#237;ficas de los efectos delet&#233;reos de la estimulaci&#243;n ventricular derecha unifocal</bold>
      </p>
      <p>El complejo QRS estrecho es fundamental para el rendimiento card&#237;aco y su ensanchamiento promueve prejuicio significativo de la funci&#243;n ventricular<sup>32-35</sup>. De forma general, cuanto m&#225;s estrecho es el QRS, mejor es la funci&#243;n ventricular izquierda<sup>36</sup>. </p>
      <p>A pesar de la seguridad del posicionamiento del electrodo ventricular en la punta del VD en la correcci&#243;n de las bradiarritmias, observada a lo largo de d&#233;cadas, los estudios de la repercusi&#243;n funcional y seguimiento cl&#237;nico comenzaron a evidenciar los efectos delet&#233;reos de esta posici&#243;n y se&#241;alaron la necesidad de reevaluaci&#243;n del sitio preferencial de estimulaci&#243;n endoc&#225;rdica<sup>37-54</sup>. El desarrollo tecnol&#243;gico aplicado en la fabricaci&#243;n de los electrodos represent&#243; un aliado fundamental en la b&#250;squeda de posiciones alternativas, confiriendo seguridad al proceso de cambio. </p>
      <p>La estimulaci&#243;n de la punta del ventr&#237;culo derecho promueve una inversi&#243;n de la secuencia natural de activaci&#243;n el&#233;ctrica card&#237;aca, genera un bloqueo de rama izquierdo (BRI) artificial, con complejo QRS ensanchado, que es predictor de insuficiencia card&#237;aca en portadores de marcapasos definitivo<sup>55-57</sup>. Esas alteraciones promueven efectos adversos en la estructura y en la funci&#243;n ventricular (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="cua1-body2">Cuadro 1</xref>) y pueden desarrollar o agravar insuficiencia mitral<sup>38,39</sup>, aumentar el riesgo de fibrilaci&#243;n atrial (FA), insuficiencia card&#237;aca (IC) y aumentar la mortalidad<sup>41-47</sup>, en los pacientes con disfunci&#243;n sist&#243;lica.</p>
      <fig id="cua1-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-96-01-0076-00013-gf02-es.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>En un an&#225;lisis retrospectivo del estudio MOST (<italic>Mode Selection Trial) </italic>qued&#243; demostrado que el riesgo de hospitalizaci&#243;n por IC y FA est&#225; directamente relacionado al porcentaje acumulativo de estimulaci&#243;n en el &#225;pice del VD<sup>44</sup>. </p>
      <p>El estudio DAVID (<italic>The Dual Chamber and VVI Implantable Defibrillator Trial</italic>) fue interrumpido precozmente y de forma no esperada, en funci&#243;n del aumento de IC y mortalidad en el grupo con predominio de estimulaci&#243;n ventricular (modo DDDR a 70 lpm). En el grupo control, la estimulaci&#243;n ventricular era m&#237;nima, ya que el marcapasos era programado en VVI, con frecuencia de 40 ppm. Quedaba demostrado el efecto delet&#233;reo de la estimulaci&#243;n ventricular unifocal<sup>41,47</sup>. Un an&#225;lisis del estudio MADIT II mostr&#243; correlaci&#243;n entre el &#237;ndice de estimulaci&#243;n del VD y IC, arritmias ventriculares y mortalidade<sup>49</sup>. </p>
      <p>Zhang et al<sup>58</sup> demostraron que la estimulaci&#243;n de la punta del VD fue asociada al desarrollo de IC en 26% de los pacientes sometidos a implante de marcapasos por bloqueo AV adquirido, despu&#233;s de un seguimiento medio de 7,9 a&#241;os. </p>
      <p>El coraz&#243;n estructuralmente normal, sin disfunci&#243;n sist&#243;lica, puede hasta ser capaz de compensar esos efectos delet&#233;reos<sup>51</sup>. Un estudio, incluyendo 268 pacientes con funci&#243;n sist&#243;lica normal (FE &gt; 55%) y estimulaci&#243;n apical del VD por bloqueo AV total, mostr&#243; bajas tasas de remodelado ventricular (5,3%), en un seguimiento de 80,2 meses<sup>58</sup>. Ya en los pacientes con disfunci&#243;n sist&#243;lica y insuficiencia card&#237;aca, puede haber el surgimiento de s&#237;ntomas o la descompensaci&#243;n del cuadro de insuficiencia card&#237;aca, con la estimulaci&#243;n apical del ventr&#237;culo derecho<sup>51</sup>. </p>
      <p>Con el objetivo de alcanzar una estimulaci&#243;n artificial m&#225;s fisiol&#243;gica, las estrategias para manutenci&#243;n de la conducci&#243;n atrioventricular (AV) propia, cuando es posible, y los sitios alternativos de estimulaci&#243;n han sido estudiados<sup>54,59,60</sup>. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sitios alternativos de estimulaci&#243;n card&#237;aca endoc&#225;rdica</bold>
      </p>
      <p>En Am&#233;rica Latina, la importancia de la etiolog&#237;a chag&#225;sica, asociada a los implantes de marcapasos card&#237;aco, llev&#243; a la necesidad de buscar un lugar alternativo para el posicionamiento del electrodo ventricular, teni&#233;ndose en vista algunas peculiaridades de la enfermedad. La regi&#243;n de la punta del ventr&#237;culo derecho en card&#237;acos chag&#225;sicos puede presentar adelgazamiento endoc&#225;rdico en 20%-30% de los pacientes, adem&#225;s de la presencia de trombo intracavitario en un n&#250;mero significativo de los casos<sup>61</sup>. </p>
      <p>En funci&#243;n de esas caracter&#237;sticas, Kormann y Jatene<sup>62</sup> describieron la posici&#243;n subtric&#250;spide (tri&#225;ngulo v&#233;rtebro-costo-diafragm&#225;tico) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="es_a13fig02-body2">Figura 2</xref>) para reducir los riesgos de perforaci&#243;n card&#237;aca y fen&#243;menos tromboemb&#243;licos desencadenados por el electrodo ventricular. Ese estudio represent&#243; un hito para el cambio de la conducta de varios cirujanos en Am&#233;rica Latina, que comenzaron a utilizar la posici&#243;n de la v&#237;a de entrada del VD como sitio preferencial de implante del electrodo ventricular derecho en pacientes chag&#225;sicos<sup>62-64</sup>. Entre los pacientes controlados en el Laboratorio de Marcapasos del Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de la Universidad Federal de Minas Gerais, en 2006, 77,8% ten&#237;an electrodos ventriculares fijados en la regi&#243;n subtricusp&#237;dea<sup>63</sup>. Entretanto, no hay evidencias cient&#237;ficas de la repercusi&#243;n funcional de ese sitio de estimulaci&#243;n y no hay estudios de comparaci&#243;n con los otros lugares de implante del electrodo ventricular derecho.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="es_a13fig02-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-96-01-0076-00013-gf03-es.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Las evidencias cient&#237;ficas en la era de la resincronizaci&#243;n card&#237;aca, a partir de la d&#233;cada de 1990, llevaron a la introducci&#243;n de la estimulaci&#243;n selectiva. El principio b&#225;sico de tal t&#233;cnica es buscar reproducir la secuencia natural de despolarizaci&#243;n card&#237;aca, a trav&#233;s del posicionamiento del electrodo en las &#225;reas m&#225;s pr&#243;ximas posibles del sistema de conducci&#243;n, aprovechando la compleja rede de distribuci&#243;n el&#233;ctrica natural<sup>54</sup>. En ese sentido, han sido evaluadas la estimulaci&#243;n del haz de His o para-His<sup>7-12 </sup>y la estimulaci&#243;n de la regi&#243;n endoc&#225;rdica del ventr&#237;culo derecho m&#225;s pr&#243;xima del sistema de conducci&#243;n, a lo largo de las porciones media y alta del septo interventricular<sup>13-26</sup>. </p>
      <p>En la pr&#225;ctica cl&#237;nica, durante los implantes de marcapasos definitivo, la ubicaci&#243;n anat&#243;mica del haz de His es de dif&#237;cil reproductibilidad. No obstante esas cuestiones t&#233;cnicas, hay relatos de la superioridad de la estimulaci&#243;n del haz de His en relaci&#243;n al grado de estrechamiento del complejo QRS estimulado y sobre la funci&#243;n sist&#243;lica, en comparaci&#243;n con la punta del VD<sup>9,11</sup>. </p>
      <p>Por otro lado, el posicionamiento del electrodo ventricular derecho en las regiones media y alta del septo interventricular, con el auxilio de la anatom&#237;a radiol&#243;gica y evaluaci&#243;n del trazado electrocardiogr&#225;fico es simple y de f&#225;cil reproductibilidad (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="es_a13fig03-body2">Figuras 3</xref> y <xref ref-type="fig" rid="es_a13fig04-body2">4</xref>). Ese sitio de estimulaci&#243;n ha sido evaluado como una alternativa muy interesante para el implante del electrodo ventricular en funci&#243;n de generar complejos QRS m&#225;s estrechos, con eje de activaci&#243;n m&#225;s fisiol&#243;gico<sup>24</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="es_a13fig05-body2">Figuras 5</xref> y <xref ref-type="fig" rid="es_a13fig06-body2">6</xref>) y por ser ejecutable en cualquier servicio que habitualmente realice implantes de marcapasos card&#237;aco convencional<sup>25-27</sup>. </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="es_a13fig03-body2">
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      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="es_a13fig04-body2">
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      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="es_a13fig05-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-96-01-0076-00013-gf06-es.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="es_a13fig06-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-96-01-0076-00013-gf07-es.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Los criterios para obtenci&#243;n de la posici&#243;n septal fueron estandarizados y descriptos, en 2004, por Lieberman et al<sup>65</sup>. La validaci&#243;n de la posici&#243;n septal depende principalmente de la incidencia radiosc&#243;pica en oblicua anterior izquierda (OAI), en la cual el electrodo ventricular est&#225; vuelto hacia la columna, en una direcci&#243;n opuesta a la pared libre del ventr&#237;culo derecho. </p>
      <p>Hay otros par&#225;metros radiol&#243;gicos utilizados para definici&#243;n de las posiciones septal media y alta<sup>32</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="es_a13fig03-body2">Figuras 3</xref> y <xref ref-type="fig" rid="es_a13fig04-body2">4</xref>). </p>
      <p>Adem&#225;s de los criterios radiol&#243;gicos, algunos cuidados deben ser tomados para utilizaci&#243;n de la posici&#243;n septal<sup>15,66</sup>: </p>
      <disp-quote>
        <p>&#149; Mapeo del septo con la b&#250;squeda exhaustiva del complejo QRS m&#225;s estrecho (siempre menor que 150 ms).</p>
        <p>&#149; Obtenci&#243;n de complejos QRS presentando eje el&#233;ctrico con variaci&#243;n inferior la 30&#186; del eje el&#233;ctrico basal del paciente.</p>
        <p>&#149; Umbral menor que un volt, para garantizar la estimulaci&#243;n de la parte muscular del septo.</p>
      </disp-quote>
      <p>No obstante los criterios radiol&#243;gicos y electrocardiogr&#225;ficos para obtenci&#243;n de la posici&#243;n septal, hay la posibilidad de estimulaci&#243;n de la pared libre del ventr&#237;culo derecho, considerada una de las principales limitaciones de la t&#233;cnica<sup>67</sup>. Hay tambi&#233;n la dificultad de delimitaci&#243;n de las porciones alta, media y baja del septo. Tales caracter&#237;sticas contribuyen para transformar la posici&#243;n septal en un grupo heterog&#233;neo que engloba diferentes lugares de estimulaci&#243;n del VD y traduce la necesidad de estandarizaci&#243;n del m&#233;todo<sup>68,69</sup>.</p>
      <p>Evaluaci&#243;n de la repercusi&#243;n funcional de los sitios alternativos de estimulaci&#243;n ventricular derecha (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="es_a13cua02-body2"><bold>Cuadro 2</bold></xref>)</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="es_a13cua02-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-96-01-0076-00013-gf08-es.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>En la d&#233;cada de 1990, surgieron los primeros estudios cl&#237;nicos para comparaci&#243;n entre los diferentes sitios de estimulaci&#243;n ventricular derecha<sup>13,70</sup>. Blanc et al<sup>70</sup> evaluaron los efectos hemodin&#225;micas agudos en 27 portadores de insuficiencia card&#237;aca congestiva (ICC). No fueron observadas diferencias entre la estimulaci&#243;n de la VSVD y la estimulaci&#243;n apical a trav&#233;s del an&#225;lisis de la presi&#243;n capilar pulmonar y presi&#243;n sist&#243;lica.</p>
      <p>Otro estudio envolviendo 14 pacientes en la fase aguda del implante de marcapasos doble c&#225;mara por bloqueo AV total fue realizado por Schwaab et al<sup>66</sup>. El septo fue cuidadosamente mapeado y el electrodo posicionado en el lugar que gener&#243; el complejo QRS m&#225;s estrecho. La reducci&#243;n del tiempo del QRS se correlacion&#243; con la homogeneizaci&#243;n de la contracci&#243;n ventricular izquierda y la mejora de la funci&#243;n sist&#243;lica. Fueron obtenidos resultados semejantes por Mera et al<sup>15</sup> en 12 pacientes sometidos a implante de marcapasos unicameral, despu&#233;s de ablaci&#243;n de la junci&#243;n AV. En ese segundo relato, fueron observados valores de fracci&#243;n de eyecci&#243;n del ventr&#237;culo izquierdo (FEVI), en reposo, mayores en la estimulaci&#243;n septal en comparaci&#243;n con la estimulaci&#243;n apical del VD.</p>
      <p>Una mejora significativa de la FEVI fue relatada por Deshmukh et al<sup>8</sup> en 12 pacientes sometidos a implante de marcapasos con la estimulaci&#243;n del haz de His. Tales pacientes presentaban complejos QRS estrechos, fibrilaci&#243;n atrial (FA) cr&#243;nica y reducci&#243;n de la FEVI (&lt; 40%). </p>
      <p>Tse et al<sup>71</sup> demostraron que la estimulaci&#243;n de la regi&#243;n de la VSVD no provoca los mismos efectos delet&#233;reos de reducci&#243;n en la FEVI ni los defectos de perfusi&#243;n en comparaci&#243;n con la estimulaci&#243;n de la punta del VD.</p>
      <p>Victor et al<sup>72</sup> publicaron un estudio prospectivo, randomizado, con <italic>crossover</italic> cada tres meses, para evaluaci&#243;n de la calidad de vida y de la funci&#243;n sist&#243;lica en 103 pacientes sometidos a implante de marcapasos definitivo. Esos pacientes presentaban ICC, disfunci&#243;n sist&#243;lica del ventr&#237;culo izquierdo (FEVI <underline>&lt;</underline> 40%) y FA cr&#243;nica. Fueron comparados tres tipos de estimulaci&#243;n: apical, VSVD y bifocal de VD. La conclusi&#243;n fue que la estimulaci&#243;n de la VSVD y bifocal de VD promueven estrechamiento del intervalo QRS, pero no mejoran consistentemente los escores de calidad de vida u otros desenlaces cl&#237;nicos despu&#233;s de tres meses de evoluci&#243;n, cuando son comparadas a la estimulaci&#243;n apical. </p>
      <p>Cai et al<sup>73</sup> demostraron que la estimulaci&#243;n de la VSVD y del haz de His, adem&#225;s de proporcionar complejos QRS m&#225;s estrechos, mostraron mejores &#237;ndices de sincronismo mec&#225;nico evaluado por el ecocardiograma, en comparaci&#243;n con la estimulaci&#243;n apical. </p>
      <p>En 2008, Erdo&#287;an et al<sup>22</sup> demostraron que la estimulaci&#243;n de la VSVD es segura y presenta par&#225;metros electrofisiol&#243;gicos comparables con la estimulaci&#243;n convencional de la punta del VD a largo plazo. </p>
      <p>Van&#233;rio et al<sup>20</sup> evaluaron retrospectivamente 150 pacientes sometidos a implante de marcapasos definitivo, con edad media de 72 &#177; 7 a&#241;os. Los pacientes fueron divididos en dos grupos: estimulaci&#243;n de la punta (95) y de la v&#237;a de salida del VD (55). El seguimiento medio de los pacientes fue de 3,4 &#177; 2 a&#241;os, entre 1999-2004. El an&#225;lisis multivariado mostr&#243; que la estimulaci&#243;n de la VSVD y la fracci&#243;n de eyecci&#243;n del VI (FEVI) se correlacionaron de forma independiente con la sobrevida (p = 0,006 y p = 0,003, respectivamente). La mortalidad con la estimulaci&#243;n de la VSVD fue 37,3% menor (<italic>long-rank</italic> = 0,02). Los autores resaltan la necesidad de la realizaci&#243;n de estudios prospectivos randomizados, envolviendo un n&#250;mero mayor de pacientes, para confirmar esos hallazgos<sup>20</sup>. </p>
      <p>Por otro lado, Ten Cate et al<sup>21</sup> demostraron que tanto la estimulaci&#243;n de la punta cuanto la estimulaci&#243;n de la VSVD agudamente presentan disincron&#237;a mec&#225;nica al ecocardiograma (eco) en pacientes con funci&#243;n sist&#243;lica normal. De forma similar, fueron observadas alteraciones en los par&#225;metros ecocardiogr&#225;ficos indicadores de disincron&#237;a mec&#225;nica en todos los sitios de estimulaci&#243;n unifocal evaluados (punta, VSVD y regi&#243;n septal media) en un estudio presentado en la reuni&#243;n del <italic>Heart Rhythm</italic><sup>74</sup>.</p>
      <p>Kypta et al<sup>75</sup> condujeron un estudio prospectivo y randomizado para comparaci&#243;n de los efectos de la estimulaci&#243;n septal y de la punta del VD sobre la funci&#243;n card&#237;aca. Fueron evaluados 98 pacientes, con un seguimiento de 18 meses, a trav&#233;s de la evaluaci&#243;n cl&#237;nica, dosaje de p&#233;ptido natriur&#233;tico cerebral (BNP), evaluaci&#243;n de la capacidad funcional y de la FEVI. No fueron observadas diferencias significativas en los par&#225;metros evaluados entre los dos grupos. La conclusi&#243;n del estudio fue que la estimulaci&#243;n septal no es superior a la estimulaci&#243;n apical en portadores de bloqueo atrioventricular sometidos a implante de marcapasos definitivo en una poblaci&#243;n no seleccionada<sup>75</sup>. </p>
      <p>Ng et al<sup>69</sup> publicaron un estudio longitudinal, prospectivo, para evaluaci&#243;n del beneficio de la estimulaci&#243;n septal a largo plazo. Fueron incluidos 55 pacientes y la media de control fue de 436 d&#237;as para la posici&#243;n septal y 2.398 d&#237;as para los pacientes con electrodo en la punta del VD. Fueron evaluados los par&#225;metros ecocardiogr&#225;ficos de las dimensiones de las c&#225;maras izquierdas y la FEVI, adem&#225;s de medidas de disincron&#237;a ventricular, as&#237; como la duraci&#243;n del QRS. La duraci&#243;n media del QRS fue mayor en los pacientes con electrodo en la punta del VD (p &lt; 0,001). Fue observado que los criterios electrocardiogr&#225;ficos y radiol&#243;gicos utilizados para el implante septal resultan en un grupo heterog&#233;neo, con diferentes lugares de estimulaci&#243;n. El estudio concluy&#243; que la estimulaci&#243;n septal fue asociada a una peor funci&#243;n sist&#243;lica y con un mayor grado de disincron&#237;a en relaci&#243;n a la punta del VD<sup>69</sup>. </p>
      <p>Los 4 &#250;ltimos recientes relatos<sup>21,69,74,75</sup>, asociados a la descripci&#243;n de Victor et al<sup>72</sup>, sugieren que, no obstante la proximidad del est&#237;mulo el&#233;ctrico artificial en relaci&#243;n al haz de His, la estimulaci&#243;n unifocal no es capaz de sustituir a la altura la activaci&#243;n natural a trav&#233;s de las m&#250;ltiples ramificaciones de las fibras especializadas de Purkinje. Otro aspecto interesante es que representan evidencias conflictivas en cuanto al real beneficio de la posici&#243;n septal mostrado en otros estudios (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="es_a13cua02-body2">Cuadro 2</xref>). </p>
      <p>En funci&#243;n del gran n&#250;mero de pacientes controlados con &#233;xito en la correcci&#243;n de las bradiarritmias, algunos centros permanecen fieles a la punta del VD y a la regi&#243;n subtric&#250;spide, principalmente en los pacientes sin cardiopat&#237;a estructural, con funci&#243;n sist&#243;lica normal y en los casos en que es posible minimizar la estimulaci&#243;n en el canal ventricular<sup>76</sup>. En ese sentido, aun hay estudios siendo realizados utilizando el implante en la punta del VD en todos los pacientes<sup>77,78</sup>. Esa cuesti&#243;n se&#241;ala la necesidad de comprobar el real beneficio de la estimulaci&#243;n septal en el contexto de la medicina basada en evidencias. </p>
      <p>Otro aspecto a ser considerado es que los estudios para evaluaci&#243;n de los sitios alternativos de estimulaci&#243;n del ventricular derecho englobaron todas las etiolog&#237;as relacionadas al implante de marcapasos y hay pocos relatos sobre la estimulaci&#243;n septal en portadores de enfermedad de Chagas<sup>27,79</sup>. </p>
      <p>Finalmente, con el objetivo de tratar de responder definitivamente a la cuesti&#243;n de la superioridad de la posici&#243;n septal en relaci&#243;n a la punta del VD, est&#225;n siendo realizados tres estudios cl&#237;nicos multic&#233;ntricos, prospectivos, randomizados y ciegos (OPTIMIZE RV, PROTECT Y RASP)<sup>32</sup>. En total, est&#225;n envueltos 58 centros, con una estimativa de 800 pacientes. El desenlace primario es la evaluaci&#243;n de la fracci&#243;n de eyecci&#243;n a trav&#233;s de la ecocardiograf&#237;a y de la ventriculograf&#237;a radioisot&#243;pica. Los objetivos secundarios incluyen eventos cl&#237;nicos, test de caminata de 6 minutos, dosaje de BNP y medidas ecocardiogr&#225;ficas de las c&#225;maras izquierdas. El tiempo de seguimiento de los pacientes es de hasta 36 meses.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Discusi&#243;n</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Durante cerca de 40 a&#241;os, desde la aparici&#243;n de la estimulaci&#243;n card&#237;aca artificial, la punta del ventr&#237;culo derecho fue considerada como lugar preferencial para el implante del electrodo ventricular en los marcapasos convencionales. Es relativamente reciente la preocupaci&#243;n con la evaluaci&#243;n de los prejuicios causados por el bloqueo de rama izquierdo iatrog&#233;nico producido por la estimulaci&#243;n del &#225;pice del ventr&#237;culo derecho en los marcapasos card&#237;acos convencionales. </p>
      <p>A pesar de los datos resultantes de estudios experimentales y cl&#237;nicos, los efectos delet&#233;reos asociados a la estimulaci&#243;n apical del ventr&#237;culo derecho dependen de la interacci&#243;n entre factores espec&#237;ficos de cada paciente (ritmo atrial de base, conducci&#243;n atrioventricular e intraventricular intr&#237;nseca, FEVI y de la miocardiopat&#237;a de base). Adem&#225;s de esos, hay condiciones relacionadas a la estimulaci&#243;n artificial, como el modo de programaci&#243;n, duraci&#243;n del complejo QRS estimulado, porcentaje y duraci&#243;n de la estimulaci&#243;n artificial en el canal ventricular. </p>
      <p>Desde 1997, han sido estudiadas alternativas a la posici&#243;n de la punta del VD, teniendo como base racional la b&#250;squeda de una despolarizaci&#243;n m&#225;s fisiol&#243;gica, consecuencia del est&#237;mulo unifocal artificial<sup>57</sup>. Entre tanto, en funci&#243;n del peque&#241;o n&#250;mero de pacientes evaluados, de la ausencia de randomizaci&#243;n en algunas publicaciones, dificultad de estandarizaci&#243;n de los criterios para definici&#243;n de los sitios alternativos y diferentes m&#233;todos de evaluaci&#243;n de la repercusi&#243;n sobre la funci&#243;n card&#237;aca, hay importantes limitaciones en los estudios realizados. </p>
      <p>La estimulaci&#243;n del haz de His presenta dificultades t&#233;cnicas que impidieron su aplicaci&#243;n pr&#225;ctica<sup>68</sup>. Los criterios electrocardiogr&#225;ficos y radiol&#243;gicos utilizados para el implante septal no son tan precisos y resultan en un grupo heterog&#233;neo de diferentes lugares de estimulaci&#243;n<sup>69</sup>. Para volver la cuesti&#243;n aun m&#225;s complexa, el estrechamiento del complejo QRS en la posici&#243;n septal, en comparaci&#243;n con la punta del VD, no correspondi&#243; a la mejora de par&#225;metros cl&#237;nicos, funcionales y ecocardiogr&#225;ficos en el seguimiento de los pacientes en algunos estudios<sup>75</sup>. </p>
      <p>Otro aspecto a ser definido es si los pacientes con disfunci&#243;n sist&#243;lica no deber&#237;an ser tratados con resincronizaci&#243;n card&#237;aca, teni&#233;ndose en vista las limitaciones de la estimulaci&#243;n unifocal del ventr&#237;culo derecho<sup>75</sup>. </p>
      <p>A pesar de todos los avances de la electroterapia card&#237;aca en los &#250;ltimos 50 a&#241;os, la estimulaci&#243;n artificial del ventr&#237;culo derecho aun no es capaz de sustituir a la altura la activaci&#243;n natural a trav&#233;s de las fibras especializadas del sistema His-Purkinje. Esa limitaci&#243;n puede ser prejudicial para la funci&#243;n card&#237;aca, principalmente en los pacientes con disfunci&#243;n sist&#243;lica, y justifica la b&#250;squeda intensiva de estrategias para minimizar ese efecto delet&#233;reo.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Conclusiones</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Existen relatos de la seguridad y potenciales beneficios de los sitios alternativos de estimulaci&#243;n ventricular derecha sobre la funci&#243;n card&#237;aca. Entretanto, el sitio endoc&#225;rdico m&#225;s estudiado, la posici&#243;n septal, engloba un grupo heterog&#233;neo de diferentes lugares de estimulaci&#243;n y hay solamente una modesta concordancia entre los criterios para su obtenci&#243;n. De esa forma, aun hay necesidad de aguardar los resultados de estudios prospectivos, envolviendo un n&#250;mero significativo de pacientes, incluyendo todas las etiolog&#237;as asociadas al implante de marcapasos card&#237;aco y con un control a largo plazo, para la definici&#243;n del sitio selectivo de elecci&#243;n para la estimulaci&#243;n unifocal del ventr&#237;culo derecho. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potencial Conflicto de Intereses</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Declaro no haber conflicto de intereses pertinentes.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Fuentes de Financiamiento</bold>
      </p>
      <p>El presente estudio no tuvo fuentes de financiamiento externas.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Vinculaci&#243;n Acad&#233;mica</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Este art&#237;culo es parte de tesis de Doctorado de Otaviano da Silva J&#250;nior por la <italic>Universidade Federal do Tri&#226;ngulo Mineiro</italic>.</p>
      <p>
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      <p>79. S&#225; LAB, Rassi S, Ludovico MA. Efeitos da estimula&#231;&#227;o ventricular convencional em pacientes com fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular normal. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2009; 93 (2): 167-73.      </p>
      <p>
        <fn id="nota1-body2" fn-type="corresp">
          <label>
            <bold>Correspondencia:</bold>
          </label>
          <p> Otaviano da Silva J&#250;nior</p>
          <p> Rua Constitui&#231;&#227;o, 730 - Abadia</p>
          <p> 38081-300 - Uberaba, MG - Brasil</p>
          <p> E-mail: </p>
          <p>
            <email xlink:href="osilvajr@hotmail.com">osilvajr@hotmail.com</email>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p>Art&#237;culo recibido en 21/10/09; revisado recibido en 26/10/09; aceptado en 30/11/09.</p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Alternative endocardial sites for artificial cardiac stimulation</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>The conventional right ventricular stimulation can be associated with deleterious effects on cardiac function. The need for a more physiological artificial cardiac stimulation is undoubtedly one of the most important points in the area of cardiac electrotherapy. The programming algorithms for the maintenance of adequate atrioventricular conduction, the stimulation of alternative endocardial sites and the cardiac resynchronization therapy are used with the objective of attaining these goals. The stimulation of the bundle of His and the septal stimulation have been studied as alternative endocardial sites for the positioning of the electrode on the right ventricle. The septal stimulation represents a simple and practical alternative, with no additional costs involved and with potential benefits in decreasing the deleterious effects of the right ventricular stimulation. However, this alternative site involves a heterogeneous group of patients and presents conflicting results regarding its long-term clinical benefit. This article reviews the scientific evidence on the alternative sites for right ventricular stimulation, with emphasis on the safety of the procedure, the measurement of the electrophysiological parameters, assessment of the left ventricular function and the clinical follow-up of patients.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Pacemaker, artificial</kwd>
        <kwd>septal stimulation</kwd>
        <kwd>ventricular function, left</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>REVIEW ARTICLE</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Alternative endocardial sites for artificial cardiac stimulation</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Otaviano da Silva J&#250;nior; Celso Salgado de Melo; Marcelo Marra; Dalmo Correia</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas da Universidade Federal do Tri&#226;ngulo Mineiro, Uberaba, MG - Brazil</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="nota1-body3">Mailing address</xref>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>ABSTRACT</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The conventional right ventricular stimulation can be associated with deleterious effects on cardiac function. The need for a more physiological artificial cardiac stimulation is undoubtedly one of the most important points in the area of cardiac electrotherapy. The programming algorithms for the maintenance of adequate atrioventricular conduction, the stimulation of alternative endocardial sites and the cardiac resynchronization therapy are used with the objective of attaining these goals. The stimulation of the bundle of His and the septal stimulation have been studied as alternative endocardial sites for the positioning of the electrode on the right ventricle. The septal stimulation represents a simple and practical alternative, with no additional costs involved and with potential benefits in decreasing the deleterious effects of the right ventricular stimulation.</p>
      <p> However, this alternative site involves a heterogeneous group of patients and presents conflicting results regarding its long-term clinical benefit.</p>
      <p> This article reviews the scientific evidence on the alternative sites for right ventricular stimulation, with emphasis on the safety of the procedure, the measurement of the electrophysiological parameters, assessment of the left ventricular function and the clinical follow-up of patients.</p>
      <p><bold>Keywords:</bold> Pacemaker, artificial; septal stimulation; ventricular function, left.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>At the age of cardiac resynchronization, the anti-bradycardia therapy, through the implant of conventional pacemaker, still represents the largest number of procedures carried out in the area of artificial cardiac stimulation<sup>1</sup>. Since the beginning of the endocardial cardiac stimulation in 1958<sup>2</sup> and for more than 4 decades, the prolonging of life by implanting an electrode in the right ventricle apex, due to its accessibility and lower risk of complications, has represented the therapeutic scope. </p>
      <p>Since the 1980s, there has been evidence of the deleterious effects of the long-term apical stimulation of the right ventricle (RV)<sup>3-6</sup>. In the last 12 years, several studies have been carried out with the objective of finding alternative sites for the implant of electrodes in RV endocardial stimulation. The region of the bundle of His<sup>7-12</sup>, the right ventricular outflow tract (RVOT)<sup>13-23</sup> and the mid-septal region<sup>24-26</sup> have been assessed. </p>
      <p>Most studies involved a small sample size, without randomization, and the criteria used to define the stimulation site might have led to the assessment of heterogeneous groups. Likewise, different methods have been used to evaluate the functional outcome of cardiac stimulation. </p>
      <p>Therefore, in spite of the demonstration of the deleterious effects of the RV apical stimulation and potential benefits of the alternative sites, conflicting results have been reported and the site of choice for the implant of the right ventricular electrode is yet to be defined. </p>
      <p>The objective of this study is to analyze the alternative sites for artificial cardiac stimulation in the context of evidence-based cardiology. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Historical aspects of artificial cardiac stimulation</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The heart-stimulating complex results from a process of cell specialization and reflects the efforts of millions of years in phylogenetic evolution for the maintenance of life. </p>
      <p>Naturally, the substitution of components of this conduction system, with the maintenance of its properties, has always constituted a huge challenge in the field of cardiac electrotherapy. </p>
      <p>Ever since the first experimental studies, the differences between the artificial stimulation and the physiological activation have not gone unnoticed<sup>27,28</sup>. In 1924, Wiggers demonstrated that the artificial stimulation results in a decreased pumping function, in an experimental dog model<sup>28</sup>. </p>
      <p>The age of cardiac endocardial stimulation started in August 1958, when Seymour Furman described the transvenous pacemaker implant technique<sup>2</sup>. In October of the same year, in Sweden, the first definitive endocardial pacemaker implant was performed<sup>29</sup>. </p>
      <p>The transvenous access started to substitute the epicardial access in pacemaker implants, allowing the procedures to be carried out without thoracotomy and general anesthesia. The positioning of the electrode started to be carried out under radioscopic guidance, with the help of the radiological anatomy. </p>
      <p>For more than 4 decades, the apex of the right ventricle (RV) was used worldwide as the preferential site for the positioning of the ventricular electrode<sup>30</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig1-body3">Figure 1</xref>). This fact was due mainly to safety reasons. Due to the incipient technology used in the manufacturing of the electrodes, there was a higher risk of dislocation, cardiac perforation, threshold increase and consequent loss of command. The electrodes, then affixed passively, were well-anchored in the apex, with a favorable curvature and decreased risk of dislocation.</p>
      <fig id="fig1-body3">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-96-01-0076-00013-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>After the 1980s, the first experimental evidence on the deleterious effects of the apex stimulation of the RV appeared<sup>3-6</sup>. Subsequently, in the 1990s, the first clinical studies comparing the conventional position with alternative sites of stimulation were published and the site of choice for RV stimulation in the conventional pacemakers has yet to be defined<sup>31</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Scientific evidence of the deleterious effects of the unifocal right ventricular stimulation</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The narrow QRS complex is crucial for the cardiac function and its enlargement causes significant damage to the left ventricular function<sup>32-35</sup>. In general, the narrower the QRS complex, the better the left ventricular function<sup>36</sup>. </p>
      <p>In spite of the safety of positioning the ventricular electrode in the apex of the RV for the correction of bradyarrhythmias, observed along the decades, the studies on the functional outcome and clinical follow-up started to demonstrate the deleterious effects of this positioning and indicated the need to reassess the preferential site for endocardial stimulation<sup>37-54</sup>. The technological development applied to the manufacturing of the electrodes represented a vital ally in the search for alternative positions, bringing safety to the process of change. </p>
      <p>The stimulation of the apex of the right ventricle promotes an inversion of the natural sequence of cardiac electrical activation, generates an artificial left bundle branch block (LBBB), with an enlarged QRS complex, which is a predictor of heart failure in individuals with definitive pacemakers<sup>55-57</sup>. These alterations promote adverse effects on the ventricular structure and function (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="cha1-body3">Chart 1</xref>) and can cause or aggravate mitral regurgitation<sup>38,39</sup>, increase the risk of atrial fibrillation (AF), heart failure (HF) and increase mortality<sup>41-47</sup> in patients with systolic dysfunction. </p>
      <fig id="cha1-body3">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-96-01-0076-00013-gf02-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>In a retrospective analysis of the MOST (Mode Selection Trial) study, it was demonstrated that the risk of hospitalization due to HF and AF is directly associated with the cumulative percentage of stimulation in the RV apex<sup>44</sup>. </p>
      <p>The DAVID (The Dual Chamber and VVI Implantable Defibrillator) trial was unexpectedly discontinued due to the increase in HF and mortality in the group with a predominance of ventricular stimulation (DDDR mode at 70 bpm). In the control group, the ventricular stimulation was maximal, as the pacemaker was programmed at VVI, with a frequency of 40 ppm. Thus, the deleterious effect of the unifocal ventricular stimulation was demonstrated<sup>41,47</sup>. The analysis of the MADIT II study showed a correlation between the level of stimulation of the RV and HF, ventricular arrhythmias and mortality<sup>49</sup>. </p>
      <p>Zhang et al<sup>58</sup> demonstrated that the RV apex stimulation was associated with the development of HF in 26% of the patients submitted to pacemaker implant due to acquired AV block, after a mean follow-up of 7.9 years. </p>
      <p>The structurally normal heart, without systolic dysfunction, can even be capable of compensating these deleterious effects<sup>51</sup>. A study of 268 patients with normal systolic function (EF &gt; 55%) and apical stimulation of the RV due to total AV block, showed low rates of ventricular remodeling (5.3%), during a follow-up period of 80.2 months<sup>58</sup>. In patients with systolic dysfunction and heart failure, symptoms can appear, as well as heart failure decompensation, with the apical stimulation of the right ventricle<sup>51</sup>.</p>
      <p>With the objective of attaining a more physiological stimulation, the strategies for the maintenance of adequate atrioventricular (AV) conduction, when possible, as well as the alternative sites for stimulation, have been studied<sup>54,59,60</sup>. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Alternative sites for endocardial cardiac stimulation</bold>
      </p>
      <p>In Latin America, the importance of the Chagasic etiology, associated with the implant of pacemakers has led to the necessity to find an alternative site for the positioning of the ventricular electrode, considering some characteristics of the disease. The right ventricular apex in Chagasic patients can present an endocardial thinning in 20-30% of the patients, in addition to the presence of intracavitary thrombus in a significant number of cases<sup>61</sup>. </p>
      <p>Due to these characteristics, Kormann and Jatene<sup>62</sup> described the subtricuspid position (vertebral-costal-diaphragmatic triangle) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a13fig02-body3">Figure 2</xref>) to reduce the risks of cardiac perforation and thromboembolic phenomena triggered by the ventricular electrode. This study represented a landmark for a change in conduct by several surgeons in Latin America, who started to use the position of the RV inflow tract as a preferential site for the implant of the RV electrode in Chagasic patients<sup>62-64</sup>. Among the patients followed at the Pacemaker Laboratory of Hospital de Clinicas of the Federal University of Minas Gerais, in 2006, 77.8% of them had ventricular electrodes fixed in the subtricuspid region<sup>63</sup>. However, there is no scientific evidence of the functional outcome of this site of stimulation and there have been no comparative studies with other sites for right ventricular electrode implant.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_a13fig02-body3">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-96-01-0076-00013-gf03-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>The scientific evidence at the age of cardiac resynchronization, from 1990 on, led to the introduction of selective stimulation. The basic principle of this technique is to try to reproduce the natural sequence of cardiac depolarization, through the positioning of the electrode in the areas that are closest to the conduction system, using the complex natural electrical distribution network<sup>54</sup>. In this sense, the stimulation of the bundle of His or para-His<sup>7-12 </sup>and the stimulation of the RV endocardial region closest to the conduction system, along the middle and upper portions of the interventricular septum have been assessed<sup>13-26</sup>. </p>
      <p>In clinical practice, during the implants of definitive pacemakers, the anatomical location of the bundle of His is difficult to reproduce. In spite of these technical questions, there have been reports on the superiority of the stimulation of the bundle of His in relation to the degree of narrowing of the stimulated QRS complex and the systolic function, when compared to the RV apex<sup>9,11</sup></p>
      <p>On the other hand, the positioning of the right ventricular electrode in the middle and upper regions of the interventricular septum, with the help of the radiological anatomy and the assessment of the electrocardiographic tracing, is simple and easy to reproduce (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a13fig03-body3">Figures 3</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a13fig04-body3">4</xref>). This site of stimulation has been assessed as a very interesting alternative for the implant of the ventricular electrode, as it generates narrower QRS complexes, with a more physiological activation axis<sup>24</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a13fig05-body3">Figures 5</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a13fig06-body3">6</xref>) and because it is feasible at any Service that routinely performs conventional pacemaker implants<sup>25-27</sup>. </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_a13fig03-body3">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-96-01-0076-00013-gf04-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_a13fig04-body3">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-96-01-0076-00013-gf05-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_a13fig05-body3">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-96-01-0076-00013-gf06-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_a13fig06-body3">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-96-01-0076-00013-gf07-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>The criteria to obtain the septal position were standardized and described in 2004 by Lieberman et al<sup>65</sup>. The validation of the septal position depends mainly on the radioscopic incidence at the left anterior oblique (LAO) view, in which the ventricular electrode is turned to the column, in an opposite direction to the free wall of the right ventricle. </p>
      <p>There are other radiological parameters used to define the middle and upper<sup>32</sup> septal positions (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a13fig03-body3">Figures 3</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a13fig04-body3">4</xref>).</p>
      <p>In addition to the radiological criteria, some caution must be exercised when using the septal position<sup>15,66</sup>: </p>
      <disp-quote>
        <p>&#149; Mapping of the septum, exhaustively seeking the narrowest QRS complex (always &lt; 150 ms);</p>
        <p>&#149; Obtaining QRS complexes that present an electrical axis with a variation &lt; 30&#186; from the patient's basal electrical axis. </p>
        <p>&#149; Threshold &lt; 1 volt, to guarantee the stimulation of the septum's muscular portion.</p>
      </disp-quote>
      <p>In spite of the radiological and electrocardiographic criteria to obtain the septal position, there is always the possibility of stimulating the RV free wall, considered one of the main limitations of the technique<sup>67</sup>. There is also the difficulty to define the upper, middle and lower portions of the septum. Such characteristics contribute to transform the septal position into a heterogeneous group that encompasses different sites for RV stimulation and translates the need to standardize the method<sup>68,69</sup>. </p>
      <p>Functional outcome assessment of the alternative sites for RV stimulation (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a13cha02-body3"><bold>Chart 2</bold></xref>)</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_a13cha02-body3">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-96-01-0076-00013-gf08-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>The first clinical trials comparing the different sites for RV stimulation appeared in the 1990s<sup>13,70</sup>. Blanc et al<sup>70</sup> evaluated the acute hemodynamic effects in 27 individuals with congestive heart failure (CHF). No differences were observed between the stimulation of the RVOT and the apical stimulation through the analysis of the pulmonary capillary pressure and systolic pressure. </p>
      <p>Another study of 14 patients in the acute phase of dual-chamber pacemaker implant due to total AV block was carried out by Schwaab et al<sup>66</sup>. The septum was carefully mapped and the electrode was positioned at the site that generated the narrowest QRS complex. The QRS duration decrease was correlated with the homogenization of the left ventricular contraction and improvement in the systolic function. Similar results were obtained by Mera et al<sup>15</sup> in 12 patients submitted to a single-chamber pacemaker implant, after ablation of the AV junction. This second study showed left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) values at rest that were higher at the septal stimulation, when compared to the RV apical stimulation. </p>
      <p>A significant improvement in LVEF was reported by Deshmukh et al<sup>8</sup> in 12 patients submitted to a pacemaker implant with the stimulation of the bundle of His. These patients presented narrow QRS complexes, chronic atrial fibrillation (AF) and decreased LVEF (&lt;40%). </p>
      <p>Tse et al<sup>71</sup> demonstrated that the stimulation of the RVOT region does result in the the same deleterious effects of LVEF decrease or the perfusion defects, in comparison with the stimulation of RV apex. </p>
      <p>Victor et al<sup>72</sup> published a prospective, randomized study with a crossover every three months, to evaluate the quality of life and the systolic function in 103 patients submitted to definitive pacemaker implant. These patients presented CHF, LV systolic dysfunction (LVEF <underline>&lt;</underline> 40%) and chronic AF. Three types of stimulation were compared: apical, RVOT and bifocal RV stimulation. The conclusion was that the stimulation of the RVOT and the bifocal RV stimulation promoted a narrowing of the QRS interval, but did not consistently improve the quality of life scores or other clinical outcomes after three months of evolution, when compared to the apical stimulation. </p>
      <p>Cai et al<sup>73</sup> demonstrated that the stimulation of the RVOT and the bundle of His, in addition to yielding narrower QRS complexes, showed better indices of mechanical synchronization, evaluated by the echocardiogram, when compared to the apical stimulation.</p>
      <p>In 2008, Erdo&#287;an et al<sup>22</sup> demonstrated that the stimulation of the RVOT is safe and presents electrophysiological parameters comparable to those obtained with the long-term conventional RV apex stimulation. </p>
      <p>Vanerio et al<sup>20</sup> retrospectively evaluated 150 patients, with a mean age of 72 &#177; 7 years, submitted to definitive pacemaker implant. The patients were divided in two groups: apex stimulation (95) and RVOT stimulation (55). The mean follow-up of the patients was 3.4 &#177; 2 years, between 1999 and 2004. The multivariate analysis showed that the stimulation of the RVOT and the LVEF were independently correlated with survival (p = 0.006 and p = 0.003, respectively). The mortality with the RVOT stimulation was 37.3% lower (long-rank = 0.02). The authors emphasized the need to carry out randomized prospective studies with a larger sample size, to confirm these findings<sup>20</sup>. </p>
      <p>On the other hand, Ten Cate et al<sup>21</sup> demonstrated that both the apex and the RVOT stimulation acutely presented mechanical dyssynchrony at the echocardiogram (echo) in patients with normal systolic function. Similarly, alterations in the echocardiographic parameters were observed, indicating mechanical dyssynchrony in all sites of unifocal stimulation evaluated (apex, RVOT and middle septal region) in a study presented at the meeting of the Heart Rhythm<sup>74</sup>. </p>
      <p>Kypta et al<sup>75</sup> carried out a prospective and randomized study to compare the effects of the RV septal and apex stimulation on cardiac function. A total of 98 patients were assessed, with a follow-up of 18 months, through clinical evaluation, brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) levels, functional capacity and LVEF assessment. No significant differences were observed between the two groups regarding the evaluated parameters. The conclusion of the study was that the septal stimulation is not superior to the apical stimulation in individuals with atrioventricular block submitted to definitive pacemaker implant among a non-selected population<sup>75</sup>. </p>
      <p>Ng et al<sup>69</sup> carried out a longitudinal prospective study to evaluate the benefits of long-term septal stimulation. A total of 55 patients were studied and the mean follow-up period was 436 days for the septal position and 2,398 days for the electrode positioned at the RV apex. The echocardiographic parameters of the dimensions of the left chambers and the LVEF were evaluated, as well as the measurements of ventricular dyssynchrony and the QRS duration. The mean QRS duration was shorter in the patients with an electrode positioned at the RV apex (p &lt; 0.001). It was observed that the electrocardiographic and radiological criteria used for the septal implant resulted in a heterogeneous group, with different sites of stimulation. The study concluded that the septal stimulation was associated with a poorer systolic function and a higher degree of dyssynchrony in relation to the RV apex stimulation<sup>69</sup>. </p>
      <p>The four most recent reports<sup>21,69,74,75</sup>, associated with the description by Victor et al<sup>72</sup>, suggest that, in spite of the closeness of the artificial electrical stimulation in relation to the bundle of His, the unifocal stimulation is not capable of fully substituting the natural activation through multiple ramifications of the specialized Purkinje fibers. Another interesting aspect is that they represent conflicting evidence regarding the real benefit of the septal position demonstrated in other studies (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a13cha02-body3">Chart 2</xref>).</p>
      <p>Considering the large number of patients that have been successfully followed in the correction of bradyarrhythmias, some centers remain faithful to the RV apex and the subtricuspid region, mainly in patients without structural cardiopathy, with normal systolic function and in cases where it is possible to minimize the stimulation in the ventricular channel<sup>76</sup>. In this sense, some ongoing studies are using the implant in the RV apex for all patients<sup>77,78</sup>. This question shows the need to prove the real benefit of septal stimulation in the context of evidence-based Medicine. </p>
      <p>Another aspect to considered is that the studies carried out to evaluate alternative sites for RV stimulation encompassed all etiologies related to pacemaker implant and there have been few reports on the septal stimulation in individuals with Chagas disease<sup>27,79</sup>. </p>
      <p>Finally, in an attempt to provide a definitive answer to the question of the superiority of the septal position when compared to the RV apex, three multicenter, prospective, randomized and blind clinical trials are being carried out (OPTIMIZE RV, PROTECT and RASP)<sup>32</sup>. In total, 58 centers are involved in the study, with an estimated sample size of 800 patients. The primary outcome is the assessment of the ejection fraction through the echocardiography and radioisotope ventriculography. The secondary objectives include clinical events, 6-minute walking test, BNP measurement and echocardiographic measurements of the left chamber. The time of follow-up of the patients is up to 36 months.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Discussion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>During approximately 40 years, since the start of the artificial cardiac stimulation, the RV apex was considered the preferential site for the implant of the ventricular electrode in conventional pacemakers. The concerns regarding the assessment of the damages caused by the iatrogenic left bundle-branch block produced by the stimulation of the RV apex in conventional cardiac pacemakers are relatively recent. </p>
      <p>In spite of the data obtained with the experimental and clinical studies, the deleterious effects associated with the apical stimulation of the RV depend on the interaction between specific factors of each patient (basal atrial rhythm, inherent atrioventricular and intraventricular conduction, LVEF and underlying cardiomyopathy). Additionally, there are conditions related to the artificial stimulation, such as programming mode, duration of the stimulated QRS complex, percentage and duration of the artificial stimulation in the ventricular channel. </p>
      <p>Since 1997, alternative sites to the RV apex have been studied, based on the rational search for a more physiological depolarization, caused by the artificial unifocal stimulation<sup>57</sup>. </p>
      <p>However, due to the small number of assessed patients, the lack of randomization in some studies, difficulty to standardize the criteria to define the alternative sites and different methods for the assessment of the outcome on cardiac function, there are important limitations in the performed studies. </p>
      <p>The stimulation of the bundle of His presents technical difficulties that prevent its practical use<sup>68</sup>. The electrocardiographic and radiological criteria used for the septal implant are not so accurate and result in a heterogeneous group of different stimulation sites<sup>69</sup>. To make the question even more complex, the narrowing of the QRS complex in the septal position, when compared to the RV apex stimulation, did not correspond to the improvement in clinical, functional and echocardiographic parameters during the follow-up of the patients in some studies<sup>75</sup>. </p>
      <p>Another aspect to be defined is whether patients with systolic dysfunction should not be treated with cardiac resynchronization, considering the limitations of the RV unifocal stimulation<sup>75</sup>. </p>
      <p>In spite of all the advancements in cardiac electrotherapy in the last 50 years, the RV artificial stimulation is still not capable of fully substituting the natural activation through the specialized fibers of the His-Purkinje system. This limitation can be deleterious to the cardiac function, mainly in patients with systolic dysfunction, and justifies the intensive search for strategies to minimize these deleterious effects. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Conclusions</bold>
      </p>
      <p>There have been reports on the safety and potential benefits of alternative sites for right ventricular stimulation on the cardiac function. However, the most frequently studied endocardial site, the septal position, encompasses a heterogeneous group of different stimulation sites and there is only a slight agreement regarding the criteria for obtaining it. Therefore, it is still necessary to wait for the results of prospective studies, involving a significant number of patients, including all the etiologies associated to the implant of cardiac pacemaker and with a long-term follow-up, to define the selective site of choice for the unifocal stimulation of the right ventricle. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
      </p>
      <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
      </p>
      <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Study Association</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This article is part of the thesis of doctoral submitted by Otaviano da Silva J&#250;nior, from Universidade Federal do Tri&#226;ngulo Mineiro.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
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      <p>
        <fn id="nota1-body3" fn-type="corresp">
          <label>
            <bold>Mailing address:</bold>
          </label>
          <p> Otaviano da Silva J&#250;nior</p>
          <p> Rua Constitui&#231;&#227;o, 730 - Abadia</p>
          <p> 38081-300 - Uberaba, MG - Brazil</p>
          <p> E-mail: </p>
          <p>
            <email xlink:href="osilvajr@hotmail.com">osilvajr@hotmail.com</email>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p>Manuscript received October 21, 2009; revised manuscript received October 26, 2009; accepted November 30, 2009.</p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
</article>
