<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.1 20151215//EN" "https://jats.nlm.nih.gov/publishing/1.1/JATS-journalpublishing1.dtd">
<article xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" specific-use="sps-1.9" dtd-version="1.1" xml:lang="pt" article-type="research-article">
  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">p7h4BLBCJCDwwfmxJJyw5dc</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00012</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2011000100012</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(11)09600112</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2011000100012</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>&#211;xido n&#237;trico e sistema cardiovascular: ativa&#231;&#227;o celular, reatividade vascular e variante gen&#233;tica</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Dias</surname>
            <given-names>Rodrigo Gon&#231;alves</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Negr&#227;o</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos Eduardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Krieger</surname>
            <given-names>Marta Helena</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff02">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Campinas</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Estadual de Campinas</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Labcardio </institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o </institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>01</month>
        <year>2011</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>96</volume>
      <issue>1</issue>
      <fpage>68</fpage>
      <lpage>75</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>14</day>
          <month>08</month>
          <year>2009</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>26</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2009</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>12</day>
          <month>02</month>
          <year>2009</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>O &#243;xido n&#237;trico (NO), primariamente identificado como um fator relaxante derivado do endot&#233;lio, &#233; um radical livre atuante na sinaliza&#231;&#227;o de diferentes processos biol&#243;gicos. A identifica&#231;&#227;o das isoformas das sintases do NO (NOS) e a subsequente caracteriza&#231;&#227;o dos mecanismos de ativa&#231;&#227;o celulares das enzimas possibilitaram tanto a compreens&#227;o de parte das intera&#231;&#245;es fisiol&#243;gicas como a compreens&#227;o de parte dos mecanismos de doen&#231;a, na qual o NO est&#225; envolvido. A isoforma endotelial da NOS (eNOS), expressa principalmente no endot&#233;lio vascular, desempenha importante papel na regula&#231;&#227;o da reatividade vascular e no desenvolvimento e na progress&#227;o da aterosclerose. Esta revis&#227;o tem o prop&#243;sito de contextualizar o leitor sobre a estrutura da eNOS e seus mecanismos de ativa&#231;&#227;o celular. Tendo em vista os avan&#231;os da biologia molecular, trataremos ainda dos conhecidos mecanismos de regula&#231;&#227;o da express&#227;o g&#234;nica e do papel de variantes no c&#243;digo gen&#233;tico da eNOS associados a fen&#243;tipos cardiovasculares. Embora se reconhe&#231;a a import&#226;ncia do NO como mol&#233;cula ateroprotetora, nossa aten&#231;&#227;o estar&#225; voltada &#224; revis&#227;o de literatura envolvendo NO e sua participa&#231;&#227;o na modula&#231;&#227;o do fen&#243;tipo de vasodilata&#231;&#227;o muscular.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>&#211;xido n&#237;trico</kwd>
        <kwd>&#243;xido n&#237;trico sintase tipo III</kwd>
        <kwd>polimorfismo gen&#233;tico</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>04</day>
        <month>02</month>
        <year>2011</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>ARTIGO DE REVIS&#195;O</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>&#211;xido n&#237;trico e sistema cardiovascular: ativa&#231;&#227;o celular, reatividade vascular e variante gen&#233;tica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Rodrigo Gon&#231;alves Dias<sup>I,II</sup>; Carlos Eduardo Negr&#227;o<sup>I</sup>; Marta Helena Krieger<sup>II</sup></bold>
    </p>
    <p><sup>I</sup>Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o - InCor (HCFMUSP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP </p>
    <p><sup>II</sup>Labcardio - Universidade Estadual de Campinas (Unicamp), Campinas, SP - Brasil</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="nota1">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESUMO</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O &#243;xido n&#237;trico (NO), primariamente identificado como um fator relaxante derivado do endot&#233;lio, &#233; um radical livre atuante na sinaliza&#231;&#227;o de diferentes processos biol&#243;gicos. A identifica&#231;&#227;o das isoformas das sintases do NO (NOS) e a subsequente caracteriza&#231;&#227;o dos mecanismos de ativa&#231;&#227;o celulares das enzimas possibilitaram tanto a compreens&#227;o de parte das intera&#231;&#245;es fisiol&#243;gicas como a compreens&#227;o de parte dos mecanismos de doen&#231;a, na qual o NO est&#225; envolvido. A isoforma endotelial da NOS (eNOS), expressa principalmente no endot&#233;lio vascular, desempenha importante papel na regula&#231;&#227;o da reatividade vascular e no desenvolvimento e na progress&#227;o da aterosclerose. Esta revis&#227;o tem o prop&#243;sito de contextualizar o leitor sobre a estrutura da eNOS e seus mecanismos de ativa&#231;&#227;o celular. Tendo em vista os avan&#231;os da biologia molecular, trataremos ainda dos conhecidos mecanismos de regula&#231;&#227;o da express&#227;o g&#234;nica e do papel de variantes no c&#243;digo gen&#233;tico da eNOS associados a fen&#243;tipos cardiovasculares. Embora se reconhe&#231;a a import&#226;ncia do NO como mol&#233;cula ateroprotetora, nossa aten&#231;&#227;o estar&#225; voltada &#224; revis&#227;o de literatura envolvendo NO e sua participa&#231;&#227;o na modula&#231;&#227;o do fen&#243;tipo de vasodilata&#231;&#227;o muscular.</p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold> &#211;xido n&#237;trico, &#243;xido n&#237;trico sintase tipo III, polimorfismo gen&#233;tico.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A evid&#234;ncia prim&#225;ria de que o endot&#233;lio &#233; um componente indispens&#225;vel na regula&#231;&#227;o do tono vascular surgiu quando an&#225;lises experimentais demonstraram que, na aus&#234;ncia dessa monocamada de epit&#233;lio pavimentoso, a vasodilata&#231;&#227;o induzida pela acetilcolina n&#227;o ocorria. Naquele momento, Furchgott e Zawadzki<sup>1</sup> documentaram que, quando estimulado, o endot&#233;lio era capaz de liberar uma subst&#226;ncia vasoativa que foi denominada fator relaxante derivado do endot&#233;lio (EDRF, do ingl&#234;s <italic>endothelium-derived relaxing factor</italic>). Passados alguns anos, o EDRF foi identificado por Ignarro e cols.<sup>2</sup> como o &#243;xido n&#237;trico (NO), um composto caracterizado em 1977 por Ferid Murad que, quando liberado por nitratos, causava relaxamento em c&#233;lulas musculares lisas. Esse contexto rendeu a Robert F. Furchgott, Ferid Murad e Louis J. Ignarro o Pr&#234;mio Nobel de Fisiologia ou Medicina em 1998 (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="a12fig01">fig. 1</xref>). Uma s&#233;rie de estudos foi respons&#225;vel pela caracteriza&#231;&#227;o de que o endot&#233;lio libera outros EDRF como a prostaciclina (PGI<sub>2</sub>) e o fator hiperpolarizante derivado do endot&#233;lio (EDHF, do ingl&#234;s <italic>endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factor</italic>), al&#233;m de fatores constritores derivados do endot&#233;lio (EDCF, do ingl&#234;s <italic>endothelium-derived contracting factors</italic>), como a endotelina (ET-1), produtos da via da ciclo-oxigenase como o tromboxano A<sub>2</sub> (TXA<sub>2</sub>) e esp&#233;cies reativas de oxig&#234;nio como o &#226;nion super&#243;xido (O<sub>2</sub><sup>.-</sup>)<sup>3</sup>. Essas descobertas associadas &#224; caracteriza&#231;&#227;o do endot&#233;lio como um sensor biol&#243;gico capaz de detectar qualquer est&#237;mulo mec&#226;nico, f&#237;sico ou qu&#237;mico - e responder a ele - elevou-o ao posto de um tecido multifuncional que desempenha importante papel na homeostasia de todos os sistemas fisiol&#243;gicos.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="a12fig01">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-96-01-0068-00012-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>&#211;xido n&#237;trico e sistema cardiovascular</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O NO, uma mol&#233;cula gasosa atuante na sinaliza&#231;&#227;o de diferentes processos biol&#243;gicos, &#233; um radical livre que apresenta um el&#233;tron desemparelhado na &#250;ltima camada e uma meia-vida de 4 a 8 segundos em meio aquoso oxigenado<sup>4,5</sup>. Descrito como um g&#225;s l&#225;bil, capaz de livre difus&#227;o nas membranas celulares, tal caracter&#237;stica colabora com sua alta atividade biol&#243;gica<sup>6</sup>. O reconhecimento de que o endot&#233;lio vascular &#233; um &#243;rg&#227;o ativo e que sua integridade favorece efeitos ben&#233;ficos, como a&#231;&#227;o antioxidante, anti-inflamat&#243;ria, anticoagulante, profibrinol&#237;tica, inibit&#243;ria da ades&#227;o e migra&#231;&#227;o de leuc&#243;citos, inibit&#243;ria da prolifera&#231;&#227;o e migra&#231;&#227;o das c&#233;lulas musculares lisas, inibit&#243;ria da agrega&#231;&#227;o e ades&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria, veio ampliar ainda mais as m&#250;ltiplas a&#231;&#245;es do NO<sup>7</sup>. Assim, esse cen&#225;rio ateroprotetor &#233; caracterizado por uma harmonia entre subst&#226;ncias liberadas pelo endot&#233;lio, no qual o NO &#233; citado como um dos compostos vasoativos de maior relev&#226;ncia. Caracterizada como uma desordem sist&#234;mica que antecede a aterosclerose e suas complica&#231;&#245;es, a disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial em art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias ateroscler&#243;ticas foi inicialmente demonstrada por Ludmer e cols.<sup>8</sup> e, depois, relacionada &#224; altera&#231;&#227;o na biodisponibilidade do NO<sup>9</sup>. </p>
    <p>Na atual literatura, h&#225; concord&#226;ncia de que a reduzida atividade biol&#243;gica do NO, causada tanto pela redu&#231;&#227;o na s&#237;ntese como pelo aumento da degrada&#231;&#227;o pelo estresse oxidativo, tem sido identificada como o mecanismo de maior relev&#226;ncia no processo multifatorial na disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial e na participa&#231;&#227;o das principais disfun&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares<sup>10</sup>. Assim, a redu&#231;&#227;o na biodisponibilidade do NO e a consequente disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial determinam, no ambiente vascular, o desencadeamento de eventos como altera&#231;&#245;es no tono, disfun&#231;&#245;es tromb&#243;ticas, prolifera&#231;&#227;o e migra&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas musculares lisas (CML), e ades&#227;o de leuc&#243;citos<sup>11</sup>. Na disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, ocorre tamb&#233;m o aumento da produ&#231;&#227;o de esp&#233;cies reativas de oxig&#234;nio (ERO)<sup>12</sup>, e estas podem reduzir a disponibilidade de NO endotelial por diferentes vias: inativa&#231;&#227;o direta do NO por super&#243;xido, com forma&#231;&#227;o de peroxinitrito (ONOO<sup>-</sup>)<sup>13</sup>; redu&#231;&#227;o na express&#227;o e na atividade das sintases do NO, por causa das mudan&#231;as nos seus substratos ou cofatores, e no aumento dos n&#237;veis de dimetilarginina assim&#233;trica (ADMA)<sup>14</sup>; e, ainda, desacoplamento da NOS endotelial causado pela oxida&#231;&#227;o aumentada de tetraidrobiopterina (BH<sub>4</sub>)<sup>15</sup>.</p>
    <p>O entendimento da complexidade da fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial e a dificuldade de se estudar cada um de seus componentes isoladamente v&#234;m sendo superados. Nesse contexto, modelos animais capazes de reproduzir uma disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial foram desenvolvidos, possibilitando, por exemplo, o funcionamento do sistema em condi&#231;&#245;es de baixa ou aumentada biodisponibilidade de NO. Al&#233;m disso, estudos <italic>in vivo</italic> em humanos, atrav&#233;s da infus&#227;o intra-arterial de compostos com potencial em modular a fun&#231;&#227;o endot&#233;lio-dependente ou endot&#233;lio-independente, possibilitaram a investiga&#231;&#227;o dos mecanismos moduladores da fun&#231;&#227;o vascular nas diferentes condi&#231;&#245;es fisiol&#243;gicas e doen&#231;as de maior preval&#234;ncia. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Sintases de &#243;xido n&#237;trico</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A produ&#231;&#227;o enzim&#225;tica do NO a partir do amino&#225;cido L-arginina &#233; mediada por uma fam&#237;lia de tr&#234;s sintases de &#243;xido n&#237;trico (NOS), codificadas por genes distintos<sup>16</sup>. As isoformas compartilham 50%-60% de homologia na sequ&#234;ncia de amino&#225;cidos, nos dom&#237;nios oxidase e redutase<sup>17</sup>. Essas isoformas exibem caracter&#237;sticas distintas que refletem suas fun&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas <italic>in vivo</italic><sup>18</sup>.</p>
    <p>A sintase endotelial do &#243;xido n&#237;trico (eNOS ou NOS III; 7q35-36) e a sintase neuronal do &#243;xido n&#237;trico (nNOS ou NOS I; 12q24.2) possuem mecanismo de ativa&#231;&#227;o constitutivo (cNOS). A isoforma induzida (iNOS ou NOS II; 17cen-q12) encontra-se expressa em processos celulares anormais como na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca<sup>19</sup>, induzidas por citoquinas e agentes inflamat&#243;rios, o que resulta em alto fluxo de NO<sup>20,21</sup>. A eNOS, encontrada principalmente nas c&#233;lulas endoteliais em compartimentos denominados cav&#233;olas<sup>22</sup>, &#233; essencial para a manuten&#231;&#227;o do tono vascular basal. Esse tono &#233;, em parte, mediado pela s&#237;ntese do NO, um composto vasoativo participante na regula&#231;&#227;o do fluxo sangu&#237;neo nos diversos leitos vasculares e, particularmente, no fluxo sangu&#237;neo coronariano<sup>23</sup>. A localiza&#231;&#227;o subcelular da s&#237;ntese de NO exerce grande influ&#234;ncia na sua atividade biol&#243;gica. Na d&#233;cada de 1990, a identifica&#231;&#227;o inicial da localiza&#231;&#227;o da eNOS na cav&#233;ola, na membrana plasm&#225;tica das c&#233;lulas, forneceu a base estrutural para o reconhecimento da compartimentaliza&#231;&#227;o nos mecanismos de sinaliza&#231;&#227;o celular promovido pelo NO. A subsequente observa&#231;&#227;o de que a eNOS interage diretamente com as prote&#237;nas estruturais da cav&#233;ola, as caveolinas, forneceu a evid&#234;ncia bioqu&#237;mica da intera&#231;&#227;o entre eNOS e cav&#233;ola e a sua implica&#231;&#227;o com numerosas mol&#233;culas de sinaliza&#231;&#245;es concentradas nesse ambiente da membrana celular<sup>24</sup>. Um grande n&#250;mero de evid&#234;ncias revelou que as cav&#233;olas s&#227;o capazes de recrutar numerosas mol&#233;culas de sinaliza&#231;&#227;o e regular suas atividades em vez de servirem como simples suporte para a troca e o transporte celulares<sup>25</sup>. Assim, foi descrito que a eNOS localiza-se dentro da cav&#233;ola e &#233; mantida em uma estado menos ativo via sua intera&#231;&#227;o com a caveolina-1<sup>26</sup>. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Estrutura da eNOS</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A eNOS funciona como um d&#237;mero, constitu&#237;da de dois mon&#244;meros id&#234;nticos, que, por sua vez, podem ser divididos funcional e estruturalmente em dois dom&#237;nios principais: um dom&#237;nio C-terminal redutase, hom&#243;logo ao citocromo P450 e que cont&#233;m s&#237;tios de liga&#231;&#227;o para NADPH, flavina mononucleot&#237;deo (FMN) e flavina adenina dinucleot&#237;deo (FAD), e um dom&#237;nio N-terminal oxidase, que abstrai um el&#233;tron do substrato L-arginina e possui s&#237;tios de liga&#231;&#227;o para o ferro heme, para o cofator tetraidrobiopterina (BH<sub>4</sub>) e para a L-arginina<sup>20,21,27</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="a12fig02">fig. 2</xref>). A rea&#231;&#227;o de cat&#225;lise das NOS constitutivas envolve dois est&#225;gios de oxida&#231;&#227;o: a hidroxila&#231;&#227;o da L-arginina em <italic>N<sup>G</sup></italic>-hidroxi-L-arginina, seguida da oxida&#231;&#227;o deste intermedi&#225;rio com utiliza&#231;&#227;o de um el&#233;tron da NADPH, formando L-citrulina e NO<sup>28</sup>. Essa rea&#231;&#227;o consome 1,5 mol de NADPH e 2 mols de oxig&#234;nio por mol de L-citrulina formada<sup>16,29,30</sup>. Cofatores como ferro heme, BH<sub>4</sub> e L-arginina t&#234;m sido particularmente estudados, e a baixa biodisponibilidade destes induz ao fen&#244;meno da eNOS disfuncional<sup>31-33</sup>. O ferro heme &#233; essencial para a dimeriza&#231;&#227;o das tr&#234;s isoformas<sup>34</sup>, baixas concentra&#231;&#245;es ou aus&#234;ncia de L-arginina catalisam a redu&#231;&#227;o do oxig&#234;nio em super&#243;xido (O<sub>2</sub><sup>.-</sup>)<sup>35</sup>, e n&#237;veis diminu&#237;dos de BH<sub>4 </sub>levam &#224; produ&#231;&#227;o simult&#226;nea de NO e O<sub>2</sub><sup>.-</sup>, produtos que reagem entre si formando peroxinitrito (ONOO<sup>-</sup>)<sup>36</sup>. </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="a12fig02">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-96-01-0068-00012-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Regula&#231;&#227;o da express&#227;o g&#234;nica e da atividade da eNOS</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Uma vez verificado que as c&#233;lulas endoteliais cont&#234;m uma concentra&#231;&#227;o basal da prote&#237;na eNOS, o gene da eNOS foi considerado constitutivamente expresso. Interessantemente, estudos posteriores demonstraram que concentra&#231;&#245;es est&#225;veis do mRNA s&#227;o sujeitas a um modesto n&#237;vel de regula&#231;&#227;o<sup>37</sup>. A regi&#227;o promotora do gene da eNOS foi clonada, demonstrando possuir um complexo mecanismo de regula&#231;&#227;o da express&#227;o g&#234;nica. Semelhante &#224; regi&#227;o promotora de genes constitutivamente expressos, a regi&#227;o promotora do gene da eNOS n&#227;o cont&#233;m a sequ&#234;ncia TATA Box. No entanto, possui m&#250;ltiplas sequ&#234;ncias DNA <italic>cis-</italic>regulat&#243;rias, incluindo CCAT box, s&#237;tios Sp1, GATA motifis, CACCC box, s&#237;tios AP-1 e AP-2, regi&#227;o de liga&#231;&#227;o p53, elementos NF-1, al&#233;m de sequ&#234;ncias responsivas a elementos ester&#243;is e <italic>shear stress</italic><sup>38</sup>. As sequ&#234;ncias promotoras humana e bovina apresentam 75% de homologia, sugerindo uma alta conserva&#231;&#227;o evolutiva da regula&#231;&#227;o transcricional do gene. Localizados na regi&#227;o promotora proximal, os dom&#237;nios regulat&#243;rios positivos I e II (PRD I e PRD II) est&#227;o envolvidos na regula&#231;&#227;o basal da transcri&#231;&#227;o g&#234;nica, apresentando afinidade pelos fatores de transcri&#231;&#227;o Sp-1, Sp-3, Ets-1, Elf-1, YY1 e prote&#237;na<italic> MYC-associatedzinc finger</italic><sup>39</sup>. Estudos <italic>in vitro</italic> demonstraram que a responsividade do promotor da eNOS ao <italic>shear stress </italic>&#233; dependente de sequ&#234;ncias localizadas entre -1.000 e -975, regi&#227;o relativa &#224; inicializa&#231;&#227;o da transcri&#231;&#227;o<sup>40,41</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, a liga&#231;&#227;o das subunidades p50 e p65 do NF-&#954;&#946; ao elemento responsivo GAGACC (-990; -984), localizado anteriormente ao s&#237;tio de inicializa&#231;&#227;o da transcri&#231;&#227;o, est&#225; envolvida na ativa&#231;&#227;o do promotor pelo <italic>shear stress</italic><sup>42</sup>. E ainda, a transcri&#231;&#227;o em c&#233;lulas endoteliais bovina submetidas a fluxo laminar apresentou aumento de 9 vezes do mRNA. Esse efeito foi mediado por dois mecanismos distintos: 1. aumento transiente da transcri&#231;&#227;o do gene e 2. subsequente meia-vida prolongada do mRNA<sup>43</sup>. </p>
    <p>O mecanismo de ativa&#231;&#227;o da eNOS tem sido descrito como o mais elaborado das tr&#234;s isoformas, refletindo a complexidade do controle fisiol&#243;gico dos diferentes leitos vasculares<sup>17,44</sup>.O mecanismo cl&#225;ssico de ativa&#231;&#227;o das isoformas constitutivas &#233; dependente do c&#225;lcio (Ca<sup>++</sup>), enquanto a iNOS independe da eleva&#231;&#227;o das concentra&#231;&#245;es intracelulares de Ca<sup>++</sup>, por causa da alta afinidade da liga&#231;&#227;o da enzima com a calmodulina<sup>31,39,44</sup>. </p>
    <p>A complexidade dos mecanismos de regula&#231;&#227;o p&#243;s-transcricionais da eNOS tem sido considerada, tanto como consequ&#234;ncia da dimeriza&#231;&#227;o das subunidades da prote&#237;na quanto em fun&#231;&#227;o do papel da prote&#237;na caveolina na forma&#231;&#227;o da estrutura caveolar<sup>45</sup>. A eNOS localiza-se dentro da cav&#233;ola e &#233; mantida em uma estado menos ativo via sua intera&#231;&#227;o com a caveolina-1<sup>26</sup>. Os mecanismos de migra&#231;&#227;o da membrana celular para o complexo de Golgi e as fosforila&#231;&#245;es Akt, PKA e AMPK-quinase dependentes s&#227;o descritos como respons&#225;veis pela ativa&#231;&#227;o dessa isoforma da NOS. Assim, a intera&#231;&#227;o mant&#233;m a eNOS inativa, e a calmodulina atua diretamente, competindo com a caveolina, para promover a ativa&#231;&#227;o c&#225;lcio-dependente da enzima<sup>15</sup>. A atividade da eNOS &#233; bem conhecida no ambiente vascular e &#233; regulada por seis mecanismos ap&#243;s a sua tradu&#231;&#227;o: inclus&#227;o de lip&#237;dios, mecanismo c&#225;lcio/calmodulina dependente, intera&#231;&#245;es diretas prote&#237;na-prote&#237;na, diferentes fosforila&#231;&#245;es s&#237;tio dirigidas, glicosila&#231;&#227;o e disponibilidade de substratos e cofatores. Assim, a eNOS pode interagir com v&#225;rias prote&#237;nas em seus estados "menos ativos" ou "mais ativos". S&#227;o requeridas etapas de N-meristola&#231;&#227;o e palmita&#231;&#227;o da eNOS ligada a plamalema, que, neste estado, encontra-se associada a caveolina-1 e a HSP 90. A prote&#237;na que faz intera&#231;&#227;o com a HSP70, denominada "CHIP", interage com ambas HSP70 e HSP90, e regula negativamente o tr&#225;fico da eNOS para o complexo de Golgi, em contraste com a "NOSIP" e "NOSTRIN" que podem regular negativamente a localiza&#231;&#227;o da eNOS na membrana plasm&#225;tica. O principal mecanismo de ativa&#231;&#227;o da eNOS se d&#225; pela fosforila&#231;&#227;o do amino&#225;cido serina na posi&#231;&#227;o 1177<sup>46</sup> pela enzima Akt-quinase (ou prote&#237;na quinase B), o que aumenta a sensibilidade da eNOS &#224;s concentra&#231;&#245;es basais de Ca<sup>++</sup>/calmodulina<sup>47</sup>. A ativa&#231;&#227;o t&#244;nica ou f&#225;sica da eNOS em resposta ao fluxo sangu&#237;neo &#233; independente das altera&#231;&#245;es na concentra&#231;&#227;o do Ca<sup>++ </sup>e constitui-se do <italic>shear-stress. </italic>Dimmeler e cols.<sup>48</sup> demonstraram que a troca do res&#237;duo de serina<sup>1177/1179 </sup>pelo amino&#225;cido alanina torna a eNOS incapaz de responder &#224; fosforila&#231;&#227;o e ativa&#231;&#227;o pela enzima Akt, uma via dependente de fosfatidilinositol-3 quinase (PI-3K). Embora a fosforila&#231;&#227;o do res&#237;duo de serina<sup>1177</sup> desempenhe um papel preponderante na ativa&#231;&#227;o enzim&#225;tica da eNOS, &#233; sabido que sua regula&#231;&#227;o tamb&#233;m depende do padr&#227;o de fosforila&#231;&#227;o de outros s&#237;tios atualmente bem caracterizados<sup>49</sup>. A fosforila&#231;&#227;o do res&#237;duo de serina<sup>633</sup>, localizado no dom&#237;nio de liga&#231;&#227;o da flavina mononucleot&#237;deo (FMN), tamb&#233;m aumenta a atividade da eNOS e parece ser particularmente importante na manuten&#231;&#227;o da s&#237;ntese de NO ap&#243;s a ativa&#231;&#227;o por Ca<sup>++</sup>/calmodulina e fosforila&#231;&#227;o do res&#237;duo de serina<sup>1177</sup>. Fosforilado pela prote&#237;na quinase C (PKC), o res&#237;duo de treonina<sup>495</sup> interfere com o dom&#237;nio de liga&#231;&#227;o da calmodulina, regulando negativamente a s&#237;ntese do NO.</p>
    <p>Recentes estudos t&#234;m avaliado a capacidade de determinados f&#225;rmacos na redu&#231;&#227;o da disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, como os antioxidantes e bloqueadores do sistema renina-angiotensina, por meio dos mecanismos de ativa&#231;&#227;o da eNOS via fosforila&#231;&#227;o do s&#237;tios espec&#237;ficos como o res&#237;duo de serina<sup>1177</sup>. Essa fosforila&#231;&#227;o pode ser afetada pela localiza&#231;&#227;o subcelular da enzima, tais como cav&#233;ola, jun&#231;&#245;es intercelulares, complexo de Golgi e compartimentos citos&#243;licos, bem como por quinases proteicas e fosfatases associadas a essas estruturas. Recentemente, nosso grupo<sup>50 </sup>demonstrou que o Telmisartan, bloqueador do receptor de angiotensina II, promove redu&#231;&#227;o da disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial por meio da ativa&#231;&#227;o da eNOS via fosforila&#231;&#227;o de s&#237;tios espec&#237;ficos, como o res&#237;duo de serina<sup>1177</sup> e serina<sup>635</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>&#211;xido n&#237;trico, tono vascular e vasodilata&#231;&#227;o muscular</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Ap&#243;s a verifica&#231;&#227;o de que o NO &#233; sintetizado pelas c&#233;lulas endoteliais e que ele participa da regula&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica cardiovascular, o interesse passou a se concentrar na quantifica&#231;&#227;o de sua participa&#231;&#227;o na homeostasia desse sistema. Estudos <italic>in vivo </italic>em indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis demonstraram que a administra&#231;&#227;o intra-arterial de <italic>N</italic><sup>G</sup>-monometil-L-arginina (L-NMMA), um bloqueador inespec&#237;fico da atividade das NOS, reduz o fluxo sangu&#237;neo local entre 25% e 50%<sup>51</sup>. Embora o tono vascular basal seja o produto das for&#231;as constritoras <italic>versus</italic> for&#231;as vasodilatadoras, esses resultados demonstram que o NO &#233;, pelo menos em parte, o modulador do fen&#243;tipo em quest&#227;o. </p>
    <p>Durante condi&#231;&#245;es de estresse mental e exerc&#237;cio, &#233; observado, juntamente com a resposta taquic&#225;rdica e o aumento da press&#227;o arterial, vasodilata&#231;&#227;o em leito muscular esquel&#233;tico como parte das respostas fisiol&#243;gicas de ajuste do organismo. Foi postulado que parte dessa resposta vasodilatadora muscular seria modulada por um componente neural, o que ficou evidente posteriormente pela exist&#234;ncia de fibras simp&#225;ticas colin&#233;rgicas para a musculatura esquel&#233;tica de algumas esp&#233;cies de mam&#237;feros, com exce&#231;&#227;o de primatas e humanos. Verificou-se que a estimula&#231;&#227;o el&#233;trica do nervo simp&#225;tico provocava vasodilata&#231;&#227;o em leito muscular humano quando a libera&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;-sin&#225;ptica de noradrenalina era inibida pela infus&#227;o intra-arterial de f&#225;rmacos. No entanto, essa resposta vasodilatadora mostrou-se atenuada quando um antagonista muscar&#237;nico foi administrado<sup>52,53</sup>. Posteriormente, ficou evidente que o NO constitui-se, pelo menos em parte, como o modulador da resposta vasodilatadora verificada quando fibras simp&#225;ticas colin&#233;rgicas s&#227;o estimuladas<sup>54</sup>. De fato, Blair e cols.<sup>55</sup> j&#225; haviam evidenciado que, em humanos, a vasodilata&#231;&#227;o no antebra&#231;o, durante manobras fisiol&#243;gicas, &#233; mediada por um componente neural. Durante a aplica&#231;&#227;o do estresse mental, o fluxo sangu&#237;neo no membro simpatectomizado n&#227;o se alterava, quando comparado ao fluxo sangu&#237;neo no membro controle. Al&#233;m disso, a infus&#227;o intra-arterial de atropina no membro controle reduzia em aproximadamente 50% o aumento no fluxo sangu&#237;neo. Naquele momento, utilizando-se das evid&#234;ncias indiretas, os autores sugeriram a exist&#234;ncia de inerva&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica colin&#233;rgica para a musculatura esquel&#233;tica de humanos. Mimetizando os experimentos em animais, mais tarde os estudos de Dietz e cols.<sup>56,57</sup> deixaram evidente que parte da resposta vasodilatadora muscular, medida no antebra&#231;o, durante o estresse mental ou o exerc&#237;cio &#233; atenuada com a administra&#231;&#227;o intra-arterial do L-NMMA. Os mecanismos pelos quais a acetilcolina e o NO s&#227;o sintetizados e liberados durante as rea&#231;&#245;es de defesa do organismo n&#227;o est&#227;o completamente elucidados em humanos. As evid&#234;ncias alcan&#231;adas com bloqueios farmacol&#243;gicos permitem apenas sugerir a exist&#234;ncia de fibras simp&#225;ticas colin&#233;rgicas para a musculatura esquel&#233;tica. Decorrente de tais limita&#231;&#245;es, os autores n&#227;o descartam a possibilidade de que a vasodilata&#231;&#227;o seja causada por uma combina&#231;&#227;o entre fatores circulantes e locais. Uma pequena parte das c&#233;lulas endoteliais poderia sintetizar e liberar acetilcolina<sup>58</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, a ativa&#231;&#227;o de receptores &#946;<sub>2</sub>-adren&#233;rgicos localizados no m&#250;sculo liso vascular resultaria no relaxamento desse tecido e, em consequ&#234;ncia, na vasodilata&#231;&#227;o. No entanto, Majmudar e cols.<sup>59</sup> verificaram que parte da vasodilata&#231;&#227;o resultante da ativa&#231;&#227;o dos &#946;<sub>2</sub>-adrenoceptores &#233; mediada pelo NO. Embora os autores n&#227;o expliquem o mecanismo respons&#225;vel por esse fen&#244;meno, aproximadamente 25% da vasodilata&#231;&#227;o observada no antebra&#231;o com a infus&#227;o de Ritodrine (agonista seletivo &#946;<sub>2</sub>-adren&#233;rgico) foi atenuada com a coinfus&#227;o de L-NMMA. Esses resultados sugerem a exist&#234;ncia dos &#946;<sub>2</sub>-adrenoceptores no endot&#233;lio vascular, contribuindo para o aumento da atividade da eNOS. Al&#233;m disso, o aumento da estimula&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica do endot&#233;lio vascular resultaria em s&#237;ntese aumentada de NO, via PI-3K-Akt quinase, com subsequente fosforila&#231;&#227;o do res&#237;duo de serina<sup>1177</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Polimorfismos da eNOS e estudos funcionais da variante G894T</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Genotipada e sequenciada em 1993 por Marsden e cols.<sup>38</sup> (GenBank D26607), a eNOS est&#225; localizada no cromossomo 7q35-36, e varia&#231;&#245;es em sua sequ&#234;ncia t&#234;m sido descritas na regi&#227;o promotora, &#233;xons e &#237;ntrons<sup>27</sup>. O gene (21-22 kbp) compreende 26 &#233;xons e 25 &#237;ntrons com 133 kDa. A sequ&#234;ncia polipept&#237;dica gerada cont&#233;m 1.203 amino&#225;cidos<sup>38</sup>. J&#225; est&#225; descrita na literatura a exist&#234;ncia de tr&#234;s polimorfismos de um &#250;nico nucleot&#237;deo (SNP) na regi&#227;o promotora, em localiza&#231;&#245;es de n&#227;o liga&#231;&#227;o de fatores de transcri&#231;&#227;o<sup>39</sup>. Nos &#237;ntrons 2, 11, 12, 18, 22 e 23, foram encontrados SNP<sup>60</sup> e polimorfismos de sequ&#234;ncias repetidas nos &#237;ntrons 2, 4, 8 e 13<sup>38,61</sup>. Dos polimorfismos encontrados nos &#233;xons 6 e 7, a substitui&#231;&#227;o da base nitrogenada guanina por timina (G<inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/p7h4BLBCJCDwwfmxJJyw5dc/074092122cd41dc6a72c044996c60747cb67352c.jpg"/>T), na posi&#231;&#227;o 894 localizada no &#233;xon 7, resulta na substitui&#231;&#227;o do amino&#225;cido glutamato (GAG) por aspartato (GAT) na posi&#231;&#227;o 298 da sequ&#234;ncia polipept&#237;dica<sup>62</sup>. Sugere-se que os polimorfismos localizados na regi&#227;o promotora do gene desempenham influ&#234;ncia na transcri&#231;&#227;o do RNAm, enquanto os polimorfismos localizados em regi&#245;es codificadoras podem resultar em altera&#231;&#227;o de atividade enzim&#225;tica<sup>63</sup>. </p>
    <p>O res&#237;duo 298 est&#225; localizado externamente no dom&#237;nio oxidase da enzima, s&#237;tios de liga&#231;&#227;o para L-arginina ou BH<sub>4</sub>. Estudos enzim&#225;ticos que utilizaram eNOS recombinante mostraram n&#227;o haver diferen&#231;a na constante de Michaelis (<italic>k</italic><sub>m</sub>) nem na <italic>V</italic><sub>m&#225;x.</sub> entre as duas formas da enzima<sup>63</sup>. Embora a atividade enzim&#225;tica pare&#231;a n&#227;o ser afetada pela forma Asp<sup>298</sup> da enzima, Tesauro e cols.<sup>64</sup> mostraram que essa variante apresenta maior suscetibilidade &#224; clivagem proteol&#237;tica em fragmentos de 100 e 35 KDa, precisamente na posi&#231;&#227;o Asp<sup>298</sup>-Pro<sup>299</sup>, quando comparada &#224; variante Glu<sup>298</sup>. No entanto, Fairchild e cols.<sup>65</sup> demonstraram que tal suscetibilidade proteol&#237;tica ocorria por causa de um artefato da prepara&#231;&#227;o do experimento. A inconsist&#234;ncia desses resultados n&#227;o exclui a possibilidade de que, <italic>in vivo, </italic>um desconhecido mecanismo proteol&#237;tico, ou at&#233; mesmo uma altera&#231;&#227;o na regula&#231;&#227;o p&#243;s-transcricional, possa estar sendo modulado pela variante Asp<sup>298</sup> da enzima. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Associa&#231;&#227;o da variante G894T do gene da eNOS com fen&#243;tipos cardiovasculares</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Diversas doen&#231;as t&#234;m sido associadas a anormalidades na bioss&#237;ntese do NO, e muitas dessas condi&#231;&#245;es est&#227;o relacionadas &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica. Estudos em gen&#233;tica populacional t&#234;m demonstrado importante associa&#231;&#227;o do polimorfismo G894T do gene da eNOS com doen&#231;a arterial coronariana (DAC)<sup>66-68</sup> e tamb&#233;m com o espasmo coronariano induzido por acetilcolina (Ach)<sup>69</sup>. Entre as disfun&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares, foi ainda verificado que a variante G894T encontra-se associada &#224; hipertens&#227;o arterial<sup>70,71</sup>, embora essa associa&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o tenha sido verificada em outras popula&#231;&#245;es<sup>72,73</sup>.</p>
    <p>A correla&#231;&#227;o entre gen&#243;tipo e fen&#243;tipo cl&#237;nico varia quantitativa e qualitativamente, e a inconsistente associa&#231;&#227;o entre o polimorfismo da eNOS e v&#225;rios fen&#243;tipos cl&#237;nicos &#233; um fen&#244;meno frequentemente observado em outros genes associados a fen&#243;tipos<sup>27</sup>. Essa inconsist&#234;ncia tem sido atribu&#237;da a fatores ambientais, alelos independentes, intera&#231;&#227;o entre genes e variabilidades em fen&#243;tipos cl&#237;nicos. A import&#226;ncia dos fatores ambientais na g&#234;nese de doen&#231;as reflete-se nas diferen&#231;as de morbidade e mortalidade entre grupos geneticamente homog&#234;neos, por&#233;m com estilos de vida diferentes.</p>
    <p>Uma varia&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica pode n&#227;o ser relevante a uma determinada popula&#231;&#227;o, refletindo diferen&#231;as na frequ&#234;ncia da distribui&#231;&#227;o dos alelos. Um exemplo disso &#233; a frequ&#234;ncia do alelo 894T que &#233; significativamente maior em popula&#231;&#245;es brancas quando comparado &#224; popula&#231;&#227;o japonesa<sup>23</sup>. A inconsistente associa&#231;&#227;o entre o polimorfismo da eNOS e as altera&#231;&#245;es vasculares ainda tem sido atribu&#237;da &#224; varia&#231;&#227;o na distribui&#231;&#227;o da eNOS em diferentes &#243;rg&#227;os. Art&#233;rias de &#243;rg&#227;os espec&#237;ficos s&#227;o sujeitas a diferentes press&#245;es hemodin&#226;micas, determinando a resposta da parede do vaso e o consequente grau de disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial<sup>27</sup>.</p>
    <p>Philip e cols.<sup>62</sup> observaram, em pacientes submetidos &#224; cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o, que a reatividade vascular &#224; infus&#227;o de fenilefrina (PE) &#233; influenciada pela variante G894T do gene da eNOS. A resposta vasoconstritora dose-dependente &#224; PE foi significativamente maior para os alelos TT e GT, quando comparada ao grupo homozigoto GG, indicando que a reatividade vascular &#224;s drogas vasoconstritoras pode ser influenciada pelo polimorfismo da eNOS em humanos. A maior resposta dose-dependente dos pacientes com a variante 894T sugere uma reduzida bioss&#237;ntese do NO. A administra&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica de <italic>N</italic><sup>G</sup>-nitro-<sub>L-</sub>arginina metil ester (L-NAME) provoca hipertens&#227;o em humanos<sup>74,75</sup>. Segundo Frandsenn e cols.<sup>76</sup>, a administra&#231;&#227;o de 4 mg/kg de L-NAME em humanos reduz em 67% a atividade da eNOS. A poss&#237;vel biodisponibilidade reduzida do NO, em consequ&#234;ncia das varia&#231;&#245;es no gene da eNOS, &#233; um importante candidata para a suscetibilidade ao desenvolvimento da disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial<sup>62,63</sup> e &#224; altera&#231;&#227;o da modula&#231;&#227;o da atividade nervosa simp&#225;tica sobre o vaso<sup>77</sup>. </p>
    <p>As pesquisas que demonstraram associa&#231;&#227;o da variante G894T do gene da eNOS com fen&#243;tipos cardiovasculares apontam para uma poss&#237;vel redu&#231;&#227;o da biodisponibilidade do NO, sugerindo que a eNOS transcrita do alelo mutante apresenta atividade enzim&#225;tica alterada. A falta de evid&#234;ncias sobre este racional nos incentivou a testar a funcionalidade da variante gen&#233;tica no fen&#243;tipo de vasodilata&#231;&#227;o muscular<sup>78</sup>. Se a variante G894T do gene da eNOS fosse capaz de diminuir a atividade enzim&#225;tica, indiv&#237;duos portadores do alelo mutante (T) apresentariam menor aumento do fluxo sangu&#237;neo muscular em resposta ao exerc&#237;cio isom&#233;trico de <italic>handgrip</italic>. Para testar tal hip&#243;tese, 287 indiv&#237;duos foram genotipados, e, dentre eles, selecionaram-se 33 saud&#225;veis para representar tr&#234;s gen&#243;tipos: GG (<italic>wild-type</italic>), GT e TT. Como resultado, a atenuada vasodilata&#231;&#227;o muscular reflexa ao exerc&#237;cio ocorreu apenas no gen&#243;tipo TT, uma vez que a vasodilata&#231;&#227;o entre os heterozigotos (gen&#243;tipo GT) foi similar &#224;quela observada entre os indiv&#237;duos homozigotos para o alelo G (gen&#243;tipo GG). Esses resultados sugerem que a presen&#231;a do alelo G &#233; o suficiente para superar a poss&#237;vel defici&#234;ncia do alelo T. An&#225;lises subsequentes <italic>in vivo</italic> comprovaram que a atenuada vasodilata&#231;&#227;o muscular observada no gen&#243;tipo TT &#233; consequ&#234;ncia da reduzida vasodilata&#231;&#227;o mediada pela eNOS, uma vez que a infus&#227;o intra-arterial de L-NMMA n&#227;o alterou a resposta vasodilatadora ao exerc&#237;cio nesse gen&#243;tipo. Em contraste, o L-NMMA reduziu de forma significativa a resposta vasodilatadora ao exerc&#237;cio no gen&#243;tipo GG, para valores similares aos do gen&#243;tipo TT. Al&#233;m disso, nosso estudo demonstrou que a atenuada vasodilata&#231;&#227;o muscular observada no gen&#243;tipo TT n&#227;o pode ser creditada a um poss&#237;vel t&#244;nus simp&#225;tico vasoconstritor aumentado. De fato, a atividade nervosa simp&#225;tica muscular, medida diretamente no nervo fibular pela t&#233;cnica de microneurografia, aumentou de forma semelhante entre os gen&#243;tipos durante o exerc&#237;cio. Embora esses resultados n&#227;o confirmem a funcionalidade do alelo T na altera&#231;&#227;o da atividade enzim&#225;tica (essa variante pode estar em desequil&#237;brio de liga&#231;&#227;o com outra variante funcional no mesmo gene ou em um gene pr&#243;ximo no mesmo cromossomo), podem ser utilizados como um marcador da disfun&#231;&#227;o observada do fen&#243;tipo de vasodilata&#231;&#227;o muscular. Esta &#233; a primeira demonstra&#231;&#227;o de que a variante G894T do gene da eNOS est&#225; funcionalmente associado &#224; reduzida vasodilata&#231;&#227;o mediada pela eNOS. Al&#233;m disso, tais resultados sugerem que a reduzida vasodilata&#231;&#227;o endot&#233;lio-dependente possa antecipar uma disfun&#231;&#227;o vascular em indiv&#237;duos portadores do gen&#243;tipo TT.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Conclus&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A verifica&#231;&#227;o de que as sintases de NO s&#227;o constitutivamente expressas (eNOS e nNOS) e que o NO desempenha importante fun&#231;&#227;o na regula&#231;&#227;o das atividades cardiovasculares aumentou o interesse pelo entendimento dos mecanismos celulares e moleculares que regem sua funcionalidade. Embora esses mecanismos sejam complexos e de dif&#237;cil acesso, uma parcela deles j&#225; foi elucidada, permitindo parcial compreens&#227;o da biologia do NO. Nesse contexto, os avan&#231;os nas t&#233;cnicas de biologia molecular possibilitaram a identifica&#231;&#227;o de variantes no c&#243;digo gen&#233;tico humano que pudessem explicar, pelo menos em parte, a varia&#231;&#227;o de resposta fenot&#237;pica entre indiv&#237;duos. Os estudos de associa&#231;&#227;o em gen&#233;tica n&#227;o s&#227;o f&#225;ceis de compreender. Um &#250;nico gene pode desempenhar de m&#233;dia a moderada participa&#231;&#227;o na regula&#231;&#227;o de um fen&#243;tipo multig&#234;nico, e, nessa situa&#231;&#227;o, uma determinada variante gen&#233;tica funcional nesse gene poderia explicar apenas uma pequena parcela da varia&#231;&#227;o de resposta do fen&#243;tipo. O rastreamento de genes candidatos, ou seja, a identifica&#231;&#227;o de m&#250;ltiplos genes e seus respectivos polimorfismos desencadeantes de varia&#231;&#245;es na fun&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular, caminha para o momento em que parte do diagn&#243;stico e da conduta adotados para o tratamento ser&#225; baseada na medicina gen&#244;mica. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O presente estudo foi financiado pela FAPESP.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de tese de Doutorado de Rodrigo Gon&#231;alves Dias pela Universidade Estadual de Campinas e Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o - InCor (HCFMUSP) de S&#227;o Paulo.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Refer&#234;ncias</bold>
    </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">1. Furchgott RF, Zawadzki JV. The obligatory role of endothelial cells in the relaxation of arterial smooth muscle by acetylcholine. Nature. 1980; 288: 373-6. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">2. Ignarro LJ, Buga GM, Wood KS, Byrns RE, Chaudhuri G. Endothelium-derived relaxing factor produced and released from artery and vein is nitric oxide. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1987; 84: 9265-9. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">3. Vila E, Salaices M. Cytokines and vascular reactivity in resistance arteries. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2005; 288: H1016-21. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">4. Moncada S, Palmer RM, Higgs EA. The biological significance of nitric oxide formation from L-arginine. Biochem Soc Trans. 1989; 17: 642-4. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">5. Kojda G, Harrison D. Interactions between NO and reactive oxygen species: pathophysiological importance in atherosclerosis, hypertension, diabetes and heart failure. Cardiovasc Res. 1999; 43: 562-71. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">6. Palmer RM, Ferrige AG, Moncada S. Nitric oxide release accounts for the biological activity of endothelium-derived relaxing factor. Nature. 1987; 327: 524-6. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">7. F&#246;rstermann U. Janus-faced role of endothelial NO synthase in vascular disease: uncoupling of oxygen reduction from NO synthesis and its pharmacological reversal. Biol Chem. 2006; 387 (12): 1521-33. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">8. Ludmer PL, Selwyn AP, Shook TL, Wayne RR, Mudge GH, Alexander RW, et al. Paradoxical vasoconstriction induced by acetylcholine in atherosclerotic coronary arteries. N Engl J Med. 1986; 315: 1046-51. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">9. Verma S, Buchanan MR, Anderson TJ. Endothelial function testing as a biomarker of vascular disease. Circulation. 2003; 108: 2054-9. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">10. Pepine CJ The impact of nitric oxide in cardiovascular medicine: untapped potential utility.Am J Med. 2009; 122 (5 Suppl): S10-5. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">11. Madamanchi NR, Vendrov A, Runge MS. Oxidative stress and vascular disease.Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2005; 25: 29-38. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">12. Cai H. NAD(P)H oxidase-dependent self-propagation of hydrogen peroxide and vascular disease. Circ Res. 2005; 96: 818-22. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">13. Gao L, Mann GE.Vascular NAD(P)H oxidase activation in diabetes: a double-edged sword in redox signalling.Cardiovasc Res. 2009; 82 (1): 9-20.  </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">14. De Gennaro Colonna V, Bianchi M, Pascale V, Ferrario P, Morelli F, Pascale W, et al. Asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA): an endogenous inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase and a novel cardiovascular risk molecule. Med Sci Monit. 2009; 15 (4): RA91-101. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">15. Sessa WC. eNOS at a glance. J Cell Sci. 2004; 117: 2427-9. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">16. Marletta MA. Nitric oxide synthase: aspects concerning structure and catalysis. Cell. 1994; 78: 927-30. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">17. Govers R, Rabelink TJ. Cellular regulation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2001; 280: F193-206. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">18. Stuehr DJ. Structure-function aspects in the nitric oxide synthases. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 1997; 37: 339-59. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">19. Ferreiro CR, Chagas AC, Carvalho MH, Dantas AP, Scavone C, Souza LC, et al. Expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase is increased in patients with heart failure due to ischemic disease. Braz J Med Biol Res. 2004; 37: 1313-20. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">20. Andrew PJ, Mayer B. Enzymatic function of nitric oxide synthases. Cardiovasc Res. 1999; 43: 521-31. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">21. Alderton WK, Cooper CE, Knowles RG. Nitric oxide synthases: structure, function and inhibition. Biochem J. 2001; 357: 593-615. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">22. Shaul PW, Anderson RG. Role of plasmalemmal caveolae in signal transduction. Am J Physiol. 1998; 275: L843-51. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">23. Wang XL, Sim AS, Wang MX, Murrell GA, Trudinger B, Wang J. Genotype dependent and cigarette specific effects on endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene expression and enzyme activity. FEBS Lett. 2000; 471: 45-50. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">24. Garcia-Cardena G, Martasek P, Masters BS, Skidd PM, Couet J, Li S, et al. Dissecting the interaction between nitric oxide synthase (NOS) and caveolin: functional significance of the nos caveolin binding domain in vivo. J Biol Chem. 1997; 272: 25437-40. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">25. Razani B, Lisanti MP. Caveolin-deficient mice: insights into caveolar function human disease. J Clin Invest. 2001; 108: 1553-61. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">26. Bucci M, Gratton JP, Rudic RD, Acevedo L, Roviezzo F, Cirino G, et al. In vivo delivery of the caveolin-1 scaffolding domain inhibits nitric oxide synthesis and reduces inflammation. Nat Med. 2000; 6: 1362-7. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">27. Wang XL, Wang J. Endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene sequence variations and vascular disease. Mol Genet Metab. 2000; 70: 241-51. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">28. Albrecht EW, Stegeman CA, Heeringa P, Henning RH, van Goor H. Protective role of endothelial nitric oxide synthase. J Pathol. 2003; 199: 8-17. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">29. Griffith OW, Stuehr DJ. Nitric oxide synthases: properties and catalytic mechanism. Annu Rev Physiol. 1995; 57: 707-36. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">30. Korth HG, Sustmann R, Thater C, Butler AR, Ingold KU. On the mechanism of the nitric oxide synthase-catalyzed conversion of N omega-hydroxyl-L-arginine to citrulline and nitric oxide. J Biol Chem. 1994; 269: 17776-9. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">31. Harrison DG. Cellular and molecular mechanisms of endothelial cell dysfunction. J Clin Invest. 1997; 100: 2153-7. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">32. Vasquez-Vivar J, Kalyanaraman B, Martasek P, Hogg N, Masters BS, Karoui H, et al. Superoxide generation by endothelial nitric oxide synthase: the influence of cofactors. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1998; 95: 9220-5. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">33. Cai H, Harrison DG. Endothelial dysfunction in cardiovascular diseases: the role of oxidant stress. Circ Res. 2000; 87: 840-4. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">34. Klatt P, Pfeiffer S, List BM, Lehner D, Glatter O, Bachinger HP, et al. Characterization of heme-deficient neuronal nitric-oxide synthase reveals a role for heme in subunit dimerization and binding of the amino acid substrate and tetrahydrobiopterin. J Biol Chem. 1996; 271: 7336-42. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">35. Mayer B, John M, Heinzel B, Werner ER, Wachter H, Schultz G, et al. Brain nitric oxide synthase is a biopterin- and flavin-containing multi-functional oxido-reductase. FEBS Lett. 1991; 288: 187-91. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">36. Beckman JS, Koppenol WH. Nitric oxide, superoxide, and peroxynitrite: the good, the bad, and ugly. Am J Physiol. 1996; 271: C1424-37. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">37. Searles CD. Transcriptional and posttranscriptional regulation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase expression. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2006; 291: C803-16. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">38. Marsden PA, Heng HH, Scherer SW, Stewart RJ, Hall AV, Shi XM, et al. Structure and chromosomal localization of the human constitutive endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene. J Biol Chem. 1993; 268: 17478-88. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">39. Karantzoulis-Fegaras F, Antoniou H, Lai SL, Kulkarni G, D'Abreo C, Wong GK, et al. Characterization of the human endothelial nitric-oxide synthase promoter. J Biol Chem. 1999; 274: 3076-93. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">40. Malek AM, Jiang L, Lee I, Sessa WC, Izumo S, Alper SL. Induction of nitric oxide synthase mRNA by shear stress requires intracellular calcium and G-protein signals and is modulated by PI 3 kinase. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1999; 254: 231-42. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">41. Silacci P, Formentin K, Bouzourene K, Daniel F, Brunner HR, Hayoz D. Unidirectional and oscillatory shear stress differentially modulate NOS III gene expression. Nitric Oxide. 2000;4:47-56. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">42. Davis ME, Grumbach IM, Fukai T, Cutchins A, Harrison DG. Shear stress regulates endothelial nitric-oxide synthase promoter activity through nuclear factor kappaB binding. J Biol Chem. 2004; 279: 163-8. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">43. Davis ME, Cai H, Drummond GR, Harrison DG. Shear stress regulates endothelial nitric oxide synthase expression through c-Src by divergent signaling pathways. Circ Res. 2001; 89: 1073-80. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">44. Michel T, Feron O. Nitric oxide synthases: which, where, how, and why? J Clin Invest. 1997; 100: 2146-52. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">45. Zhang Q, Church JE, Jagnandan D, Catravas JD, Sessa WC, Fulton D. Functional relevance of Golgi- and plasma membrane-localized endothelial NO synthase in reconstituted endothelial cells. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2006; 26: 1015-21. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">46. Boo YC, Kim HJ, Song H, Fulton D, Sessa W. Coordinated regulation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase activity by phosphorylation and subcellular localization. Free Radic Biol Med. 2006; 41 (1): 144-53. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">47. Fulton D, Gratton JP, McCabe TJ, Fontana J, Fujio Y, Walsh K, et al. Regulation of endothelium-derived nitric oxide production by the protein kinase Akt. Nature. 1999; 399: 597-601. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">48. Dimmeler S, Fleming I, Fisslthaler B, Hermann C, Busse R, Zeiher AM. Activation of nitric oxide synthase in endothelial cells by Akt-dependent phosphorylation. Nature. 1999; 399: 601-5. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">49. Mount PF, Kemp BE, Power DA. Regulation of endothelial and myocardial NO synthesis by multi-site eNOS phosphorylation. J Mol Cell Cardiol. 2007; 42: 271-9. </p>
    <p>50. Krieger MH, Di Lorenzo A, Sessa W. Telmisartan reverts endothelial</p>
    <p>dysfunction. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2009. In press.</p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">51. Joyner MJ, Dietz NM. Nitric oxide and vasodilation in human limbs. J Appl Physiol. 1997; 83: 1785-96. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">52. Abrahams VC, Hilton SM. The role of active muscle vasodilatation in the alerting stage of the defence reaction. J Physiol. 1964; 171: 189-202. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">53. Bolme P, Fuxe K. Adrenergic and cholinergic nerve terminals in skeletal muscle vessels. Acta Physiol Scand. 1970; 78: 52-9. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">54. Matsukawa K, Shindo T, Shirai M, Ninomiya I. Nitric oxide mediates cat hindlimb cholinergic vasodilation induced by stimulation of posterior hypothalamus. Jpn J Physiol. 1993; 43: 473-83. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">55. Blair DA, Glover WE, Greenfield AD, Roddie IC. Excitation of cholinergic vasodilator nerves to human skeletal muscles during emotional stress. J Physiol. 1959; 148: 633-47. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">56. Dietz NM, Rivera JM, Warner DO, Joyner MJ. Is nitric oxide involved in cutaneous vasodilation during body heating in humans? J Appl Physiol. 1994; 76: 2047-53. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">57. Dietz NM, Engelke KA, Samuel TT, Fix RT, Joyner MJ. Evidence for nitric oxide-mediated sympathetic forearm vasodiolatation in humans. J Physiol. 1997; 498 (Pt 2): 531-40. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">58. Milner P, Kirkpatrick KA, Ralevic V, Toothill V, Pearson J, Burnstock G. Endothelial cells cultured from human umbilical vein release ATP, substance P and acetylcholine in response to increased flow. Proc Biol Sci. 1990; 241: 245-8. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">59. Majmudar NG, Anumba D, Robson SC, Ford GA. Contribution of nitric oxide to beta2-adrenoceptor mediated vasodilatation in human forearm arterial vasculature. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1999; 47: 173-7. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">60. Poirier O, Mao C, Mallet C, Nicaud V, Herrmann SM, Evans A, et al. Polymorphisms of the endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene - no consistent association with myocardial infarction in the ECTIM study. Eur J Clin Invest. 1999; 29: 284-90. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">61. Miyahara K, Kawamoto T, Sase K, Yui Y, Toda K, Yang LX, et al. Cloning and structural characterization of the human endothelial nitric-oxide-synthase gene. Eur J Biochem. 1994; 223: 719-26. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">62. Philip I, Plantefeve G, Vuillaumier-Barrot S, Vicaut E, LeMarie C, Henrion D, et al. G894T polymorphism in the endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene is associated with an enhanced vascular responsiveness to phenylephrine. Circulation. 1999; 99: 3096-8. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">63. Hingorani AD. Polymorphisms in endothelial nitric oxide synthase and atherogenesis: John French Lecture 2000. Atherosclerosis. 2001; 154: 521-7. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">64. Tesauro M, Thompson WC, Rogliani P, Qi L, Chaudhary PP, Moss J. Intracellular processing of endothelial nitric oxide synthase isoforms associated with differences in severity of cardiopulmonary diseases: cleavage of proteins with aspartate vs. glutamate at position 298. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2000; 97: 2832-5. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">65. Fairchild TA, Fulton D, Fontana JT, Gratton JP, McCabe TJ, Sessa WC. Acidic hydrolysis as a mechanism for the cleavage of the Glu(298)--&gt;Asp variant of human endothelial nitric-oxide synthase. J Biol Chem. 2001; 276: 26674-9. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">66. Hingorani AD, Liang CF, Fatibene J, Lyon A, Monteith S, Parsons A, et al.. A common variant of the endothelial nitric oxide synthase (Glu298--&gt;Asp) is a major risk factor for coronary artery disease in the UK. Circulation. 1999; 100: 1515-20. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">67. Hibi K, Ishigami T, Tamura K, Mizushima S, Nyui N, Fujita T, et al. Endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene polymorphism and acute myocardial infarction. Hypertension. 1998; 32: 521-6. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">68. Shimasaki Y, Yasue H, Yoshimura M, Nakayama M, Kugiyama K, Ogawa H, et al. Association of the missense Glu298Asp variant of the endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene with myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1998; 31: 1506-10. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">69. Yoshimura M, Yasue H, Nakayama M, Shimasaki Y, Sumida H, Sugiyama S, et al. A missense Glu298Asp variant in the endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene is associated with coronary spasm in the Japanese. Hum Genet. 1998; 103: 65-9. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">70. Miyamoto Y, Saito Y, Kajiyama N, Yoshimura M, Shimasaki Y, Nakayama M, et al. Endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene is positively associated with essential hypertension. Hypertension. 1998; 32: 3-8. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">71. Lacolley P, Gautier S, Poirier O, Pannier B, Cambien F, Benetos A. Nitric oxide synthase gene polymorphisms, blood pressure and aortic stiffness in normotensive and hypertensive subjects. J Hypertens. 1998; 16: 31-5. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">72. Kato N, Sugiyama T, Morita H, Nabika T, Kurihara H, Yamori Y, et al. Lack of evidence for association between the endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene and hypertension. Hypertension. 1999; 33: 933-6. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">73. Benjafield AV, Morris BJ. Association analyses of endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene polymorphisms in essential hypertension. Am J Hypertens. 2000; 13: 994-8. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">74. Vallance P, Collier J, Moncada S. Effects of endothelium-derived nitric oxide on peripheral arteriolar tone in man. Lancet. 1989; 2: 997-1000. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">75. Haynes WG, Noon JP, Walker BR, Webb DJ. Inhibition of nitric oxide synthesis increases blood pressure in healthy humans. J Hypertens. 1993; 11: 1375-80. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">76. Frandsenn U, Bangsbo J, Sander M, Hoffner L, Betak A, Saltin B, et al. Exercise-induced hyperaemia and leg oxygen uptake are not altered during effective inhibition of nitric oxide synthase with N(G)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester in humans. J Physiol. 2001; 531: 257-64. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">77. Fabi F, Argiolas L, Chiavarelli M, Del Basso P. Nitric oxide-dependent and -independent modulation of sympathetic vasoconstriction in the human saphenous vein. Eur J Pharmacol. 1996; 309: 41-50. </p>
    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">78. Dias RG, Alves MJ, Pereira AC, Rondon MU, Dos Santos MR, Krieger JE, et al. Glu298Asp eNOS gene polymorphism causes attenuation in non-exercising muscle vasodilatation. Physiol Genomics. 2009; 37 (2): 99-107. </p>
    <p>
      <fn id="nota1" fn-type="corresp">
        <label>
          <bold>Correspond&#234;ncia:</bold>
        </label>
        <p> Rodrigo Gon&#231;alves Dias </p>
        <p> Unidade de Hipertens&#227;o - Laborat&#243;rio de Gen&#233;tica e Cardiologia Molecular </p>
        <p> Av. Dr. En&#233;as de Carvalho Aguiar, 44 (2&#186; andar; Bloco II) - Cerqueira C&#233;sar </p>
        <p> 05403-000 - S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="diasrg99@yahoo.com.br">diasrg99@yahoo.com.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Artigo recebido em 12/02/09; revisado recebido em 26/06/09; aceito em 14/08/09.</p>
  </body>
  <back>
    <ref-list>
      <ref id="B1">
        <mixed-citation>1. Furchgott RF, Zawadzki JV. The obligatory role of endothelial cells in the relaxation of arterial smooth muscle by acetylcholine. Nature. 1980; 288: 373-6.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>The obligatory role of endothelial cells in the relaxation of arterial smooth muscle by acetylcholine</article-title>
          <source>Nature</source>
          <date>
            <year>1980</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>373</fpage>
          <lpage>6</lpage>
          <volume>288</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Furchgott</surname>
              <given-names>RF</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Zawadzki</surname>
              <given-names>JV</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B2">
        <mixed-citation>2. Ignarro LJ, Buga GM, Wood KS, Byrns RE, Chaudhuri G. Endothelium-derived relaxing factor produced and released from artery and vein is nitric oxide. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1987; 84: 9265-9.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Endothelium-derived relaxing factor produced and released from artery and vein is nitric oxide</article-title>
          <source>Proc Natl Acad Sci USA</source>
          <date>
            <year>1987</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>9265</fpage>
          <lpage>9</lpage>
          <volume>84</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Ignarro</surname>
              <given-names>LJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Buga</surname>
              <given-names>GM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Wood</surname>
              <given-names>KS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Byrns</surname>
              <given-names>RE</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Chaudhuri</surname>
              <given-names>G</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B3">
        <mixed-citation>3. Vila E, Salaices M. Cytokines and vascular reactivity in resistance arteries. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2005; 288: H1016-21.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Cytokines and vascular reactivity in resistance arteries</article-title>
          <source>Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2005</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>H1016</fpage>
          <lpage>21</lpage>
          <volume>288</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Vila</surname>
              <given-names>E</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Salaices</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B4">
        <mixed-citation>4. Moncada S, Palmer RM, Higgs EA. The biological significance of nitric oxide formation from L-arginine. Biochem Soc Trans. 1989; 17: 642-4.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>The biological significance of nitric oxide formation from L-arginine</article-title>
          <source>Biochem Soc Trans</source>
          <date>
            <year>1989</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>642</fpage>
          <lpage>4</lpage>
          <volume>17</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Moncada</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Palmer</surname>
              <given-names>RM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Higgs</surname>
              <given-names>EA</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B5">
        <mixed-citation>5. Kojda G, Harrison D. Interactions between NO and reactive oxygen species: pathophysiological importance in atherosclerosis, hypertension, diabetes and heart failure. Cardiovasc Res. 1999; 43: 562-71.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Interactions between NO and reactive oxygen species: pathophysiological importance in atherosclerosis, hypertension, diabetes and heart failure</article-title>
          <source>Cardiovasc Res</source>
          <date>
            <year>1999</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>562</fpage>
          <lpage>71</lpage>
          <volume>43</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Kojda</surname>
              <given-names>G</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Harrison</surname>
              <given-names>D</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B6">
        <mixed-citation>6. Palmer RM, Ferrige AG, Moncada S. Nitric oxide release accounts for the biological activity of endothelium-derived relaxing factor. Nature. 1987; 327: 524-6.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Nitric oxide release accounts for the biological activity of endothelium-derived relaxing factor</article-title>
          <source>Nature</source>
          <date>
            <year>1987</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>524</fpage>
          <lpage>6</lpage>
          <volume>327</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Palmer</surname>
              <given-names>RM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ferrige</surname>
              <given-names>AG</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Moncada</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B7">
        <mixed-citation>7. F&#246;rstermann U. Janus-faced role of endothelial NO synthase in vascular disease: uncoupling of oxygen reduction from NO synthesis and its pharmacological reversal. Biol Chem. 2006; 387 (12): 1521-33.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Janus-faced role of endothelial NO synthase in vascular disease: uncoupling of oxygen reduction from NO synthesis and its pharmacological reversal</article-title>
          <source>Biol Chem</source>
          <date>
            <year>2006</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1521</fpage>
          <lpage>33</lpage>
          <issue>12</issue>
          <volume>387</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>F&#246;rstermann</surname>
              <given-names>U</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B8">
        <mixed-citation>8. Ludmer PL, Selwyn AP, Shook TL, Wayne RR, Mudge GH, Alexander RW, et al. Paradoxical vasoconstriction induced by acetylcholine in atherosclerotic coronary arteries. N Engl J Med. 1986; 315: 1046-51.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Paradoxical vasoconstriction induced by acetylcholine in atherosclerotic coronary arteries</article-title>
          <source>N Engl J Med</source>
          <date>
            <year>1986</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1046</fpage>
          <lpage>51</lpage>
          <volume>315</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Ludmer</surname>
              <given-names>PL</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Selwyn</surname>
              <given-names>AP</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Shook</surname>
              <given-names>TL</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Wayne</surname>
              <given-names>RR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Mudge</surname>
              <given-names>GH</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Alexander</surname>
              <given-names>RW</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B9">
        <mixed-citation>9. Verma S, Buchanan MR, Anderson TJ. Endothelial function testing as a biomarker of vascular disease. Circulation. 2003; 108: 2054-9.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Endothelial function testing as a biomarker of vascular disease</article-title>
          <source>Circulation</source>
          <date>
            <year>2003</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>2054</fpage>
          <lpage>9</lpage>
          <volume>108</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Verma</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Buchanan</surname>
              <given-names>MR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Anderson</surname>
              <given-names>TJ</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B10">
        <mixed-citation>10. Pepine CJ The impact of nitric oxide in cardiovascular medicine: untapped potential utility.Am J Med. 2009; 122 (5 Suppl): S10-5.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Pepine CJ The impact of nitric oxide in cardiovascular medicine: untapped potential utility</article-title>
          <source>Am J Med</source>
          <date>
            <year>2009</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>S10</fpage>
          <lpage>5</lpage>
          <volume>122</volume>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B11">
        <mixed-citation>11. Madamanchi NR, Vendrov A, Runge MS. Oxidative stress and vascular disease.Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2005; 25: 29-38.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Oxidative stress and vascular disease</article-title>
          <source>Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2005</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>29</fpage>
          <lpage>38</lpage>
          <volume>25</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Madamanchi</surname>
              <given-names>NR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Vendrov</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Runge</surname>
              <given-names>MS</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B12">
        <mixed-citation>12. Cai H. NAD(P)H oxidase-dependent self-propagation of hydrogen peroxide and vascular disease. Circ Res. 2005; 96: 818-22.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>NAD(P)H oxidase-dependent self-propagation of hydrogen peroxide and vascular disease</article-title>
          <source>Circ Res</source>
          <date>
            <year>2005</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>818</fpage>
          <lpage>22</lpage>
          <volume>96</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Cai</surname>
              <given-names>H</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B13">
        <mixed-citation>13. Gao L, Mann GE.Vascular NAD(P)H oxidase activation in diabetes: a double-edged sword in redox signalling.Cardiovasc Res. 2009; 82 (1): 9-20.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Vascular NAD(P)H oxidase activation in diabetes: a double-edged sword in redox signalling</article-title>
          <source>Cardiovasc Res</source>
          <date>
            <year>2009</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>9</fpage>
          <lpage>20</lpage>
          <issue>1</issue>
          <volume>82</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Gao</surname>
              <given-names>L</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Mann</surname>
              <given-names>GE</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B14">
        <mixed-citation>14. De Gennaro Colonna V, Bianchi M, Pascale V, Ferrario P, Morelli F, Pascale W, et al. Asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA): an endogenous inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase and a novel cardiovascular risk molecule. Med Sci Monit. 2009; 15 (4): RA91-101.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA): an endogenous inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase and a novel cardiovascular risk molecule</article-title>
          <source>Med Sci Monit</source>
          <date>
            <year>2009</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>RA91</fpage>
          <lpage>101</lpage>
          <issue>4</issue>
          <volume>15</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>De Gennaro Colonna</surname>
              <given-names>V</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Bianchi</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Pascale</surname>
              <given-names>V</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ferrario</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Morelli</surname>
              <given-names>F</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>W</surname>
              <given-names>Pascale</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B15">
        <mixed-citation>15. Sessa WC. eNOS at a glance. J Cell Sci. 2004; 117: 2427-9.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>eNOS at a glance</article-title>
          <source>J Cell Sci</source>
          <date>
            <year>2004</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>2427</fpage>
          <lpage>9</lpage>
          <volume>117</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>WC</surname>
              <given-names>Sessa</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B16">
        <mixed-citation>16. Marletta MA. Nitric oxide synthase: aspects concerning structure and catalysis. Cell. 1994; 78: 927-30.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Nitric oxide synthase: aspects concerning structure and catalysis</article-title>
          <source>Cell</source>
          <date>
            <year>1994</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>927</fpage>
          <lpage>30</lpage>
          <volume>78</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Marletta</surname>
              <given-names>MA</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B17">
        <mixed-citation>17. Govers R, Rabelink TJ. Cellular regulation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2001; 280: F193-206.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Cellular regulation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase</article-title>
          <source>Am J Physiol Renal Physiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2001</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>F193</fpage>
          <lpage>206</lpage>
          <volume>280</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Govers</surname>
              <given-names>R</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Rabelink</surname>
              <given-names>TJ</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B18">
        <mixed-citation>18. Stuehr DJ. Structure-function aspects in the nitric oxide synthases. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 1997; 37: 339-59.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Structure-function aspects in the nitric oxide synthases</article-title>
          <source>Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol</source>
          <date>
            <year>1997</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>339</fpage>
          <lpage>59</lpage>
          <volume>37</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Stuehr</surname>
              <given-names>DJ</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B19">
        <mixed-citation>19. Ferreiro CR, Chagas AC, Carvalho MH, Dantas AP, Scavone C, Souza LC, et al. Expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase is increased in patients with heart failure due to ischemic disease. Braz J Med Biol Res. 2004; 37: 1313-20.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase is increased in patients with heart failure due to ischemic disease</article-title>
          <source>Braz J Med Biol Res</source>
          <date>
            <year>2004</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1313</fpage>
          <lpage>20</lpage>
          <volume>37</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Ferreiro</surname>
              <given-names>CR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Chagas</surname>
              <given-names>AC</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Carvalho</surname>
              <given-names>MH</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Dantas</surname>
              <given-names>AP</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Scavone</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Souza</surname>
              <given-names>LC</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B20">
        <mixed-citation>20. Andrew PJ, Mayer B. Enzymatic function of nitric oxide synthases. Cardiovasc Res. 1999; 43: 521-31.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Enzymatic function of nitric oxide synthases</article-title>
          <source>Cardiovasc Res</source>
          <date>
            <year>1999</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>521</fpage>
          <lpage>31</lpage>
          <volume>43</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Andrew</surname>
              <given-names>PJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Mayer</surname>
              <given-names>B</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B21">
        <mixed-citation>21. Alderton WK, Cooper CE, Knowles RG. Nitric oxide synthases: structure, function and inhibition. Biochem J. 2001; 357: 593-615.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Nitric oxide synthases: structure, function and inhibition</article-title>
          <source>Biochem J</source>
          <date>
            <year>2001</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>593</fpage>
          <lpage>615</lpage>
          <volume>357</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Alderton</surname>
              <given-names>WK</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Cooper</surname>
              <given-names>CE</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Knowles</surname>
              <given-names>RG</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B22">
        <mixed-citation>22. Shaul PW, Anderson RG. Role of plasmalemmal caveolae in signal transduction. Am J Physiol. 1998; 275: L843-51.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Role of plasmalemmal caveolae in signal transduction</article-title>
          <source>Am J Physiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>1998</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>L843</fpage>
          <lpage>51</lpage>
          <volume>275</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Shaul</surname>
              <given-names>PW</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Anderson</surname>
              <given-names>RG</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B23">
        <mixed-citation>23. Wang XL, Sim AS, Wang MX, Murrell GA, Trudinger B, Wang J. Genotype dependent and cigarette specific effects on endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene expression and enzyme activity. FEBS Lett. 2000; 471: 45-50.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Genotype dependent and cigarette specific effects on endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene expression and enzyme activity</article-title>
          <source>FEBS Lett</source>
          <date>
            <year>2000</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>45</fpage>
          <lpage>50</lpage>
          <volume>471</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Wang</surname>
              <given-names>XL</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sim</surname>
              <given-names>AS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Wang</surname>
              <given-names>MX</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Murrell</surname>
              <given-names>GA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Trudinger</surname>
              <given-names>B</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Wang</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B24">
        <mixed-citation>24. Garcia-Cardena G, Martasek P, Masters BS, Skidd PM, Couet J, Li S, et al. Dissecting the interaction between nitric oxide synthase (NOS) and caveolin: functional significance of the nos caveolin binding domain in vivo. J Biol Chem. 1997; 272: 25437-40.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Dissecting the interaction between nitric oxide synthase (NOS) and caveolin: functional significance of the nos caveolin binding domain in vivo</article-title>
          <source>J Biol Chem</source>
          <date>
            <year>1997</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>25437</fpage>
          <lpage>40</lpage>
          <volume>272</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Garcia-Cardena</surname>
              <given-names>G</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Martasek</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Masters</surname>
              <given-names>BS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Skidd</surname>
              <given-names>PM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Couet</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Li</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B25">
        <mixed-citation>25. Razani B, Lisanti MP. Caveolin-deficient mice: insights into caveolar function human disease. J Clin Invest. 2001; 108: 1553-61.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Caveolin-deficient mice: insights into caveolar function human disease</article-title>
          <source>J Clin Invest</source>
          <date>
            <year>2001</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1553</fpage>
          <lpage>61</lpage>
          <volume>108</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Razani</surname>
              <given-names>B</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Lisanti</surname>
              <given-names>MP</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B26">
        <mixed-citation>26. Bucci M, Gratton JP, Rudic RD, Acevedo L, Roviezzo F, Cirino G, et al. In vivo delivery of the caveolin-1 scaffolding domain inhibits nitric oxide synthesis and reduces inflammation. Nat Med. 2000; 6: 1362-7.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>In vivo delivery of the caveolin-1 scaffolding domain inhibits nitric oxide synthesis and reduces inflammation</article-title>
          <source>Nat Med</source>
          <date>
            <year>2000</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1362</fpage>
          <lpage>7</lpage>
          <volume>6</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Bucci</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Gratton</surname>
              <given-names>JP</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Rudic</surname>
              <given-names>RD</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Acevedo</surname>
              <given-names>L</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Roviezzo</surname>
              <given-names>F</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Cirino</surname>
              <given-names>G</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B27">
        <mixed-citation>27. Wang XL, Wang J. Endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene sequence variations and vascular disease. Mol Genet Metab. 2000; 70: 241-51.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene sequence variations and vascular disease</article-title>
          <source>Mol Genet Metab</source>
          <date>
            <year>2000</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>241</fpage>
          <lpage>51</lpage>
          <volume>70</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Wang</surname>
              <given-names>XL</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Wang</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B28">
        <mixed-citation>28. Albrecht EW, Stegeman CA, Heeringa P, Henning RH, van Goor H. Protective role of endothelial nitric oxide synthase. J Pathol. 2003; 199: 8-17.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Protective role of endothelial nitric oxide synthase</article-title>
          <source>J Pathol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2003</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>8</fpage>
          <lpage>17</lpage>
          <volume>199</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Albrecht</surname>
              <given-names>EW</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Stegeman</surname>
              <given-names>CA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Heeringa</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Henning</surname>
              <given-names>RH</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>van Goor</surname>
              <given-names>H</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B29">
        <mixed-citation>29. Griffith OW, Stuehr DJ. Nitric oxide synthases: properties and catalytic mechanism. Annu Rev Physiol. 1995; 57: 707-36.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Nitric oxide synthases: properties and catalytic mechanism</article-title>
          <source>Annu Rev Physiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>1995</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>707</fpage>
          <lpage>36</lpage>
          <volume>57</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Griffith</surname>
              <given-names>OW</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Stuehr</surname>
              <given-names>DJ</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B30">
        <mixed-citation>30. Korth HG, Sustmann R, Thater C, Butler AR, Ingold KU. On the mechanism of the nitric oxide synthase-catalyzed conversion of N omega-hydroxyl-L-arginine to citrulline and nitric oxide. J Biol Chem. 1994; 269: 17776-9.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>On the mechanism of the nitric oxide synthase-catalyzed conversion of N omega-hydroxyl-L-arginine to citrulline and nitric oxide</article-title>
          <source>J Biol Chem</source>
          <date>
            <year>1994</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>17776</fpage>
          <lpage>9</lpage>
          <volume>269</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Korth</surname>
              <given-names>HG</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sustmann</surname>
              <given-names>R</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Thater</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Butler</surname>
              <given-names>AR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ingold</surname>
              <given-names>KU</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B31">
        <mixed-citation>31. Harrison DG. Cellular and molecular mechanisms of endothelial cell dysfunction. J Clin Invest. 1997; 100: 2153-7.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Cellular and molecular mechanisms of endothelial cell dysfunction</article-title>
          <source>J Clin Invest</source>
          <date>
            <year>1997</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>2153</fpage>
          <lpage>7</lpage>
          <volume>100</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Harrison</surname>
              <given-names>DG</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B32">
        <mixed-citation>32. Vasquez-Vivar J, Kalyanaraman B, Martasek P, Hogg N, Masters BS, Karoui H, et al. Superoxide generation by endothelial nitric oxide synthase: the influence of cofactors. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1998; 95: 9220-5.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Superoxide generation by endothelial nitric oxide synthase: the influence of cofactors</article-title>
          <source>Proc Natl Acad Sci USA</source>
          <date>
            <year>1998</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>9220</fpage>
          <lpage>5</lpage>
          <volume>95</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Vasquez-Vivar</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Kalyanaraman</surname>
              <given-names>B</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Martasek</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Hogg</surname>
              <given-names>N</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Masters</surname>
              <given-names>BS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Karoui</surname>
              <given-names>H</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B33">
        <mixed-citation>33. Cai H, Harrison DG. Endothelial dysfunction in cardiovascular diseases: the role of oxidant stress. Circ Res. 2000; 87: 840-4.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Endothelial dysfunction in cardiovascular diseases: the role of oxidant stress</article-title>
          <source>Circ Res</source>
          <date>
            <year>2000</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>840</fpage>
          <lpage>4</lpage>
          <volume>87</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Cai</surname>
              <given-names>H</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Harrison</surname>
              <given-names>DG</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B34">
        <mixed-citation>34. Klatt P, Pfeiffer S, List BM, Lehner D, Glatter O, Bachinger HP, et al. Characterization of heme-deficient neuronal nitric-oxide synthase reveals a role for heme in subunit dimerization and binding of the amino acid substrate and tetrahydrobiopterin. J Biol Chem. 1996; 271: 7336-42.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Characterization of heme-deficient neuronal nitric-oxide synthase reveals a role for heme in subunit dimerization and binding of the amino acid substrate and tetrahydrobiopterin</article-title>
          <source>J Biol Chem</source>
          <date>
            <year>1996</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>7336</fpage>
          <lpage>42</lpage>
          <volume>271</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Klatt</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Pfeiffer</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>List</surname>
              <given-names>BM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Lehner</surname>
              <given-names>D</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Glatter</surname>
              <given-names>O</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Bachinger</surname>
              <given-names>HP</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B35">
        <mixed-citation>35. Mayer B, John M, Heinzel B, Werner ER, Wachter H, Schultz G, et al. Brain nitric oxide synthase is a biopterin- and flavin-containing multi-functional oxido-reductase. FEBS Lett. 1991; 288: 187-91.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Brain nitric oxide synthase is a biopterin- and flavin-containing multi-functional oxido-reductase</article-title>
          <source>FEBS Lett</source>
          <date>
            <year>1991</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>187</fpage>
          <lpage>91</lpage>
          <volume>288</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Mayer</surname>
              <given-names>B</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>John</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Heinzel</surname>
              <given-names>B</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Werner</surname>
              <given-names>ER</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Wachter</surname>
              <given-names>H</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Schultz</surname>
              <given-names>G</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B36">
        <mixed-citation>36. Beckman JS, Koppenol WH. Nitric oxide, superoxide, and peroxynitrite: the good, the bad, and ugly. Am J Physiol. 1996; 271: C1424-37.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Nitric oxide, superoxide, and peroxynitrite: the good, the bad, and ugly</article-title>
          <source>Am J Physiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>1996</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>C1424</fpage>
          <lpage>37</lpage>
          <volume>271</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Beckman</surname>
              <given-names>JS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Koppenol</surname>
              <given-names>WH</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B37">
        <mixed-citation>37. Searles CD. Transcriptional and posttranscriptional regulation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase expression. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2006; 291: C803-16.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Transcriptional and posttranscriptional regulation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase expression</article-title>
          <source>Am J Physiol Cell Physiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2006</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>C803</fpage>
          <lpage>16</lpage>
          <volume>291</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Searles</surname>
              <given-names>CD</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B38">
        <mixed-citation>38. Marsden PA, Heng HH, Scherer SW, Stewart RJ, Hall AV, Shi XM, et al. Structure and chromosomal localization of the human constitutive endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene. J Biol Chem. 1993; 268: 17478-88.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Structure and chromosomal localization of the human constitutive endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene</article-title>
          <source>J Biol Chem</source>
          <date>
            <year>1993</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>17478</fpage>
          <lpage>88</lpage>
          <volume>268</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Marsden</surname>
              <given-names>PA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Heng</surname>
              <given-names>HH</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Scherer</surname>
              <given-names>SW</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Stewart</surname>
              <given-names>RJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Hall</surname>
              <given-names>AV</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Shi</surname>
              <given-names>XM</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B39">
        <mixed-citation>39. Karantzoulis-Fegaras F, Antoniou H, Lai SL, Kulkarni G, D'Abreo C, Wong GK, et al. Characterization of the human endothelial nitric-oxide synthase promoter. J Biol Chem. 1999; 274: 3076-93.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Characterization of the human endothelial nitric-oxide synthase promoter</article-title>
          <source>J Biol Chem</source>
          <date>
            <year>1999</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>3076</fpage>
          <lpage>93</lpage>
          <volume>274</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Karantzoulis-Fegaras</surname>
              <given-names>F</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Antoniou</surname>
              <given-names>H</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Lai</surname>
              <given-names>SL</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Kulkarni</surname>
              <given-names>G</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>D'Abreo</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Wong</surname>
              <given-names>GK</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B40">
        <mixed-citation>40. Malek AM, Jiang L, Lee I, Sessa WC, Izumo S, Alper SL. Induction of nitric oxide synthase mRNA by shear stress requires intracellular calcium and G-protein signals and is modulated by PI 3 kinase. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1999; 254: 231-42.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Induction of nitric oxide synthase mRNA by shear stress requires intracellular calcium and G-protein signals and is modulated by PI 3 kinase</article-title>
          <source>Biochem Biophys Res Commun</source>
          <date>
            <year>1999</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>231</fpage>
          <lpage>42</lpage>
          <volume>254</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Malek</surname>
              <given-names>AM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Jiang</surname>
              <given-names>L</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Lee</surname>
              <given-names>I</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sessa</surname>
              <given-names>WC</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Izumo</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Alper</surname>
              <given-names>SL</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B41">
        <mixed-citation>41. Silacci P, Formentin K, Bouzourene K, Daniel F, Brunner HR, Hayoz D. Unidirectional and oscillatory shear stress differentially modulate NOS III gene expression. Nitric Oxide. 2000;4:47-56.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Unidirectional and oscillatory shear stress differentially modulate NOS III gene expression</article-title>
          <source>Nitric Oxide</source>
          <date>
            <year>2000</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>47</fpage>
          <lpage>56</lpage>
          <volume>4</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Silacci</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Formentin</surname>
              <given-names>K</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Bouzourene</surname>
              <given-names>K</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Daniel</surname>
              <given-names>F</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Brunner</surname>
              <given-names>HR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Hayoz</surname>
              <given-names>D</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B42">
        <mixed-citation>42. Davis ME, Grumbach IM, Fukai T, Cutchins A, Harrison DG. Shear stress regulates endothelial nitric-oxide synthase promoter activity through nuclear factor kappaB binding. J Biol Chem. 2004; 279: 163-8.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Shear stress regulates endothelial nitric-oxide synthase promoter activity through nuclear factor kappaB binding</article-title>
          <source>J Biol Chem</source>
          <date>
            <year>2004</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>163</fpage>
          <lpage>8</lpage>
          <volume>279</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Davis</surname>
              <given-names>ME</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Grumbach</surname>
              <given-names>IM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Fukai</surname>
              <given-names>T</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Cutchins</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Harrison</surname>
              <given-names>DG</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B43">
        <mixed-citation>43. Davis ME, Cai H, Drummond GR, Harrison DG. Shear stress regulates endothelial nitric oxide synthase expression through c-Src by divergent signaling pathways. Circ Res. 2001; 89: 1073-80.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Shear stress regulates endothelial nitric oxide synthase expression through c-Src by divergent signaling pathways</article-title>
          <source>Circ Res</source>
          <date>
            <year>2001</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1073</fpage>
          <lpage>80</lpage>
          <volume>89</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Davis</surname>
              <given-names>ME</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Cai</surname>
              <given-names>H</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Drummond</surname>
              <given-names>GR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Harrison</surname>
              <given-names>DG</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B44">
        <mixed-citation>44. Michel T, Feron O. Nitric oxide synthases: which, where, how, and why? J Clin Invest. 1997; 100: 2146-52.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Nitric oxide synthases: which, where, how, and why?</article-title>
          <source>J Clin Invest</source>
          <date>
            <year>1997</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>2146</fpage>
          <lpage>52</lpage>
          <volume>100</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Michel</surname>
              <given-names>T</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Feron</surname>
              <given-names>O</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B45">
        <mixed-citation>45. Zhang Q, Church JE, Jagnandan D, Catravas JD, Sessa WC, Fulton D. Functional relevance of Golgi- and plasma membrane-localized endothelial NO synthase in reconstituted endothelial cells. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2006; 26: 1015-21.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Functional relevance of Golgi- and plasma membrane-localized endothelial NO synthase in reconstituted endothelial cells</article-title>
          <source>Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2006</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1015</fpage>
          <lpage>21</lpage>
          <volume>26</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Zhang</surname>
              <given-names>Q</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Church</surname>
              <given-names>JE</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Jagnandan</surname>
              <given-names>D</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Catravas</surname>
              <given-names>JD</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sessa</surname>
              <given-names>WC</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Fulton</surname>
              <given-names>D</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B46">
        <mixed-citation>46. Boo YC, Kim HJ, Song H, Fulton D, Sessa W. Coordinated regulation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase activity by phosphorylation and subcellular localization. Free Radic Biol Med. 2006; 41 (1): 144-53.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Coordinated regulation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase activity by phosphorylation and subcellular localization</article-title>
          <source>Free Radic Biol Med</source>
          <date>
            <year>2006</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>144</fpage>
          <lpage>53</lpage>
          <issue>1</issue>
          <volume>41</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Boo</surname>
              <given-names>YC</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Kim</surname>
              <given-names>HJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Song</surname>
              <given-names>H</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Fulton</surname>
              <given-names>D</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sessa</surname>
              <given-names>W</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B47">
        <mixed-citation>47. Fulton D, Gratton JP, McCabe TJ, Fontana J, Fujio Y, Walsh K, et al. Regulation of endothelium-derived nitric oxide production by the protein kinase Akt. Nature. 1999; 399: 597-601.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Regulation of endothelium-derived nitric oxide production by the protein kinase Akt</article-title>
          <source>Nature</source>
          <date>
            <year>1999</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>597</fpage>
          <lpage>601</lpage>
          <volume>399</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Fulton</surname>
              <given-names>D</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Gratton</surname>
              <given-names>JP</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>McCabe</surname>
              <given-names>TJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Fontana</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Fujio</surname>
              <given-names>Y</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Walsh</surname>
              <given-names>K</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B48">
        <mixed-citation>48. Dimmeler S, Fleming I, Fisslthaler B, Hermann C, Busse R, Zeiher AM. Activation of nitric oxide synthase in endothelial cells by Akt-dependent phosphorylation. Nature. 1999; 399: 601-5.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Activation of nitric oxide synthase in endothelial cells by Akt-dependent phosphorylation</article-title>
          <source>Nature</source>
          <date>
            <year>1999</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>601</fpage>
          <lpage>5</lpage>
          <volume>399</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Dimmeler</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Fleming</surname>
              <given-names>I</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Fisslthaler</surname>
              <given-names>B</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Hermann</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Busse</surname>
              <given-names>R</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Zeiher</surname>
              <given-names>AM</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B49">
        <mixed-citation>49. Mount PF, Kemp BE, Power DA. Regulation of endothelial and myocardial NO synthesis by multi-site eNOS phosphorylation. J Mol Cell Cardiol. 2007; 42: 271-9.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Regulation of endothelial and myocardial NO synthesis by multi-site eNOS phosphorylation</article-title>
          <source>J Mol Cell Cardiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2007</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>271</fpage>
          <lpage>9</lpage>
          <volume>42</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Mount</surname>
              <given-names>PF</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Kemp</surname>
              <given-names>BE</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Power</surname>
              <given-names>DA</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B50">
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Telmisartan reverts endothelial dysfunction</article-title>
          <source>Am J Physiol Cell Physiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2009</year>
          </date>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Krieger</surname>
              <given-names>MH</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Di Lorenzo</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sessa</surname>
              <given-names>W</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B51">
        <mixed-citation>51. Joyner MJ, Dietz NM. Nitric oxide and vasodilation in human limbs. J Appl Physiol. 1997; 83: 1785-96.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Nitric oxide and vasodilation in human limbs</article-title>
          <source>J Appl Physiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>1997</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1785</fpage>
          <lpage>96</lpage>
          <volume>83</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Joyner</surname>
              <given-names>MJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Dietz</surname>
              <given-names>NM</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B52">
        <mixed-citation>52. Abrahams VC, Hilton SM. The role of active muscle vasodilatation in the alerting stage of the defence reaction. J Physiol. 1964; 171: 189-202.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>The role of active muscle vasodilatation in the alerting stage of the defence reaction</article-title>
          <source>J Physiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>1964</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>189</fpage>
          <lpage>202</lpage>
          <volume>171</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Abrahams</surname>
              <given-names>VC</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Hilton</surname>
              <given-names>SM</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B53">
        <mixed-citation>53. Bolme P, Fuxe K. Adrenergic and cholinergic nerve terminals in skeletal muscle vessels. Acta Physiol Scand. 1970; 78: 52-9.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Adrenergic and cholinergic nerve terminals in skeletal muscle vessels</article-title>
          <source>Acta Physiol Scand</source>
          <date>
            <year>1970</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>52</fpage>
          <lpage>9</lpage>
          <volume>78</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Bolme</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Fuxe</surname>
              <given-names>K</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B54">
        <mixed-citation>54. Matsukawa K, Shindo T, Shirai M, Ninomiya I. Nitric oxide mediates cat hindlimb cholinergic vasodilation induced by stimulation of posterior hypothalamus. Jpn J Physiol. 1993; 43: 473-83.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Nitric oxide mediates cat hindlimb cholinergic vasodilation induced by stimulation of posterior hypothalamus</article-title>
          <source>Jpn J Physiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>1993</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>473</fpage>
          <lpage>83</lpage>
          <volume>43</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Matsukawa</surname>
              <given-names>K</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Shindo</surname>
              <given-names>T</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Shirai</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ninomiya</surname>
              <given-names>I</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B55">
        <mixed-citation>55. Blair DA, Glover WE, Greenfield AD, Roddie IC. Excitation of cholinergic vasodilator nerves to human skeletal muscles during emotional stress. J Physiol. 1959; 148: 633-47.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Excitation of cholinergic vasodilator nerves to human skeletal muscles during emotional stress</article-title>
          <source>J Physiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>1959</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>633</fpage>
          <lpage>47</lpage>
          <volume>148</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Blair</surname>
              <given-names>DA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Glover</surname>
              <given-names>WE</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Greenfield</surname>
              <given-names>AD</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Roddie</surname>
              <given-names>IC</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B56">
        <mixed-citation>56. Dietz NM, Rivera JM, Warner DO, Joyner MJ. Is nitric oxide involved in cutaneous vasodilation during body heating in humans? J Appl Physiol. 1994; 76: 2047-53.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Is nitric oxide involved in cutaneous vasodilation during body heating in humans</article-title>
          <source>J Appl Physiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>1994</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>2047</fpage>
          <lpage>53</lpage>
          <volume>76</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Dietz</surname>
              <given-names>NM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Rivera</surname>
              <given-names>JM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Warner</surname>
              <given-names>DO</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Joyner</surname>
              <given-names>MJ</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B57">
        <mixed-citation>57. Dietz NM, Engelke KA, Samuel TT, Fix RT, Joyner MJ. Evidence for nitric oxide-mediated sympathetic forearm vasodiolatation in humans. J Physiol. 1997; 498 (Pt 2): 531-40.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Evidence for nitric oxide-mediated sympathetic forearm vasodiolatation in humans</article-title>
          <source>J Physiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>1997</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>531</fpage>
          <lpage>40</lpage>
          <issue>2</issue>
          <volume>498</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Dietz</surname>
              <given-names>NM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Engelke</surname>
              <given-names>KA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Samuel</surname>
              <given-names>TT</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Fix</surname>
              <given-names>RT</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Joyner</surname>
              <given-names>MJ</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B58">
        <mixed-citation>58. Milner P, Kirkpatrick KA, Ralevic V, Toothill V, Pearson J, Burnstock G. Endothelial cells cultured from human umbilical vein release ATP, substance P and acetylcholine in response to increased flow. Proc Biol Sci. 1990; 241: 245-8.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Endothelial cells cultured from human umbilical vein release ATP, substance P and acetylcholine in response to increased flow</article-title>
          <source>Proc Biol Sci</source>
          <date>
            <year>1990</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>245</fpage>
          <lpage>8</lpage>
          <volume>241</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Milner</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Kirkpatrick</surname>
              <given-names>KA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ralevic</surname>
              <given-names>V</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Toothill</surname>
              <given-names>V</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Pearson</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Burnstock</surname>
              <given-names>G</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B59">
        <mixed-citation>59. Majmudar NG, Anumba D, Robson SC, Ford GA. Contribution of nitric oxide to beta2-adrenoceptor mediated vasodilatation in human forearm arterial vasculature. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1999; 47: 173-7.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Contribution of nitric oxide to beta2-adrenoceptor mediated vasodilatation in human forearm arterial vasculature</article-title>
          <source>Br J Clin Pharmacol</source>
          <date>
            <year>1999</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>173</fpage>
          <lpage>7</lpage>
          <volume>47</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Majmudar</surname>
              <given-names>NG</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Anumba</surname>
              <given-names>D</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Robson</surname>
              <given-names>SC</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ford</surname>
              <given-names>GA</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B60">
        <mixed-citation>60. Poirier O, Mao C, Mallet C, Nicaud V, Herrmann SM, Evans A, et al. Polymorphisms of the endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene - no consistent association with myocardial infarction in the ECTIM study. Eur J Clin Invest. 1999; 29: 284-90.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Polymorphisms of the endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene - no consistent association with myocardial infarction in the ECTIM study</article-title>
          <source>Eur J Clin Invest</source>
          <date>
            <year>1999</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>284</fpage>
          <lpage>90</lpage>
          <volume>29</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Poirier</surname>
              <given-names>O</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Mao</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Mallet</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Nicaud</surname>
              <given-names>V</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Herrmann</surname>
              <given-names>SM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Evans</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B61">
        <mixed-citation>61. Miyahara K, Kawamoto T, Sase K, Yui Y, Toda K, Yang LX, et al. Cloning and structural characterization of the human endothelial nitric-oxide-synthase gene. Eur J Biochem. 1994; 223: 719-26.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Cloning and structural characterization of the human endothelial nitric-oxide-synthase gene</article-title>
          <source>Eur J Biochem</source>
          <date>
            <year>1994</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>719</fpage>
          <lpage>26</lpage>
          <volume>223</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Miyahara</surname>
              <given-names>K</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Kawamoto</surname>
              <given-names>T</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sase</surname>
              <given-names>K</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Yui</surname>
              <given-names>Y</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Toda</surname>
              <given-names>K</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Yang</surname>
              <given-names>LX</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B62">
        <mixed-citation>62. Philip I, Plantefeve G, Vuillaumier-Barrot S, Vicaut E, LeMarie C, Henrion D, et al. G894T polymorphism in the endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene is associated with an enhanced vascular responsiveness to phenylephrine. Circulation. 1999; 99: 3096-8.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>G894T polymorphism in the endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene is associated with an enhanced vascular responsiveness to phenylephrine</article-title>
          <source>Circulation</source>
          <date>
            <year>1999</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>3096</fpage>
          <lpage>8</lpage>
          <volume>99</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Philip</surname>
              <given-names>I</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Plantefeve</surname>
              <given-names>G</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Vuillaumier-Barrot</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Vicaut</surname>
              <given-names>E</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>LeMarie</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Henrion</surname>
              <given-names>D</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B63">
        <mixed-citation>63. Hingorani AD. Polymorphisms in endothelial nitric oxide synthase and atherogenesis: John French Lecture 2000. Atherosclerosis. 2001; 154: 521-7.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Polymorphisms in endothelial nitric oxide synthase and atherogenesis: John French Lecture 2000</article-title>
          <source>Atherosclerosis</source>
          <date>
            <year>2001</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>521</fpage>
          <lpage>7</lpage>
          <volume>154</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Hingorani</surname>
              <given-names>AD</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B64">
        <mixed-citation>64. Tesauro M, Thompson WC, Rogliani P, Qi L, Chaudhary PP, Moss J. Intracellular processing of endothelial nitric oxide synthase isoforms associated with differences in severity of cardiopulmonary diseases: cleavage of proteins with aspartate vs. glutamate at position 298. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2000; 97: 2832-5.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Intracellular processing of endothelial nitric oxide synthase isoforms associated with differences in severity of cardiopulmonary diseases: cleavage of proteins with aspartate vs. glutamate at position 298</article-title>
          <source>Proc Natl Acad Sci USA</source>
          <date>
            <year>2000</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>2832</fpage>
          <lpage>5</lpage>
          <volume>97</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Tesauro</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Thompson</surname>
              <given-names>WC</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Rogliani</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Qi</surname>
              <given-names>L</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Chaudhary</surname>
              <given-names>PP</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Moss</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B65">
        <mixed-citation>65. Fairchild TA, Fulton D, Fontana JT, Gratton JP, McCabe TJ, Sessa WC. Acidic hydrolysis as a mechanism for the cleavage of the Glu(298)--&gt;Asp variant of human endothelial nitric-oxide synthase. J Biol Chem. 2001; 276: 26674-9.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Acidic hydrolysis as a mechanism for the cleavage of the Glu(298)--&gt;Asp variant of human endothelial nitric-oxide synthase</article-title>
          <source>J Biol Chem</source>
          <date>
            <year>2001</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>26674</fpage>
          <lpage>9</lpage>
          <volume>276</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Fairchild</surname>
              <given-names>TA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Fulton</surname>
              <given-names>D</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Fontana</surname>
              <given-names>JT</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Gratton</surname>
              <given-names>JP</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>McCabe</surname>
              <given-names>TJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sessa</surname>
              <given-names>WC</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B66">
        <mixed-citation>66. Hingorani AD, Liang CF, Fatibene J, Lyon A, Monteith S, Parsons A, et al.. A common variant of the endothelial nitric oxide synthase (Glu298--&gt;Asp) is a major risk factor for coronary artery disease in the UK. Circulation. 1999; 100: 1515-20.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>A common variant of the endothelial nitric oxide synthase (Glu298--&gt;Asp) is a major risk factor for coronary artery disease in the UK</article-title>
          <source>Circulation</source>
          <date>
            <year>1999</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1515</fpage>
          <lpage>20</lpage>
          <volume>100</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Hingorani</surname>
              <given-names>AD</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Liang</surname>
              <given-names>CF</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Fatibene</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Lyon</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Monteith</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Parsons</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B67">
        <mixed-citation>67. Hibi K, Ishigami T, Tamura K, Mizushima S, Nyui N, Fujita T, et al. Endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene polymorphism and acute myocardial infarction. Hypertension. 1998; 32: 521-6.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene polymorphism and acute myocardial infarction</article-title>
          <source>Hypertension</source>
          <date>
            <year>1998</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>521</fpage>
          <lpage>6</lpage>
          <volume>32</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Hibi</surname>
              <given-names>K</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ishigami</surname>
              <given-names>T</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Tamura</surname>
              <given-names>K</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Mizushima</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Nyui</surname>
              <given-names>N</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Fujita</surname>
              <given-names>T</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B68">
        <mixed-citation>68. Shimasaki Y, Yasue H, Yoshimura M, Nakayama M, Kugiyama K, Ogawa H, et al. Association of the missense Glu298Asp variant of the endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene with myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1998; 31: 1506-10.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Association of the missense Glu298Asp variant of the endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene with myocardial infarction</article-title>
          <source>J Am Coll Cardiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>1998</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1506</fpage>
          <lpage>10</lpage>
          <volume>31</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Shimasaki</surname>
              <given-names>Y</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Yasue</surname>
              <given-names>H</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Yoshimura</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Nakayama</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Kugiyama</surname>
              <given-names>K</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ogawa</surname>
              <given-names>H</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B69">
        <mixed-citation>69. Yoshimura M, Yasue H, Nakayama M, Shimasaki Y, Sumida H, Sugiyama S, et al. A missense Glu298Asp variant in the endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene is associated with coronary spasm in the Japanese. Hum Genet. 1998; 103: 65-9.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>A missense Glu298Asp variant in the endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene is associated with coronary spasm in the Japanese</article-title>
          <source>Hum Genet</source>
          <date>
            <year>1998</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>65</fpage>
          <lpage>9</lpage>
          <volume>103</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Yoshimura</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Yasue</surname>
              <given-names>H</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Nakayama</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Shimasaki</surname>
              <given-names>Y</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sumida</surname>
              <given-names>H</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sugiyama</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B70">
        <mixed-citation>70. Miyamoto Y, Saito Y, Kajiyama N, Yoshimura M, Shimasaki Y, Nakayama M, et al. Endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene is positively associated with essential hypertension. Hypertension. 1998; 32: 3-8.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene is positively associated with essential hypertension</article-title>
          <source>Hypertension</source>
          <date>
            <year>1998</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>3</fpage>
          <lpage>8</lpage>
          <volume>32</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Miyamoto</surname>
              <given-names>Y</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Saito</surname>
              <given-names>Y</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Kajiyama</surname>
              <given-names>N</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Yoshimura</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Shimasaki</surname>
              <given-names>Y</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Nakayama</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B71">
        <mixed-citation>71. Lacolley P, Gautier S, Poirier O, Pannier B, Cambien F, Benetos A. Nitric oxide synthase gene polymorphisms, blood pressure and aortic stiffness in normotensive and hypertensive subjects. J Hypertens. 1998; 16: 31-5.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Nitric oxide synthase gene polymorphisms, blood pressure and aortic stiffness in normotensive and hypertensive subjects</article-title>
          <source>J Hypertens</source>
          <date>
            <year>1998</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>31</fpage>
          <lpage>5</lpage>
          <volume>16</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Lacolley</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Gautier</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Poirier</surname>
              <given-names>O</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Pannier</surname>
              <given-names>B</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Cambien</surname>
              <given-names>F</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Benetos</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B72">
        <mixed-citation>72. Kato N, Sugiyama T, Morita H, Nabika T, Kurihara H, Yamori Y, et al. Lack of evidence for association between the endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene and hypertension. Hypertension. 1999; 33: 933-6.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Lack of evidence for association between the endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene and hypertension</article-title>
          <source>Hypertension</source>
          <date>
            <year>1999</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>933</fpage>
          <lpage>6</lpage>
          <volume>33</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Kato</surname>
              <given-names>N</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sugiyama</surname>
              <given-names>T</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Morita</surname>
              <given-names>H</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Nabika</surname>
              <given-names>T</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Kurihara</surname>
              <given-names>H</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Yamori</surname>
              <given-names>Y</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B73">
        <mixed-citation>73. Benjafield AV, Morris BJ. Association analyses of endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene polymorphisms in essential hypertension. Am J Hypertens. 2000; 13: 994-8.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Association analyses of endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene polymorphisms in essential hypertension</article-title>
          <source>Am J Hypertens</source>
          <date>
            <year>2000</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>994</fpage>
          <lpage>8</lpage>
          <volume>13</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Benjafield</surname>
              <given-names>AV</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Morris</surname>
              <given-names>BJ</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B74">
        <mixed-citation>74. Vallance P, Collier J, Moncada S. Effects of endothelium-derived nitric oxide on peripheral arteriolar tone in man. Lancet. 1989; 2: 997-1000.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Effects of endothelium-derived nitric oxide on peripheral arteriolar tone in man</article-title>
          <source>Lancet</source>
          <date>
            <year>1989</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>997</fpage>
          <lpage>1000</lpage>
          <volume>2</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Vallance</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Collier</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Moncada</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B75">
        <mixed-citation>75. Haynes WG, Noon JP, Walker BR, Webb DJ. Inhibition of nitric oxide synthesis increases blood pressure in healthy humans. J Hypertens. 1993; 11: 1375-80.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Inhibition of nitric oxide synthesis increases blood pressure in healthy humans</article-title>
          <source>J Hypertens</source>
          <date>
            <year>1993</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1375</fpage>
          <lpage>80</lpage>
          <volume>11</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Haynes</surname>
              <given-names>WG</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Noon</surname>
              <given-names>JP</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Walker</surname>
              <given-names>BR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Webb</surname>
              <given-names>DJ</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B76">
        <mixed-citation>76. Frandsenn U, Bangsbo J, Sander M, Hoffner L, Betak A, Saltin B, et al. Exercise-induced hyperaemia and leg oxygen uptake are not altered during effective inhibition of nitric oxide synthase with N(G)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester in humans. J Physiol. 2001; 531: 257-64.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Exercise-induced hyperaemia and leg oxygen uptake are not altered during effective inhibition of nitric oxide synthase with N(G)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester in humans</article-title>
          <source>J Physiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2001</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>257</fpage>
          <lpage>64</lpage>
          <volume>531</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Frandsenn</surname>
              <given-names>U</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Bangsbo</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sander</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Hoffner</surname>
              <given-names>L</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Betak</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Saltin</surname>
              <given-names>B</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B77">
        <mixed-citation>77. Fabi F, Argiolas L, Chiavarelli M, Del Basso P. Nitric oxide-dependent and -independent modulation of sympathetic vasoconstriction in the human saphenous vein. Eur J Pharmacol. 1996; 309: 41-50.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Nitric oxide-dependent and -independent modulation of sympathetic vasoconstriction in the human saphenous vein</article-title>
          <source>Eur J Pharmacol</source>
          <date>
            <year>1996</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>41</fpage>
          <lpage>50</lpage>
          <volume>309</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Fabi</surname>
              <given-names>F</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Argiolas</surname>
              <given-names>L</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Chiavarelli</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Del Basso</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B78">
        <mixed-citation>78. Dias RG, Alves MJ, Pereira AC, Rondon MU, Dos Santos MR, Krieger JE, et al. Glu298Asp eNOS gene polymorphism causes attenuation in non-exercising muscle vasodilatation. Physiol Genomics. 2009; 37 (2): 99-107.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Glu298Asp eNOS gene polymorphism causes attenuation in non-exercising muscle vasodilatation</article-title>
          <source>Physiol Genomics</source>
          <date>
            <year>2009</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>99</fpage>
          <lpage>107</lpage>
          <issue>2</issue>
          <volume>37</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Dias</surname>
              <given-names>RG</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Alves</surname>
              <given-names>MJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Pereira</surname>
              <given-names>AC</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Rondon</surname>
              <given-names>MU</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Dos Santos</surname>
              <given-names>MR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Krieger</surname>
              <given-names>JE</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
    </ref-list>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Nitric oxide and the cardiovascular system: cell activation, vascular reactivity and genetic variant</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>Nitric oxide (NO), primarily identified as an endothelium-derived relaxing factor, is a free radical that signals different biological processes. The identification of NO synthase (NOS) isoforms and the subsequent characterization of the mechanisms of cell activation of the enzymes permitted the partial understanding of both the physiological interactions and of the mechanisms of the diseases in which NO is involved. Mainly expressed in the vascular endothelium, the endothelial NOS isoform (eNOS) plays an important role in the regulation of vascular reactivity and in the development and progression of atherosclerosis. The purpose of this review is to contextualize the reader about the eNOS structure and its mechanisms of cell activation. In view of the advances in molecular biology, we will also address the known mechanisms of gene expression regulation and the role of variants on the genetic code of eNOS associated with cardiovascular phenotypes. Although the importance of NO as an atheroprotective molecule is recognized, our focus will be the review of the literature on NO and its participation in the modulation of the muscle vasodilatation phenotype.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Nitric oxide</kwd>
        <kwd>nitric oxide synthase type III</kwd>
        <kwd>polymorphism</kwd>
        <kwd>genetic</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>REVIEW ARTICLE</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Nitric oxide and the cardiovascular system: cell activation, vascular reactivity and genetic variant</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Rodrigo Gon&#231;alves Dias<sup>I,II</sup>; Carlos Eduardo Negr&#227;o<sup>I</sup>; Marta Helena Krieger<sup>II</sup></bold>
      </p>
      <p><sup>I</sup>Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o - InCor (HCFMUSP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP</p>
      <p><sup>II</sup>Labcardio - Universidade Estadual de Campinas (Unicamp), Campinas, SP - Brazil</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="nota1-body2">Mailing address</xref>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>SUMMARY</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Nitric oxide (NO), primarily identified as an endothelium-derived relaxing factor, is a free radical that signals different biological processes. The identification of NO synthase (NOS) isoforms and the subsequent characterization of the mechanisms of cell activation of the enzymes permitted the partial understanding of both the physiological interactions and of the mechanisms of the diseases in which NO is involved. Mainly expressed in the vascular endothelium, the endothelial NOS isoform (eNOS) plays an important role in the regulation of vascular reactivity and in the development and progression of atherosclerosis. The purpose of this review is to contextualize the reader about the eNOS structure and its mechanisms of cell activation. In view of the advances in molecular biology, we will also address the known mechanisms of gene expression regulation and the role of variants on the genetic code of eNOS associated with cardiovascular phenotypes. Although the importance of NO as an atheroprotective molecule is recognized, our focus will be the review of the literature on NO and its participation in the modulation of the muscle vasodilatation phenotype.</p>
      <p><bold>Keywords:</bold> Nitric oxide; nitric oxide synthase type III; polymorphism, genetic.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The primary evidence that the endothelium is an indispensable component in the regulation of the vascular tone emerged from experimental analyses demonstrating that, in the absence of this single layer of squamous epithelium, acetylcholine-induced vasodilatation did not occur. In that moment, Furchgott and Zawadzki<sup>1</sup> documented the fact that, when stimulated, the endothelium had the capacity to release a vasoactive substance, which was named endothelium-derived relaxing factor (EDRF). Some years later, EDRF was identified by Ignarro et al<sup>2</sup> as nitric oxide (NO), a compound characterized in 1977 by Ferid Murad which caused smooth muscle cell relaxation, when released by nitrates. For this finding, Robert F. Furchgott, Ferid Murad and Louis J. Ignarro were awarded the Nobel Prize of Physiology or Medicine in 1998 (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a12fig01-body2">Figure 1</xref>). A series of studies was responsible for the demonstration that the endothelium releases other EDRF such as prostacyclin (PGI<sub>2</sub>), and the endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factor (EDHF), in addition to other endothelium-derived contracting factors (EDCF) such as endothelin (ET-1), cyclooxygenase pathway products such as thromboxane A<sub>2</sub> (TXA<sub>2</sub>) and reactive oxygen species such as the superoxide anion (O<sub>2</sub><sup>.-</sup>)<sup>3</sup>. In addition to characterizing the endothelium as a biological sensor capable of detecting any mechanical, physical or chemical stimulus - and respond to it - these findings raised the endothelium to the position of a multifunctional tissue that plays an important role in the homeostasis of all physiological systems. </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_a12fig01-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-96-01-0068-00012-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Nitric oxide and the cardiovascular system</bold>
      </p>
      <p>NO, a gaseous molecule that acts in the signaling of different biological processes, is a free radical presenting an unpaired electron in the last layer and a half-life of 4 to 8 seconds in oxygenated aqueous medium<sup>4,5</sup>. It is described as a labile gas, capable of free diffusion across cell membranes, a characteristic that enhances its high biological activity<sup>6</sup>. The multiple NO actions were further broadened by the confirmation that the vascular endothelium is an active organ and that its integrity promotes beneficial effects, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticoagulant, and pro-fibrinolytic actions; inhibition of leukocyte adhesion and migration; inhibition of smooth muscle cell migration and proliferation; and inhibition of platelet aggregation and adhesion<sup>7</sup>. Thus, this atheroprotective setting is characterized by a harmony between substances released by the endothelium, in which NO is cited as one of the most relevant vasoactive compounds. Characterized as a systemic disorder that precedes atherosclerosis and its complications, endothelial dysfunction in atherosclerotic coronary arteries was first described by Ludmer et al<sup>8</sup> and later related to the change in NO bioavailability<sup>9</sup>. </p>
      <p>In the current literature, it is agreed that the reduced NO biological activity, caused both by synthase reduction and by increased degradation due to oxidation stress, has been identified as the most relevant mechanism in the multifactorial process in endothelial dysfunction and in the participation in the main cardiovascular dysfunctions<sup>10</sup>. Thus, reductions in NO bioavailability and subsequent endothelial dysfunction trigger, in the vascular environment, events such as tone alterations, thrombotic dysfunctions, smooth muscle cell (SMC) proliferation and migration, as well as leukocyte adhesion<sup>11</sup>. When endothelial dysfunction occurs, there is also an increased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS)<sup>12</sup>, and these can reduce endothelial NO availability via different pathways: direct NO inactivation by superoxide with peroxynitrite (ONOO<sup>-</sup>)<sup>13</sup> formation; reduction in NO synthase expression and activity due to changes in their substrate or cofactors, and in the increase in asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA) levels<sup>14</sup>; and also endothelial NOS uncoupling caused by increased tetrahydrobiopterin (BH<sub>4</sub>) oxidation<sup>15</sup>. </p>
      <p>The understanding of the complexity of endothelial function has improved, and the difficulty in studying each one of its components separately has been overcome. In this context, animal models able to reproduce endothelial dysfunction have been developed, thus enabling the system to work under conditions of low or high NO bioavailability, for instance. Additionally, studies in vivo in humans, using intra-arterial infusion of compounds with the potential of modulating endothelial-dependent or independent function, permitted the investigation of modulatory mechanisms on the vascular function under different physiological conditions and more prevalent diseases.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Nitric oxide synthases</bold>
      </p>
      <p>NO enzymatic production from the amino acid L-arginine is mediated by a family of three nitric oxide synthases (NOS) codified by distinct genes<sup>16</sup>. The isoforms share 50%-60% homology in the amino acid sequence in the oxidase and reductase domains<sup>17</sup>. These isoforms have distinct characteristics that reflect their specific functions in vivo<sup>18</sup>.</p>
      <p>Endothelial NO synthase (eNOS or NOS III; 7q35-36) and neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS or NOS I; 12q24.2) have a mechanism of constitutive activation (cNOS). The inducible isoform (iNOS or NOS II; 17cen-q12) is expressed in abnormal cell processes such as heart failure<sup>19</sup>, after induction by cytokines and other inflammatory agents, which results in a high NO flow<sup>20,21</sup>. Endothelial NOS is mainly located in endothelial cell compartments named caveolae<sup>22</sup>, and is essential for keeping the baseline vascular tone. This tone is partly mediated by NO synthesis, a vasoactive compound that participates in blood flow regulation in the different vascular beds and, particularly, in the coronary blood flow<sup>23</sup>. The subcellular location of NO synthesis has a great influence on its biological activity. In the 1990's, the initial identification of eNOS location in the caveolae in the cell plasma membrane provided the structural basis for the recognition of compartmentalization in the mechanisms of cell signaling promoted by NO. The subsequent observation that eNOS interacts directly with structural proteins of the caveola - the caveolins, provided biochemical evidence of the interaction between eNOS and caveola and its implication with numerous signaling molecules concentrated in this environment of the cell membrane<sup>24</sup>. A great number of evidences revealed that the caveolae are capable of recruiting numerous signaling molecules and to regulate their activities instead of acting as a simple support for cell exchange and transportation<sup>25</sup>. Thus, it has been described that eNOS is located inside the caveolae and is kept in a less active state via its interaction with caveolin-1<sup>26</sup>. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>eNOS structure</bold>
      </p>
      <p>eNOS functions as a dimer consisting of two identical monomers, which, in turn, can be functionally and structurally divided into two major domains: a C-terminal reductase domain, homologous to cytochrome P450 which contains binding sites for NADPH, flavine mononucleotide (FMN) and flavine adenine dinucleotide (FAD); and an N-terminal oxidase, which subtracts one electron from the L-arginine substrate and has binding sites for heme iron, for the tetrahydrobiopterin cofactor (BH<sub>4</sub>) and for L-arginine<sup>20,21,27</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a12fig02-body2">Figure 2</xref>). The catalysis reaction of constitutive NOS involves two oxidation stages: L-arginine hydroxylation into <italic>N<sup>G</sup></italic>-hydroxy-L-arginine, followed by oxidation of this intermediate compound with utilization of one NADPH electron, thus forming L-citrulline and NO<sup>28</sup>. This reaction consumes 1.5 mol of NADPH and 2 moles of oxygen per mol of L-citrulline formed<sup>16,29,30</sup>. Cofactors such as heme iron, BH<sub>4</sub> and L-arginine have been studied in depth, and their low bioavailability induces the phenomenon of dysfunctional eNOS<sup>31-33</sup>. Heme iron is essential for dimerization of the three isoforms<sup>34</sup>: low concentrations or absence of L-arginine catalyze oxygen reduction in superoxide (O<sub>2</sub><sup>.-</sup>)<sup>35</sup>, and decreased levels of BH<sub>4 </sub>lead to the simultaneous production of NO e O<sub>2</sub><sup>.-</sup>, products that react with each other forming peroxynitrite (ONOO<sup>-</sup>)<sup>36</sup>.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_a12fig02-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-96-01-0068-00012-gf02-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Regulation of eNOS activity and gene expression</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Ever since it was verified that the endothelial cells contain a baseline concentration of eNOS protein, the eNOS gene was considered constitutively expressed. Interestingly, further studies demonstrated that stable mRNA concentrations are subject to a modest level of regulation<sup>37</sup>. The eNOS gene promoter was cloned, and it was demonstrated that it has a complex regulatory mechanisms of gene expression. Like the promoter of constitutively expressed genes, the eNOS gene promoter does not contain the TATA box sequence. However, it has multiple cis-regulatory DNA sequences, including CCAT box, Sp1 sites, GATA motifs, CACCC box, AP-1 and AP-2 sites, p53 binding sites, and NF-1 elements, in addition to sequences responsive to sterol elements and shear stress<sup>38</sup>. Bovine and human promoter sequences have a homology of 75%, thus suggesting a high evolutionary preservation of the gene transcriptional regulation. Located in the proximal promoter, the positive regulatory domains I and II (PRD I and PRD II) are involved in the baseline regulation of gene transcription, showing an affinity with the transcription factors Sp-1, Sp-3, Ets-1, Elf-1, YY1 and MYC-associated zinc finger protein<sup>39</sup>. Studies in vitro demonstrated that eNOS promoter responsiveness to shear stress is dependent on sequences located between -1,000 and -975, a region relative to transcription start<sup>40,41</sup>. Besides, the binding of NF-&#954;&#946; subunits p50 and p65 to the responsive element GAGACC (-990; -984) - located upstream of the transcription start site, is involved in shear stress activation of the promoter<sup>42</sup>. Also, transcription in bovine endothelial cells subject to laminar flow showed a nine-fold increase in mRNA. This effect was mediated by two distinct mechanisms: 1) transient increase in gene transcription, and 2) subsequent prolonged mRNA half-life<sup>43</sup>.</p>
      <p>The mechanism of eNOS activation has been described as the most elaborated of the free isoforms, reflecting the complexity of the physiologic control of the different vascular beds<sup>17,44</sup>. The classical mechanism of constitutive isoform activation is calcium (Ca<sup>++</sup>)-dependent, whereas iNOS is independent of the elevation of intracellular Ca<sup>++</sup> concentrations, because of the high affinity of the enzyme binding with calmodulin<sup>31,39,44</sup>.</p>
      <p>The complexity of the eNOS post-transcriptional regulatory mechanisms has been considered in the dimerization of the protein subunits and in the role of the protein caveolin in the formation of the caveolar structure<sup>45</sup>. Endothelial NOS is located inside the caveola and is kept in a less active state via its interaction with caveolin-1<sup>26</sup>. The mechanisms migration from the cell membrane to the Golgi apparatus and Akt, PKA, and AMPK-kinase-dependent phosphorylations are described as responsible for the activation of this NOS isoform. Thus, the interaction keeps eNOS inactive, and calmodulin acts directly on the competition with caveolin in the promotion of the calcium-dependent enzyme activation<sup>15</sup>. Endothelial NOS activity is well known in the vascular environment, and is regulated by six mechanisms after its translation: lipid inclusion; calcium/modulin-dependent mechanism; direct protein-protein interactions; several phosphorilations; glycosylation; and substrate and cofactor availability. Thus, eNOS can interact with several proteins in their "less active" or "more active" states. The plasmalemma-bound eNOS N-myristoylation and palmitoylation processes are required, which, in this state, is associated with caveolin-1 and HSP 90. The protein that interacts with HSP70, named "CHIP", interacts with both HSP70 and HSP90, and downregulates eNOS traffic to the Golgi apparatus, in contrast to "NOSIP" and "NOSTRIN" which can downregulate eNOS location in the plasma membrane. The main eNOS activation mechanism occurs via phosphorylation of the amino acid serine at position 1.177<sup>46</sup> by the Akt-kinase enzyme (or kinase protein B), which increases eNOS sensitivity to baseline Ca<sup>++</sup>/calmodulin concentrations<sup>47</sup>. Tonic or phasic eNOS activation in response to blood flow is independent of Ca<sup>++ </sup>concentration changes and constitutes the shear stress. Dimmeler et al<sup>48</sup> demonstrated that the exchange of the serine<sup>1177/1179</sup> residue for the amino acid alanine makes eNOS incapable of responding to phosphorylation and activation by the Akt enzyme, a phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI-3K)-dependent pathway. Although phosphorylation of the serine<sup>1177</sup> residue plays a pivotal role in eNOS enzyme activation, its regulation is known to be also dependent on the phosphorylation pattern of other currently well-characterized sites<sup>49</sup>. Phosphorylation of the serine<sup>633</sup> residue, located in the binding domain of flavine mononucleotide (FMN) also increases eNOS activity and seems to be particularly important to keep NO synthesis after serine<sup>1177</sup> residue phosphorylation and activation by Ca<sup>++</sup>/calmodulin. Phosphorylated by protein kinase C (PKC), the threonin<sup>495</sup> residue interferes with the calmodulin binding domain, thus downregulating NO synthesis.</p>
      <p>Recent studies have evaluated the capacity of certain drugs, such as antioxidants and renin-angiotensin system blockers, to reduce endothelial dysfunction by means mechanisms of eNOS activation via phosphorylation of specific sites such as the serine<sup>1177</sup> residue. This phosphorylation may be affected by the subcellular enzyme location, such as the caveolae, intercellular junctions, Golgi apparatus, and cytosolic compartments, as well as by protein kinases and phosphatases associated with these structures. Recently, our group<sup>50</sup> demonstrated that Telmisartan, an angiotensin II receptor blocker, promotes reduction of endothelial dysfunction by means of eNOS activation via phosphorylation of specific sites, such as serine<sup>1177</sup> and serine<sup>635</sup> residues. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Nitric oxide, vascular tone and muscle vasodilatation</bold>
      </p>
      <p>After confirmation that NO is synthesized by endothelial cells and that it participates in the cardiovascular hemodynamic regulation, interest was focused on the quantification of its participation in this homeostasis of this system. Studies in vivo in healthy individuals demonstrated that the intra-arterial administration of <italic>N</italic><sup>G</sup>-monomethyl-L-arginine (L-NMMA) - an unspecific NOS activity blocker, reduces local blood flow by 25% to 50%<sup>51</sup>. Although the baseline vascular tone is the product of vasoconstrictor <italic>versus</italic> vasodilator forces, these results demonstrate that NO is, at least in part, the modulator of the phenotype at issue. </p>
      <p>During exercise and mental stress conditions, in addition to the tachycardic response and blood pressure increase, vasodilatation in the skeletal muscle bed is also observed as part of the physiological responses of body adjustment. It was hypothesized that part of this muscle vasodilator response would be modulated by a neural component, and this was later evidenced by the existence of cholinergic sympathetic fibers in the skeletal muscles of some mammal species, except for primates and humans. Electrical stimulation of the sympathetic nerve was verified to lead to vasodilatation in the human muscle bed when presynaptic norepinephrine release was inhibited by intra-arterial drug infusion. However, this vasodilator response was attenuated when a muscarinic antagonist was administered<sup>52,53</sup>. Later, it was evident that NO is, at least in part, the modulator of the vasodilator response verified when cholinergic sympathetic fibers are stimulated<sup>54</sup>. In fact, Blair et al<sup>55</sup> had already shown that forearm vasodilatation in humans during physiologic maneuvers is mediated by a neural component. During application of mental stress, blood flow in the sympathectomized limb did not change in comparison to the blood flow in the control limb. In addition, intra-arterial atropine infusion in the control limb reduced the increase in blood flow by approximately 50%. At that moment, using indirect evidence, the authors suggested the existence of cholinergic sympathetic enervation in the skeletal musculature of humans. Mimicking animal experiments, Dietz et al's studies<sup>56,57</sup> later showed that part of the muscle vasodilator response, as measured in the forearm during exercise or mental stress, is attenuated by the intra-arterial administration of L-NMMA. The mechanisms through which acetylcholine and NO are synthesized and released during the body defense reactions in humans are still not fully understood. Evidences obtained with pharmacological blockade permit only the suggestion of the existence of cholinergic sympathetic fibers in the skeletal musculature. Due to these limitations, the authors do not rule out the possibility of vasodilatation being caused by a combination between circulating and local factors. A small part of endothelial cells could synthesize and release acetylcholine<sup>58</sup>. In addition, activation of &#946;<sub>2</sub>-adrenergic receptors located in the vascular smooth muscle would result in relaxation of this tissue and, consequently, in vasodilatation. However, Majmudar et al<sup>59</sup> verified that part of the vasodilatation resulting from &#946;<sub>2</sub>-adrenoceptor activation is mediated by NO. Although the authors do not explain the mechanism responsible for this phenomenon, approximately 25% of the vasodilatation observed in the forearm with infusion of Ritodrine (a selective &#946;<sub>2</sub>-adrenergic agonist) was attenuated with the concomitant administration of L-NMMA. These results suggest the existence of &#946;<sub>2</sub>-adrenoceptors in the vascular endothelium, thus contributing to the increase in eNOS activity. In addition, increased mechanical stimulation of the vascular endothelium would result in increased NO synthesis via PI-3K-Akt kinase, with subsequent serine<sup>1177</sup> residue phosphorylation.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>eNOS polymorphisms and functional studies on the G894T variant</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Genotyped and sequenced in 1993 by Marsden et al<sup>38</sup> (GenBank D26607), eNOS is located in chromosome 7q35-36, and variations in its sequence have been described in the promoter, exons and introns<sup>27</sup>. The gene (21-22 kbp) comprises 26 exons and 25 introns with 133 kDa. The polypeptide sequence generated contains 1,203 amino acids<sup>38</sup>. The existence of three single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) in the promoter, in non-binding locations of transcription factors has already been described in the literature<sup>39</sup>. SNP were found in introns 2, 11, 12, 18, 22 and 23<sup>60</sup>, and repeat sequence polymorphisms in introns 2, 4, 8, and 13<sup>38,61</sup>. Of the polymorphisms found in exons 6 and 7, replacement of the nitrogenous base guanine for thymine (G<inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/p7h4BLBCJCDwwfmxJJyw5dc/7fc287201978a07c198e1c86db58e7bb4d589a4c.jpg"/>T) at position 894 located in exon 7 results in a change of the amino acid glutamate (GAG) to aspartate (GAT) at position 298 of the polypeptide sequence<sup>62</sup>. It is suggested that polymorphisms located in the gene promoter have an influence on mRNA transcription, whereas polymorphisms located in coding regions may result in changes in enzymatic activity<sup>63</sup>.</p>
      <p>Residue 298 is located outside in the oxidase domain of the enzyme, binding sites for L-arginine or BH<sub>4</sub>. Enzymatic studies using recombinant eNOS showed no difference in Michaelis constant (<italic>k</italic><sub>m</sub>) or in <italic>V</italic><sub>max</sub> between the two enzyme forms<sup>63</sup>. Although the enzymatic activity is seemingly not affected by the Asp<sup>298</sup> form of the enzyme, Tesauro et al<sup>64</sup> showed that this variant is more susceptible to proteolytic cleavage into 100 and 35 KDa fragments, more precisely in position Asp<sup>298</sup>-Pro<sup>299</sup>, in comparison to the Glu<sup>298 </sup>variant. However, Fairchild et al<sup>65</sup> demonstrated that this proteolytic susceptibility occurred because of an artifact of the sample preparation method. The inconsistency of these results does not rule out the possibility that an unknown proteolytic mechanism or even a change in post-transcriptional regulation may be modulated by the Asp<sup>298 </sup>variant of the enzyme in vivo.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Association between the G894T variant of the eNOS gene and cardiovascular phenotypes</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Several diseases have been associated with abnormalities in NO biosynthesis, and many of these conditions are related to autonomic dysfunction. Population genetics studies have demonstrated a significant association of eNOS gene G894T polymorphism with coronary artery disease (CAD)<sup>66-68</sup> and also with acetylcholine (Ach)-induced coronary vasospasm<sup>69</sup>. Among the cardiovascular dysfunctions, the G894T variant was also demonstrated to be associated with hypertension<sup>70,71</sup>, although this association had not been verified in other populations<sup>72,73</sup>.</p>
      <p>The correlation between genotype and clinical phenotype varies both quantitatively and qualitatively, and the inconsistent association between eNOS polymorphism and several clinical phenotypes is a phenomenon commonly observed in other phenotype-associated genes<sup>27</sup>. This inconsistency has been attributed to environmental factors, independent alleles, interaction between genes and variability in clinical phenotypes. The importance of environmental factors in the genesis of diseases is reflected in morbidity and mortality differences between genetically homogeneous groups, however with different life styles.</p>
      <p>A genetic variation may not be relevant to a determined population, thus reflecting differences in the frequency of allele distribution. One example is the frequency of the allele 894T, which is significantly higher in white populations in comparison to the Japanese population<sup>23</sup>. The inconsistent association between eNOS polymorphism and vascular changes is still being attributed to the variation in eNOS distribution in different organs. Arteries of specific organs are subject to different hemodynamic pressures, determining the vessel wall response and subsequent degree of endothelial dysfunction<sup>27</sup>.</p>
      <p>Philip et al<sup>62</sup> studied patients undergoing surgical revascularization and observed that vascular reactivity to phenylephrine (PE) infusion is influenced by the G894T variant of the eNOS gene. The dose-dependent vasoconstrictor response to PE was significantly greater for the TT and GT alleles in comparison to the homozygote GG group, thus indicating that vascular reactivity to vasoconstrictor drugs may be influenced by eNOS polymorphism in humans. The greater dose-dependent response of patients with the 894T variant suggests reduced NO biosynthesis. Systemic administration of <italic>N</italic><sup>G</sup>-nitro-<sub>L-</sub>arginine methyl esther (L-NAME) leads to hypertension in humans<sup>74,75</sup>. According to Frandsenn et al<sup>76</sup>, the administration of 4mg/kg of L-NAME in humans reduces eNOS activity by 67%. The possibly reduced NO bioavailability subsequent to eNOS gene variations is an important candidate to the susceptibility to the development of endothelial dysfunction<sup>62,63</sup> and changes in modulation of the sympathetic nervous activity on the vessel<sup>77</sup>.</p>
      <p>Studies demonstrating the association between the G894T variant of the eNOS gene and cardiovascular phenotypes point to a possible reduction in NO bioavailability, thus suggesting that eNOS transcribed from the mutant allele has an abnormal enzymatic activity. The lack of evidence supporting this rationale encouraged us to test the functionality of the genetic variant on the muscle vasodilatation phenotype<sup>78</sup>. If the G894T variant of the eNOS gene could reduce the enzymatic activity, individuals with the mutant allele (T) would show a smaller increase in muscle blood flow in response to the handgrip isometric exercise. In order to test this hypothesis, 287 individuals were genotyped; from these, 33 healthy individuals were selected to represent three genotypes: GG (wild type), GT and TT. The results showed that attenuated reflex muscle vasodilatation in response to exercise occurred only in the TT genotype, since vasodilatation among heterozygotes (GT genotype) was similar to that observed among homozygotes for the G allele (GG genotype). These results suggest that the presence of the G allele is sufficient to overcome a possible T allele deficiency. Subsequent analyses in vivo proved that the attenuated muscle vasodilatation observed in the TT genotype is a consequence of the reduced eNOS-mediated vasodilatation, since intra-arterial L-NMMA infusion did not change the vasodilator response to exercise in this genotype. In contrast, L-NMMA significantly reduced the vasodilator response to exercise in the GG genotype to values similar to those of the TT genotype. Also, our study demonstrated that the attenuated muscle vasodilatation observed in the TT genotype may not be accounted to a possibly increased vasoconstrictor sympathetic tone. In fact, the muscle sympathetic nervous activity, as measured directly in the fibular nerve using the microneurography technique, increased in a similar fashion among the genotypes during exercise. Although these results do not confirm the functionality of the T allele in the alteration of the enzymatic activity (this variant may be in linkage disequilibrium with other functional variant on the same gene or on a nearby gene on the same chromosome), they may be used as a marker of the dysfunction observed in the muscle vasodilatation phenotype. This is the first demonstration that the G894T variant of the eNOS gene is functionally associated with reduced eNOS-mediated vasodilatation. Also, these results suggest that the reduced endothelium-dependent vasodilatation may anticipate vascular dysfunction in individuals with the TT-genotype.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Conclusion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>NO synthases were proven to be constitutively expressed (eNOS and nNOS) and NO plays an important role in the regulation of cardiovascular activities. These facts aroused the interest for the understanding of the molecular and cellular mechanisms that regulate their functionality. Although these mechanisms are complexo and difficult to access, some of them have already been elucidated, thus permitting partial knowledge of the NO biology. In this context, the advances in molecular biology techniques enabled the identification of variants in the human genetic code that could, at least in part, explain the phenotypical response variation between individuals. Genetic association studies are not easy to understand. A single gene may have a small to moderate participation in the regulation of a multigenic phenotype and, in this situation, a determinate functional genetic variant in this gene would explain only a small part of the phenotype response variation. The screening of candidate genes, that is, the identification of multiple genes and their respective polymorphisms which trigger variations in the cardiovascular function leads to the moment when part of the diagnosis and management adopted for the treatment will be based on genomic medicine. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
      </p>
      <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This study was funded by FAPESP.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Study Association</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This article is part of the thesis of doctoral submitted by Rodrigo Gon&#231;alves Dias, from <italic>Universidade Estadual de Campinas e Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o - InCor (HCFMUSP) de S&#227;o Paulo</italic>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">1. Furchgott RF, Zawadzki JV. The obligatory role of endothelial cells in the relaxation of arterial smooth muscle by acetylcholine. Nature. 1980; 288: 373-6. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">2. Ignarro LJ, Buga GM, Wood KS, Byrns RE, Chaudhuri G. Endothelium-derived relaxing factor produced and released from artery and vein is nitric oxide. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1987; 84: 9265-9. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">3. Vila E, Salaices M. Cytokines and vascular reactivity in resistance arteries. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2005; 288: H1016-21. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">4. Moncada S, Palmer RM, Higgs EA. The biological significance of nitric oxide formation from L-arginine. Biochem Soc Trans. 1989; 17: 642-4. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">5. Kojda G, Harrison D. Interactions between NO and reactive oxygen species: pathophysiological importance in atherosclerosis, hypertension, diabetes and heart failure. Cardiovasc Res. 1999; 43: 562-71. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">6. Palmer RM, Ferrige AG, Moncada S. Nitric oxide release accounts for the biological activity of endothelium-derived relaxing factor. Nature. 1987; 327: 524-6. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">7. F&#246;rstermann U. Janus-faced role of endothelial NO synthase in vascular disease: uncoupling of oxygen reduction from NO synthesis and its pharmacological reversal. Biol Chem. 2006; 387 (12): 1521-33. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">8. Ludmer PL, Selwyn AP, Shook TL, Wayne RR, Mudge GH, Alexander RW, et al. Paradoxical vasoconstriction induced by acetylcholine in atherosclerotic coronary arteries. N Engl J Med. 1986; 315: 1046-51. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">9. Verma S, Buchanan MR, Anderson TJ. Endothelial function testing as a biomarker of vascular disease. Circulation. 2003; 108: 2054-9. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">10. Pepine CJ The impact of nitric oxide in cardiovascular medicine: untapped potential utility.Am J Med. 2009; 122 (5 Suppl): S10-5. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">11. Madamanchi NR, Vendrov A, Runge MS. Oxidative stress and vascular disease.Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2005; 25: 29-38. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">12. Cai H. NAD(P)H oxidase-dependent self-propagation of hydrogen peroxide and vascular disease. Circ Res. 2005; 96: 818-22. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">13. Gao L, Mann GE.Vascular NAD(P)H oxidase activation in diabetes: a double-edged sword in redox signalling.Cardiovasc Res. 2009; 82 (1): 9-20.  </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">14. De Gennaro Colonna V, Bianchi M, Pascale V, Ferrario P, Morelli F, Pascale W, et al. Asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA): an endogenous inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase and a novel cardiovascular risk molecule. Med Sci Monit. 2009; 15 (4): RA91-101. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">15. Sessa WC. eNOS at a glance. J Cell Sci. 2004; 117: 2427-9. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">16. Marletta MA. Nitric oxide synthase: aspects concerning structure and catalysis. Cell. 1994; 78: 927-30. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">17. Govers R, Rabelink TJ. Cellular regulation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2001; 280: F193-206. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">18. Stuehr DJ. Structure-function aspects in the nitric oxide synthases. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 1997; 37: 339-59. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">19. Ferreiro CR, Chagas AC, Carvalho MH, Dantas AP, Scavone C, Souza LC, et al. Expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase is increased in patients with heart failure due to ischemic disease. Braz J Med Biol Res. 2004; 37: 1313-20. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">20. Andrew PJ, Mayer B. Enzymatic function of nitric oxide synthases. Cardiovasc Res. 1999; 43: 521-31. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">21. Alderton WK, Cooper CE, Knowles RG. Nitric oxide synthases: structure, function and inhibition. Biochem J. 2001; 357: 593-615. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">22. Shaul PW, Anderson RG. Role of plasmalemmal caveolae in signal transduction. Am J Physiol. 1998; 275: L843-51. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">23. Wang XL, Sim AS, Wang MX, Murrell GA, Trudinger B, Wang J. Genotype dependent and cigarette specific effects on endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene expression and enzyme activity. FEBS Lett. 2000; 471: 45-50. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">24. Garcia-Cardena G, Martasek P, Masters BS, Skidd PM, Couet J, Li S, et al. Dissecting the interaction between nitric oxide synthase (NOS) and caveolin: functional significance of the nos caveolin binding domain in vivo. J Biol Chem. 1997; 272: 25437-40. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">25. Razani B, Lisanti MP. Caveolin-deficient mice: insights into caveolar function human disease. J Clin Invest. 2001; 108: 1553-61. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">26. Bucci M, Gratton JP, Rudic RD, Acevedo L, Roviezzo F, Cirino G, et al. In vivo delivery of the caveolin-1 scaffolding domain inhibits nitric oxide synthesis and reduces inflammation. Nat Med. 2000; 6: 1362-7. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">27. Wang XL, Wang J. Endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene sequence variations and vascular disease. Mol Genet Metab. 2000; 70: 241-51. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">28. Albrecht EW, Stegeman CA, Heeringa P, Henning RH, van Goor H. Protective role of endothelial nitric oxide synthase. J Pathol. 2003; 199: 8-17. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">29. Griffith OW, Stuehr DJ. Nitric oxide synthases: properties and catalytic mechanism. Annu Rev Physiol. 1995; 57: 707-36. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">30. Korth HG, Sustmann R, Thater C, Butler AR, Ingold KU. On the mechanism of the nitric oxide synthase-catalyzed conversion of N omega-hydroxyl-L-arginine to citrulline and nitric oxide. J Biol Chem. 1994; 269: 17776-9. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">31. Harrison DG. Cellular and molecular mechanisms of endothelial cell dysfunction. J Clin Invest. 1997; 100: 2153-7. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">32. Vasquez-Vivar J, Kalyanaraman B, Martasek P, Hogg N, Masters BS, Karoui H, et al. Superoxide generation by endothelial nitric oxide synthase: the influence of cofactors. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1998; 95: 9220-5. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">33. Cai H, Harrison DG. Endothelial dysfunction in cardiovascular diseases: the role of oxidant stress. Circ Res. 2000; 87: 840-4. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">34. Klatt P, Pfeiffer S, List BM, Lehner D, Glatter O, Bachinger HP, et al. Characterization of heme-deficient neuronal nitric-oxide synthase reveals a role for heme in subunit dimerization and binding of the amino acid substrate and tetrahydrobiopterin. J Biol Chem. 1996; 271: 7336-42. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">35. Mayer B, John M, Heinzel B, Werner ER, Wachter H, Schultz G, et al. Brain nitric oxide synthase is a biopterin- and flavin-containing multi-functional oxido-reductase. FEBS Lett. 1991; 288: 187-91. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">36. Beckman JS, Koppenol WH. Nitric oxide, superoxide, and peroxynitrite: the good, the bad, and ugly. Am J Physiol. 1996; 271: C1424-37. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">37. Searles CD. Transcriptional and posttranscriptional regulation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase expression. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2006; 291: C803-16. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">38. Marsden PA, Heng HH, Scherer SW, Stewart RJ, Hall AV, Shi XM, et al. Structure and chromosomal localization of the human constitutive endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene. J Biol Chem. 1993; 268: 17478-88. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">39. Karantzoulis-Fegaras F, Antoniou H, Lai SL, Kulkarni G, D'Abreo C, Wong GK, et al. Characterization of the human endothelial nitric-oxide synthase promoter. J Biol Chem. 1999; 274: 3076-93. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">40. Malek AM, Jiang L, Lee I, Sessa WC, Izumo S, Alper SL. Induction of nitric oxide synthase mRNA by shear stress requires intracellular calcium and G-protein signals and is modulated by PI 3 kinase. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1999; 254: 231-42. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">41. Silacci P, Formentin K, Bouzourene K, Daniel F, Brunner HR, Hayoz D. Unidirectional and oscillatory shear stress differentially modulate NOS III gene expression. Nitric Oxide. 2000;4:47-56. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">42. Davis ME, Grumbach IM, Fukai T, Cutchins A, Harrison DG. Shear stress regulates endothelial nitric-oxide synthase promoter activity through nuclear factor kappaB binding. J Biol Chem. 2004; 279: 163-8. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">43. Davis ME, Cai H, Drummond GR, Harrison DG. Shear stress regulates endothelial nitric oxide synthase expression through c-Src by divergent signaling pathways. Circ Res. 2001; 89: 1073-80. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">44. Michel T, Feron O. Nitric oxide synthases: which, where, how, and why? J Clin Invest. 1997; 100: 2146-52. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">45. Zhang Q, Church JE, Jagnandan D, Catravas JD, Sessa WC, Fulton D. Functional relevance of Golgi- and plasma membrane-localized endothelial NO synthase in reconstituted endothelial cells. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2006; 26: 1015-21. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">46. Boo YC, Kim HJ, Song H, Fulton D, Sessa W. Coordinated regulation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase activity by phosphorylation and subcellular localization. Free Radic Biol Med. 2006; 41 (1): 144-53. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">47. Fulton D, Gratton JP, McCabe TJ, Fontana J, Fujio Y, Walsh K, et al. Regulation of endothelium-derived nitric oxide production by the protein kinase Akt. Nature. 1999; 399: 597-601. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">48. Dimmeler S, Fleming I, Fisslthaler B, Hermann C, Busse R, Zeiher AM. Activation of nitric oxide synthase in endothelial cells by Akt-dependent phosphorylation. Nature. 1999; 399: 601-5. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">49. Mount PF, Kemp BE, Power DA. Regulation of endothelial and myocardial NO synthesis by multi-site eNOS phosphorylation. J Mol Cell Cardiol. 2007; 42: 271-9. </p>
      <p>50. Krieger MH, Di Lorenzo A, Sessa W. Telmisartan reverts endothelial</p>
      <p>dysfunction. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2009. In press.</p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">51. Joyner MJ, Dietz NM. Nitric oxide and vasodilation in human limbs. J Appl Physiol. 1997; 83: 1785-96. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">52. Abrahams VC, Hilton SM. The role of active muscle vasodilatation in the alerting stage of the defence reaction. J Physiol. 1964; 171: 189-202. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">53. Bolme P, Fuxe K. Adrenergic and cholinergic nerve terminals in skeletal muscle vessels. Acta Physiol Scand. 1970; 78: 52-9. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">54. Matsukawa K, Shindo T, Shirai M, Ninomiya I. Nitric oxide mediates cat hindlimb cholinergic vasodilation induced by stimulation of posterior hypothalamus. Jpn J Physiol. 1993; 43: 473-83. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">55. Blair DA, Glover WE, Greenfield AD, Roddie IC. Excitation of cholinergic vasodilator nerves to human skeletal muscles during emotional stress. J Physiol. 1959; 148: 633-47. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">56. Dietz NM, Rivera JM, Warner DO, Joyner MJ. Is nitric oxide involved in cutaneous vasodilation during body heating in humans? J Appl Physiol. 1994; 76: 2047-53. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">57. Dietz NM, Engelke KA, Samuel TT, Fix RT, Joyner MJ. Evidence for nitric oxide-mediated sympathetic forearm vasodiolatation in humans. J Physiol. 1997; 498 (Pt 2): 531-40. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">58. Milner P, Kirkpatrick KA, Ralevic V, Toothill V, Pearson J, Burnstock G. Endothelial cells cultured from human umbilical vein release ATP, substance P and acetylcholine in response to increased flow. Proc Biol Sci. 1990; 241: 245-8. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">59. Majmudar NG, Anumba D, Robson SC, Ford GA. Contribution of nitric oxide to beta2-adrenoceptor mediated vasodilatation in human forearm arterial vasculature. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1999; 47: 173-7. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">60. Poirier O, Mao C, Mallet C, Nicaud V, Herrmann SM, Evans A, et al. Polymorphisms of the endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene - no consistent association with myocardial infarction in the ECTIM study. Eur J Clin Invest. 1999; 29: 284-90. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">61. Miyahara K, Kawamoto T, Sase K, Yui Y, Toda K, Yang LX, et al. Cloning and structural characterization of the human endothelial nitric-oxide-synthase gene. Eur J Biochem. 1994; 223: 719-26. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">62. Philip I, Plantefeve G, Vuillaumier-Barrot S, Vicaut E, LeMarie C, Henrion D, et al. G894T polymorphism in the endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene is associated with an enhanced vascular responsiveness to phenylephrine. Circulation. 1999; 99: 3096-8. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">63. Hingorani AD. Polymorphisms in endothelial nitric oxide synthase and atherogenesis: John French Lecture 2000. Atherosclerosis. 2001; 154: 521-7. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">64. Tesauro M, Thompson WC, Rogliani P, Qi L, Chaudhary PP, Moss J. Intracellular processing of endothelial nitric oxide synthase isoforms associated with differences in severity of cardiopulmonary diseases: cleavage of proteins with aspartate vs. glutamate at position 298. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2000; 97: 2832-5. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">65. Fairchild TA, Fulton D, Fontana JT, Gratton JP, McCabe TJ, Sessa WC. Acidic hydrolysis as a mechanism for the cleavage of the Glu(298)--&gt;Asp variant of human endothelial nitric-oxide synthase. J Biol Chem. 2001; 276: 26674-9. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">66. Hingorani AD, Liang CF, Fatibene J, Lyon A, Monteith S, Parsons A, et al.. A common variant of the endothelial nitric oxide synthase (Glu298--&gt;Asp) is a major risk factor for coronary artery disease in the UK. Circulation. 1999; 100: 1515-20. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">67. Hibi K, Ishigami T, Tamura K, Mizushima S, Nyui N, Fujita T, et al. Endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene polymorphism and acute myocardial infarction. Hypertension. 1998; 32: 521-6. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">68. Shimasaki Y, Yasue H, Yoshimura M, Nakayama M, Kugiyama K, Ogawa H, et al. Association of the missense Glu298Asp variant of the endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene with myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1998; 31: 1506-10. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">69. Yoshimura M, Yasue H, Nakayama M, Shimasaki Y, Sumida H, Sugiyama S, et al. A missense Glu298Asp variant in the endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene is associated with coronary spasm in the Japanese. Hum Genet. 1998; 103: 65-9. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">70. Miyamoto Y, Saito Y, Kajiyama N, Yoshimura M, Shimasaki Y, Nakayama M, et al. Endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene is positively associated with essential hypertension. Hypertension. 1998; 32: 3-8. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">71. Lacolley P, Gautier S, Poirier O, Pannier B, Cambien F, Benetos A. Nitric oxide synthase gene polymorphisms, blood pressure and aortic stiffness in normotensive and hypertensive subjects. J Hypertens. 1998; 16: 31-5. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">72. Kato N, Sugiyama T, Morita H, Nabika T, Kurihara H, Yamori Y, et al. Lack of evidence for association between the endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene and hypertension. Hypertension. 1999; 33: 933-6. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">73. Benjafield AV, Morris BJ. Association analyses of endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene polymorphisms in essential hypertension. Am J Hypertens. 2000; 13: 994-8. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">74. Vallance P, Collier J, Moncada S. Effects of endothelium-derived nitric oxide on peripheral arteriolar tone in man. Lancet. 1989; 2: 997-1000. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">75. Haynes WG, Noon JP, Walker BR, Webb DJ. Inhibition of nitric oxide synthesis increases blood pressure in healthy humans. J Hypertens. 1993; 11: 1375-80. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">76. Frandsenn U, Bangsbo J, Sander M, Hoffner L, Betak A, Saltin B, et al. Exercise-induced hyperaemia and leg oxygen uptake are not altered during effective inhibition of nitric oxide synthase with N(G)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester in humans. J Physiol. 2001; 531: 257-64. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">77. Fabi F, Argiolas L, Chiavarelli M, Del Basso P. Nitric oxide-dependent and -independent modulation of sympathetic vasoconstriction in the human saphenous vein. Eur J Pharmacol. 1996; 309: 41-50. </p>
      <p>78. Dias RG, Alves MJ, Pereira AC, Rondon MU, Dos Santos MR, Krieger JE, et al. Glu298Asp eNOS gene polymorphism causes attenuation in non-exercising muscle vasodilatation. Physiol Genomics. 2009; 37 (2): 99-107.      </p>
      <p>
        <fn id="nota1-body2" fn-type="corresp">
          <label>
            <bold>Mailing address:</bold>
          </label>
          <p> Rodrigo Gon&#231;alves Dias</p>
          <p> Unidade de Hipertens&#227;o - Laborat&#243;rio de Gen&#233;tica e Cardiologia Molecular</p>
          <p> Av. Dr. En&#233;as de Carvalho Aguiar, 44 (2&#186; andar; Bloco II) - Cerqueira C&#233;sar</p>
          <p> 05403-000 - S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil</p>
          <p> E-mail: </p>
          <p>
            <email xlink:href="diasrg99@yahoo.com.br">diasrg99@yahoo.com.br</email>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p>Manuscript received February 12, 2009; revised manuscript received June 26, 2009; accepted August 14, 2009.</p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRes" xml:lang="es">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories/>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="es">&#211;xido n&#237;trico y sistema cardiovascular: activaci&#243;n celular, reactividad vascular y variante gen&#233;tica</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="es">
        <p>El &#243;xido n&#237;trico (NO), primariamente identificado como un factor relajante derivado del endotelio, es un radical libre actuante en la se&#241;alizaci&#243;n de diferentes procesos biol&#243;gicos. La identificaci&#243;n de las isoformas de las sintasas del NO (NOS) y la subsecuente caracterizaci&#243;n de los mecanismos de activaci&#243;n celulares de las enzimas posibilitaron tanto la comprensi&#243;n de parte de las interacciones fisiol&#243;gicas como la comprensi&#243;n de parte de los mecanismos de enfermedad, en la cual el NO est&#225; envuelto. La isoforma endotelial de la NOS (eNOS), expresada principalmente en el endotelio vascular, desempe&#241;a importante papel en la regulaci&#243;n de la reactividad vascular y en el desarrollo y en la progresi&#243;n de la aterosclerosis. Esta revisi&#243;n tiene el prop&#243;sito de contextualizar al lector sobre la estructura de la eNOS y sus mecanismos de activaci&#243;n celular. Teniendo en vista los avances de la biolog&#237;a molecular, trataremos aun de los conocidos mecanismos de regulaci&#243;n de la expresi&#243;n g&#233;nica y del papel de variantes en el c&#243;digo gen&#233;tico de la eNOS asociados a fenotipos cardiovasculares. Aunque se reconozca la importancia del NO como mol&#233;cula ateroprotectora, nuestra atenci&#243;n estar&#225; volcada a la revisi&#243;n de literatura envolviendo NO y su participaci&#243;n en la modulaci&#243;n del fenotipo de vasodilataci&#243;n muscular.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="es">
        <kwd>&#211;xido n&#237;trico</kwd>
        <kwd>&#243;xido n&#237;trico sintasa tipo III</kwd>
        <kwd>polimorfismo gen&#233;tico</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>ART&#205;CULO DE REVISI&#211;N</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>&#211;xido n&#237;trico y sistema cardiovascular: activaci&#243;n celular, reactividad vascular y variante gen&#233;tica</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Rodrigo Gon&#231;alves Dias<sup>I,II</sup>; Carlos Eduardo Negr&#227;o<sup>I</sup>; Marta Helena Krieger<sup>II</sup></bold>
      </p>
      <p><sup>I</sup>Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o - InCor (HCFMUSP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP</p>
      <p><sup>II</sup>Labcardio - Universidade Estadual de Campinas (Unicamp), Campinas, SP - Brasil</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="nota1-body3">Correspondencia</xref>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>RESUMEN</bold>
      </p>
      <p>El &#243;xido n&#237;trico (NO), primariamente identificado como un factor relajante derivado del endotelio, es un radical libre actuante en la se&#241;alizaci&#243;n de diferentes procesos biol&#243;gicos. La identificaci&#243;n de las isoformas de las sintasas del NO (NOS) y la subsecuente caracterizaci&#243;n de los mecanismos de activaci&#243;n celulares de las enzimas posibilitaron tanto la comprensi&#243;n de parte de las interacciones fisiol&#243;gicas como la comprensi&#243;n de parte de los mecanismos de enfermedad, en la cual el NO est&#225; envuelto. La isoforma endotelial de la NOS (eNOS), expresada principalmente en el endotelio vascular, desempe&#241;a importante papel en la regulaci&#243;n de la reactividad vascular y en el desarrollo y en la progresi&#243;n de la aterosclerosis. Esta revisi&#243;n tiene el prop&#243;sito de contextualizar al lector sobre la estructura de la eNOS y sus mecanismos de activaci&#243;n celular. Teniendo en vista los avances de la biolog&#237;a molecular, trataremos aun de los conocidos mecanismos de regulaci&#243;n de la expresi&#243;n g&#233;nica y del papel de variantes en el c&#243;digo gen&#233;tico de la eNOS asociados a fenotipos cardiovasculares. Aunque se reconozca la importancia del NO como mol&#233;cula ateroprotectora, nuestra atenci&#243;n estar&#225; volcada a la revisi&#243;n de literatura envolviendo NO y su participaci&#243;n en la modulaci&#243;n del fenotipo de vasodilataci&#243;n muscular. </p>
      <p><bold>Palabras clave:</bold> &#211;xido n&#237;trico, &#243;xido n&#237;trico sintasa tipo III, polimorfismo gen&#233;tico.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Introducci&#243;n</bold>
      </p>
      <p>La evidencia primaria de que el endotelio es un componente indispensable en la regulaci&#243;n del tono vascular surgi&#243; cuando an&#225;lisis experimentales demostraron que, en la ausencia de esa monocapa de epitelio pavimentoso, la vasodilataci&#243;n inducida por la acetilcolina no ocurr&#237;a. En aquel momento, Furchgott y Zawadzki<sup>1</sup> documentaron que, cuando era estimulado, el endotelio era capaz de liberar una sustancia vasoactiva que fue denominada factor relajante derivado del endotelio (EDRF, del ingl&#233;s <italic>endothelium-derived relaxing factor</italic>). Pasados algunos a&#241;os, el EDRF fue identificado por Ignarro et al<sup>2</sup> como el &#243;xido n&#237;trico (NO), un compuesto caracterizado en 1977 por Ferid Murad que, cuando liberado por nitratos, causaba relajaci&#243;n en c&#233;lulas musculares lisas. Ese contexto le vali&#243; a Robert F. Furchgott, Ferid Murad y Louis J. Ignarro el Premio Nobel de Fisiolog&#237;a o Medicina en 1998 (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="es_a12fig01-body3">fig. 1</xref>). Una serie de estudios fue responsable por la caracterizaci&#243;n de que el endotelio libera otros EDRF como la prostaciclina (PGI<sub>2</sub>) y el factor hiperpolarizante derivado del endotelio (EDHF, del ingl&#233;s <italic>endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factor</italic>), adem&#225;s de factores constritores derivados del endotelio (EDCF, del ingl&#233;s <italic>endothelium-derived contracting factors</italic>), como la endotelina (ET-1), productos de la v&#237;a de la ciclooxigenasa como el tromboxano A<sub>2</sub> (TXA<sub>2</sub>) y especies reactivas de ox&#237;geno como el ani&#243;n super&#243;xido (O<sub>2</sub><sup>.-</sup>)<sup>3</sup>. Esos descubrimientos asociados a la caracterizaci&#243;n del endotelio como un sensor biol&#243;gico capaz de detectar cualquier est&#237;mulo mec&#225;nico, f&#237;sico o qu&#237;mico - y responder a &#233;l - lo elev&#243; al puesto de un tejido multifuncional que desempe&#241;a importante papel en la homeostasia de todos los sistemas fisiol&#243;gicos.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="es_a12fig01-body3">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-96-01-0068-00012-gf01-es.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>&#211;xido n&#237;trico y sistema cardiovascular</bold>
      </p>
      <p>El NO, una mol&#233;cula gaseosa actuante en la se&#241;alizaci&#243;n de diferentes procesos biol&#243;gicos, es un radical libre que presenta un electr&#243;n desemparejado en la &#250;ltima capa y una vida media de 4 a 8 segundos en medio acuoso oxigenado<sup>4,5</sup>. Descripto como un gas l&#225;bil, capaz de libre difusi&#243;n en las membranas celulares, tal caracter&#237;stica colabora con su alta actividad biol&#243;gica<sup>6</sup>. El reconocimiento de que el endotelio vascular es un &#243;rgano activo y que su integridad favorece efectos ben&#233;ficos, como acci&#243;n antioxidante, antiinflamatoria, anticoagulante, profibrinol&#237;tica, inhibitoria de la adhesi&#243;n y migraci&#243;n de leucocitos, inhibitoria de la proliferaci&#243;n y migraci&#243;n de las c&#233;lulas musculares lisas, inhibitoria de la agregaci&#243;n y adhesi&#243;n plaquetaria, vino a ampliar aun m&#225;s las m&#250;ltiples acciones del NO<sup>7</sup>. As&#237;, ese escenario ateroproctetor es caracterizado por una armon&#237;a entre sustancias liberadas por el endotelio, en el cual el NO es citado como uno de los compuestos vasoactivos de mayor relevancia. Caracterizado como un desorden sist&#233;mico que antecede a la aterosclerosis y sus complicaciones, la disfunci&#243;n endotelial en arterias coronarias ateroscler&#243;ticas fue inicialmente demostrada por Ludmer et al<sup>8</sup> y, despu&#233;s, relacionada a la alteraci&#243;n en la biodisponibilidad del NO<sup>9</sup>. </p>
      <p>En la actual literatura, hay concordancia de que la reducida actividad biol&#243;gica de NO, causada tanto por la reducci&#243;n en la s&#237;ntesis como por el aumento de la degradaci&#243;n por el estr&#233;s oxidativo, ha sido identificada como el mecanismo de mayor relevancia en el proceso multifactorial en la disfunci&#243;n endotelial y en la participaci&#243;n de las principales disfunciones cardiovasculares<sup>10</sup>. As&#237;, la reducci&#243;n en la biodisponibilidad del NO y la consecuente disfunci&#243;n endotelial determinan, en el ambiente vascular, el desencadenamiento de eventos como alteraciones en el tono, disfunciones tromb&#243;ticas, proliferaci&#243;n y migraci&#243;n de c&#233;lulas musculares lisas (CML), y adhesi&#243;n de leucocitos<sup>11</sup>. En la disfunci&#243;n endotelial, ocurre tambi&#233;n el aumento de la producci&#243;n de especies reactivas de ox&#237;geno (ERO)<sup>12</sup>, y estas pueden reducir la disponibilidad de NO endotelial por diferentes v&#237;as: inactivaci&#243;n directa del NO por super&#243;xido, con formaci&#243;n de peroxinitrito (ONOO<sup>-</sup>)<sup>13</sup>; reducci&#243;n en la expresi&#243;n y en la actividad de las sintasas del NO, por causa de los cambios en sus sustratos o cofactores, y en el aumento de los niveles de dimetilarginina asim&#233;trica (ADMA)<sup>14</sup>; y, aun, desacoplamiento de la NOS endotelial causado por la oxidaci&#243;n aumentada de tetraidrobiopterina (BH<sub>4</sub>)<sup>15</sup>.</p>
      <p>El entendimiento de la complejidad de la funci&#243;n endotelial y la dificultad de estudiar cada uno de sus componentes aisladamente vienen siendo superados. En ese contexto, modelos animales capaces de reproducir una disfunci&#243;n endotelial fueron desarrollados, posibilitando, por ejemplo, el funcionamiento del sistema en condiciones de baja o aumentada biodisponibilidad de NO. Adem&#225;s de eso, estudios <italic>in vivo</italic> en humanos, a trav&#233;s de la infusi&#243;n intraarterial de compuestos con potencial de modular la funci&#243;n endoteliodependiente o endotelioindependiente, posibilitaron la investigaci&#243;n de los mecanismos moduladores de la funci&#243;n vascular en las diferentes condiciones fisiol&#243;gicas y enfermedades de mayor prevalencia. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sintasas de &#243;xido n&#237;trico</bold>
      </p>
      <p>La producci&#243;n enzim&#225;tica del NO a partir del amino&#225;cido L-arginina es mediada por una familia de tres sintasas de &#243;xido n&#237;trico (NOS), codificadas por genes distintos<sup>16</sup>. Las isoformas comparten 50%-60% de homolog&#237;a en la secuencia de amino&#225;cidos, en los dominios oxidasa y reductasa<sup>17</sup>. Esas isoformas exhiben caracter&#237;sticas distintas que reflejan sus funciones espec&#237;ficas <italic>in vivo</italic><sup>18</sup>.</p>
      <p>La sintasa endotelial del &#243;xido n&#237;trico (eNOS o NOS III; 7q35-36) y la sintasa neuronal del &#243;xido n&#237;trico (nNOS o NOS I; 12q24.2) poseen mecanismo de activaci&#243;n constitutivo (cNOS). La isoforma inducida (iNOS o NOS II; 17cen-q12) se encuentra expresada en procesos celulares anormales como en la insuficiencia card&#237;aca<sup>19</sup>, inducidas por citoquinas y agentes inflamatorios, lo que resulta en alto flujo de NO<sup>20,21</sup>. La eNOS, encontrada principalmente en las c&#233;lulas endoteliales en compartimientos denominados caveolas<sup>22</sup>, es esencial para la manutenci&#243;n del tono vascular basal. Ese tono es, en parte, mediado por la s&#237;ntesis del NO, un compuesto vasoactivo participante en la regulaci&#243;n del flujo sangu&#237;neo en los diversos lechos vasculares y, particularmente, en el flujo sangu&#237;neo coronario<sup>23</sup>. La ubicaci&#243;n subcelular de la s&#237;ntesis de NO ejerce gran influencia en su actividad biol&#243;gica. En la d&#233;cada de 1990, la identificaci&#243;n inicial de la ubicaci&#243;n de la eNOS en la caveola, en la membrana plasm&#225;tica de las c&#233;lulas, provey&#243; la base estructural para el reconocimiento de la compartimentaci&#243;n en los mecanismos de se&#241;alizaci&#243;n celular promovido por el NO. La subsecuente observaci&#243;n de que la eNOS interact&#250;a directamente con las prote&#237;nas estructurales de la caveola, las caveolinas, provey&#243; la evidencia bioqu&#237;mica de la interacci&#243;n entre eNOS y caveola y su implicaci&#243;n con numerosas mol&#233;culas de se&#241;alizaciones concentradas en ese ambiente de la membrana celular<sup>24</sup>. Un gran n&#250;mero de evidencias revel&#243; que las caveolas son capaces de reclutar numerosas mol&#233;culas de se&#241;alizaci&#243;n y regular sus actividades en vez de servir como simple soporte para el intercambio y el transporte celulares<sup>25</sup>. As&#237;, fue descripto que la eNOS se ubica dentro de la caveola y es mantenida en un estado menos activo por medio de su interacci&#243;n con la caveolina-1<sup>26</sup>. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Estructura de la eNOS</bold>
      </p>
      <p>La eNOS funciona como un d&#237;mero, constituida de dos mon&#243;meros id&#233;nticos, que, a su vez, pueden ser divididos funcional y estructuralmente en dos dominios principales: un dominio C-terminal reductasa, hom&#243;logo al citocromo P450 y que contiene sitios de ligaz&#243;n para NADPH, flavina mononucle&#243;tido (FMN) y flavina adenina dinucle&#243;tido (FAD), y un dominio N-terminal oxidasa, que abstrae un electr&#243;n del sustrato L-arginina y posee sitios de ligaz&#243;n para el hierro heme, para el cofactor tetraidrobiopterina (BH<sub>4</sub>) y para la L-arginina<sup>20,21,27</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="es_a12fig02-body3">fig. 2</xref>). La reacci&#243;n de cat&#225;lisis de las NOS constitutivas envuelve dos niveles de oxidaci&#243;n: la hidroxilaci&#243;n de la L-arginina en <italic>N<sup>G</sup></italic>-hidroxi-L-arginina, seguida de la oxidaci&#243;n de este intermediario con utilizaci&#243;n de un electr&#243;n de la NADPH, formando L-citrulina y NO<sup>28</sup>. Esa reacci&#243;n consume 1,5 mol de NADPH y 2 mols de ox&#237;geno por mol de L-citrulina formada<sup>16,29,30</sup>. Cofactores como hierro heme, BH<sub>4</sub> y L-arginina han sido particularmente estudiados, y la baja biodisponibilidad de estos induce al fen&#243;meno de la eNOS disfuncional<sup>31-33</sup>. El hierro heme es esencial para la dimerizaci&#243;n de las tres isoformas<sup>34</sup>, bajas concentraciones o ausencia de L-arginina catalizan la reducci&#243;n del ox&#237;geno en super&#243;xido (O<sub>2</sub><sup>.-</sup>)<sup>35</sup>, y niveles disminuidos de BH<sub>4 </sub>llevan a la producci&#243;n simult&#225;nea de NO y O<sub>2</sub><sup>.-</sup>, productos que reaccionan entre si formando peroxinitrito (ONOO<sup>-</sup>)<sup>36</sup>. </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="es_a12fig02-body3">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-96-01-0068-00012-gf02-es.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Regulaci&#243;n de la expresi&#243;n g&#233;nica y de la actividad de la eNOS</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Una vez verificado que las c&#233;lulas endoteliales contienen una concentraci&#243;n basal de la prote&#237;na eNOS, el gen de la eNOS fue considerado constitutivamente expresado. Es interesante que, estudios posteriores demostraron que concentraciones estables del mRNA son sujetas a un modesto nivel de regulaci&#243;n<sup>37</sup>. La regi&#243;n promotora del gen de la eNOS fue clonada, demostrando poseer un complejo mecanismo de regulaci&#243;n de la expresi&#243;n g&#233;nica. Semejante a la regi&#243;n promotora de genes constitutivamente expresados, la regi&#243;n promotora del gen de la eNOS no contiene la secuencia TATA Box. Mientras tanto, posee m&#250;ltiples secuencias DNA <italic>cis-</italic>regulatorias, incluyendo CCAT box, sitios Sp1, GATA motifis, CACCC box, sitios AP-1 y AP-2, regi&#243;n de ligaz&#243;n p53, elementos NF-1, adem&#225;s de secuencias responsivas a elementos esteroles y <italic>shear stress</italic><sup>38</sup>. Las secuencias promotoras humana y bovina presentan 75% de homolog&#237;a, sugiriendo una alta conservaci&#243;n evolutiva de la regulaci&#243;n transcripcional del gen. Ubicados en la regi&#243;n promotora proximal, los dominios regulatorios positivos I y II (PRD I y PRD II) est&#225;n envueltos en la regulaci&#243;n basal de la transcripci&#243;n g&#233;nica, presentando afinidad por los factores de transcripci&#243;n Sp-1, Sp-3, Ets-1, Elf-1, YY1 y prote&#237;na<italic> MYC-associatedzinc finger</italic><sup>39</sup>. Estudios <italic>in vitro</italic> demostraron que la responsividad del promotor de la eNOS al <italic>shear stress </italic>es dependiente de secuencias ubicadas entre -1.000 y -975, regi&#243;n relativa a la inicializaci&#243;n de la transcripci&#243;n<sup>40,41</sup>. Adem&#225;s de eso, la ligaz&#243;n de las subunidades p50 y p65 del NF-&#954;&#946; al elemento responsivo GAGACC (-990; -984), ubicado anteriormente al sitio de inicializaci&#243;n de la transcripci&#243;n, est&#225; envuelta en la activaci&#243;n del promotor por el <italic>shear stress</italic><sup>42</sup>. Y aun, la transcripci&#243;n en c&#233;lulas endoteliales bovina sometidas a flujo laminar present&#243; aumento de 9 veces del mRNA. Ese efecto fue mediado por dos mecanismos distintos: 1. aumento transiente de la transcripci&#243;n del gen y 2. subsecuente vida media prolongada del mRNA<sup>43</sup>. </p>
      <p>El mecanismo de activaci&#243;n de la eNOS ha sido descripto como el m&#225;s elaborado de las tres isoformas, reflejando la complejidad del control fisiol&#243;gico de los diferentes lechos vasculares<sup>17,44</sup>.El mecanismo cl&#225;sico de activaci&#243;n de las isoformas constitutivas es dependiente del calcio (Ca<sup>++</sup>), mientras que la iNOS es independiente de la elevaci&#243;n de las concentraciones intracelulares de Ca<sup>++</sup>, debido a alta afinidad de la ligaz&#243;n de la enzima con la calmodulina<sup>31,39,44</sup>. </p>
      <p>La complejidad de los mecanismos de regulaci&#243;n post transcripcionales de la eNOS ha sido considerada, tanto como consecuencia de la dimerizaci&#243;n de las subunidades de la prote&#237;na como en funci&#243;n del papel de la prote&#237;na caveolina en la formaci&#243;n de la estructura caveolar<sup>45</sup>. La eNOS se ubica dentro de la caveola y es mantenida en un estado menos activo por su interacci&#243;n con la caveolina-1<sup>26</sup>. Los mecanismos de migraci&#243;n de la membrana celular para el complejo de Golgi y las fosforilaciones Akt, PKA y AMPK-quinasa dependientes son descriptos como responsables por la activaci&#243;n de esa isoforma de la EN LOS. As&#237;, la interacci&#243;n mantiene la eNOS inactiva, y la calmodulina act&#250;a directamente, compitiendo con la caveolina, para promover la activaci&#243;n calcio-dependiente de la enzima<sup>15</sup>. La actividad de la eNOS es bien conocida en el ambiente vascular y es regulada por seis mecanismos despu&#233;s de su traducci&#243;n: inclusi&#243;n de l&#237;pidos, mecanismo calcio/calmodulina dependiente, interacciones directas prote&#237;na-prote&#237;na, diferentes fosforilaciones sitio dirigidas, glucosilaci&#243;n y disponibilidad de substratos y cofactores. As&#237;, la eNOS puede interactuar con varias prote&#237;nas en sus estados "menos activos" o "m&#225;s activos". Son requeridas etapas de N-meristolaci&#243;n y palmitaci&#243;n de la eNOS ligada a plamalema, que, en este estado, se encuentra asociada a caveolina-1 y a HSP 90. La prote&#237;na que hace interacci&#243;n con la HSP70, denominada "CHIP", interact&#250;a con ambas HSP70 y HSP90, y regula negativamente el tr&#225;fico de la eNOS para el complejo de Golgi, en contraste con la "NOSIP" y "NOSTRIN" que pueden regular negativamente la ubicaci&#243;n de la eNOS en la membrana plasm&#225;tica. El principal mecanismo de activaci&#243;n de la eNOS se da por la fosforilaci&#243;n del amino&#225;cido serina en la posici&#243;n 1177<sup>46</sup> por la enzima Akt-quinasa (o prote&#237;na quinasa B), lo que aumenta la sensibilidad de la eNOS a las concentraciones basales de Ca<sup>++</sup>/calmodulina<sup>47</sup>. La activaci&#243;n t&#243;nica o f&#225;sica de la eNOS en respuesta al flujo sangu&#237;neo es independiente de las alteraciones en la concentraci&#243;n del Ca<sup>++</sup> y se constituye del <italic>shear-stress. </italic>Dimmeler et al<sup>48</sup> demostraron que el intercambio del residuo de serina<sup>1177/1179 </sup>por el amino&#225;cido alanina vuelve a la eNOS incapaz de responder a la fosforilaci&#243;n y activaci&#243;n por la enzima Akt, una v&#237;a dependiente de fosfatidilinositol-3 quinasa (PI-3K). Aunque la fosforilaci&#243;n del residuo de serina<sup>1177</sup> desempe&#241;e un papel preponderante en la activaci&#243;n enzim&#225;tica de la eNOS, es sabido que su regulaci&#243;n tambi&#233;n depende del est&#225;ndar de fosforilaci&#243;n de otros sitios actualmente bien caracterizados<sup>49</sup>. La fosforilaci&#243;n del residuo de serina<sup>633</sup>, ubicado en el dominio de ligaz&#243;n de la flavina mononucle&#243;tido (FMN), tambi&#233;n aumenta la actividad de la eNOS y parece ser particularmente importante en la manutenci&#243;n de la s&#237;ntesis de NO despu&#233;s de la activaci&#243;n por Ca<sup>++</sup>/calmodulina y fosforilaci&#243;n del residuo de serina<sup>1177</sup>. Fosforilado por la prote&#237;na quinasa C (PKC), el residuo de treonina<sup>495</sup> interfiere con el dominio de ligaz&#243;n de la calmodulina, regulando negativamente la s&#237;ntesis del NO. </p>
      <p>Recientes estudios han evaluado la capacidad de determinados f&#225;rmacos en la reducci&#243;n de la disfunci&#243;n endotelial, como los antioxidantes y bloqueadores del sistema renina-angiotensina, por medio de los mecanismos de activaci&#243;n de la eNOS v&#237;a fosforilaci&#243;n del sitios espec&#237;ficos como el residuo de serina<sup>1177</sup>. Esa fosforilaci&#243;n puede ser afectada por la ubicaci&#243;n subcelular de la enzima, tales como caveola, uniones intercelulares, complejo de Golgi y compartimientos citos&#243;licos, as&#237; como por quinasas proteicas y fosfatasas asociadas a esas estructuras. Recientemente, nuestro grupo<sup>50</sup> demostr&#243; que el Telmisartan, bloqueador del receptor de angiotensina II, promueve reducci&#243;n de la disfunci&#243;n endotelial por medio de la activaci&#243;n de la eNOS v&#237;a fosforilaci&#243;n de sitios espec&#237;ficos, como el residuo de serina<sup>1177</sup> y serina<sup>635</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>&#211;xido n&#237;trico, tono vascular y vasodilataci&#243;n muscular</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Despu&#233;s de la verificaci&#243;n de que el NO es sintetizado por las c&#233;lulas endoteliales y que participa de la regulaci&#243;n hemodin&#225;mica cardiovascular, el inter&#233;s comenz&#243; a concentrarse en la cuantificaci&#243;n de su participaci&#243;n en la homeostasia de ese sistema. Estudios <italic>in vivo </italic>en individuos sanos demostraron que la administraci&#243;n intraarterial de <italic>N</italic><sup>G</sup>-monometil-L-arginina (L-NMMA), un bloqueador inespec&#237;fico de la actividad de las NOS, reduce el flujo sangu&#237;neo local entre 25% y 50%<sup>51</sup>. Aunque el tono vascular basal sea el producto de las fuerzas constrictoras <italic>versus</italic> fuerzas vasodilatadoras, esos resultados demuestran que el NO es, por lo menos en parte, el modulador del fenotipo en cuesti&#243;n. </p>
      <p>Durante condiciones de estr&#233;s mental y ejercicio, es observado, juntamente con la respuesta taquic&#225;rdica y el aumento de la presi&#243;n arterial, vasodilataci&#243;n en lecho muscular esquel&#233;tico como parte de las respuestas fisiol&#243;gicas de ajuste del organismo. Fue postulado que parte de esa respuesta vasodilatadora muscular ser&#237;a modulada por un componente neural, lo que qued&#243; evidente posteriormente por la existencia de fibras simp&#225;ticas colin&#233;rgicas para la musculatura esquel&#233;tica de algunas especies de mam&#237;feros, con excepci&#243;n de primates y humanos. Se verific&#243; que la estimulaci&#243;n el&#233;ctrica del nervio simp&#225;tico provocaba vasodilataci&#243;n en lecho muscular humano cuando la liberaci&#243;n presin&#225;ptica de noradrenalina era inhibida por la infusi&#243;n intraarterial de f&#225;rmacos. Mientras tanto, esa respuesta vasodilatadora se mostr&#243; atenuada cuando un antagonista muscar&#237;nico fue administrado<sup>52,53</sup>. Posteriormente, qued&#243; evidente que el NO se constituye, por lo menos en parte, como el modulador de la respuesta vasodilatadora verificada cuando fibras simp&#225;ticas colin&#233;rgicas son estimuladas<sup>54</sup>. De hecho, Blair et al<sup>55</sup> ya hab&#237;an evidenciado que, en humanos, la vasodilataci&#243;n en el antebrazo, durante maniobras fisiol&#243;gicas, es mediada por un componente neural. Durante la aplicaci&#243;n del estr&#233;s mental, el flujo sangu&#237;neo en el miembro simpatectomizado no se alteraba, cuando era comparado al flujo sangu&#237;neo en el miembro control. Adem&#225;s de eso, la infusi&#243;n intraarterial de atropina en el miembro control reduc&#237;a en aproximadamente 50% el aumento en el flujo sangu&#237;neo. En aquel momento, utilizando las evidencias indirectas, los autores sugirieron la existencia de inervaci&#243;n simp&#225;tica colin&#233;rgica para la musculatura esquel&#233;tica de humanos. Mimetizando los experimentos en animales, m&#225;s tarde los estudios de Dietz et al<sup>56,57</sup> dejaron evidente que parte de la respuesta vasodilatadora muscular, medida en el antebrazo, durante el estr&#233;s mental o el ejercicio es atenuada con la administraci&#243;n intraarterial del L-NMMA. Los mecanismos por los cuales la acetilcolina y el NO son sintetizados y liberados durante las reacciones de defensa del organismo no est&#225;n completamente elucidados en humanos. Las evidencias alcanzadas con bloqueos farmacol&#243;gicos permiten apenas sugerir la existencia de fibras simp&#225;ticas colin&#233;rgicas para la musculatura esquel&#233;tica. En consecuencia de tales limitaciones, los autores no descartan la posibilidad de que la vasodilataci&#243;n sea causada por una combinaci&#243;n entre factores circulantes y locales. Una peque&#241;a parte de las c&#233;lulas endoteliales podr&#237;a sintetizar y liberar acetilcolina<sup>58</sup>. Adem&#225;s de eso, la activaci&#243;n de receptores &#946;<sub>2</sub>-adren&#233;rgicos ubicados en el m&#250;sculo liso vascular resultar&#237;a en la relajaci&#243;n de ese tejido y, en consecuencia, en la vasodilataci&#243;n. Mientras tanto, Majmudar et al<sup>59</sup> verificaron que parte de la vasodilataci&#243;n resultante de la activaci&#243;n de los &#946;<sub>2</sub>-adrenoceptores es mediada por el NO. Aunque los autores no expliquen el mecanismo responsable por ese fen&#243;meno, aproximadamente 25% de la vasodilataci&#243;n observada en el antebrazo con la infusi&#243;n de Ritodrine (agonista selectivo &#946;<sub>2</sub>-adren&#233;rgico) fue atenuada con la confusi&#243;n de L-NMMA. Esos resultados sugieren la existencia de los &#946;<sub>2</sub>-adrenoceptores en el endotelio vascular, contribuyendo al aumento de la actividad de la eNOS. Adem&#225;s de eso, el aumento de la estimulaci&#243;n mec&#225;nica del endotelio vascular resultar&#237;a en s&#237;ntesis aumentada de EN EL, v&#237;a PI-3K-Akt quinasa, con subsecuente fosforilaci&#243;n del residuo de serina<sup>1177</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Polimorfismos de la eNOS y estudios funcionales de la variante G894T </bold>
      </p>
      <p>Genotipada y secuenciada en 1993 por Marsden et al<sup>38</sup> (GenBank D26607), la eNOS est&#225; ubicada en el cromosoma 7q35-36, y variaciones en su secuencia han sido descriptas en la regi&#243;n promotora, exones e intrones<sup>27</sup>. El gen (21-22 kbp) comprende 26 exones y 25 intrones con 133 kDa. La secuencia polipept&#237;dica generada contiene 1.203 amino&#225;cidos<sup>38</sup>. Ya est&#225; descripta en la literatura la existencia de tres polimorfismos de un &#250;nico nucle&#243;tido (SNP) en la regi&#243;n promotora, en localizaciones de no ligaz&#243;n de factores de transcripci&#243;n<sup>39</sup>. En los intrones 2, 11, 12, 18, 22 y 23, fueron encontrados SNP<sup>60</sup> y polimorfismos de secuencias repetidas en los intrones 2, 4, 8 y 13<sup>38,61</sup>. De los polimorfismos encontrados en los exones 6 y 7, la sustituci&#243;n de la base nitrogenada guanina por timina (G<inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/p7h4BLBCJCDwwfmxJJyw5dc/e27027fd88352d609f2b4ab64dc9e5712e3b460e.jpg"/>T), en la posici&#243;n 894 ubicada en el ex&#243;n 7, resulta en la sustituci&#243;n del amino&#225;cido glutamato (GAG) por aspartato (GAT) en la posici&#243;n 298 de la secuencia polipept&#237;dica<sup>62</sup>. Se sugiere que los polimorfismos ubicados en la regi&#243;n promotora del gen desempe&#241;an influencia en la transcripci&#243;n del RNAm, mientras que los polimorfismos ubicados en regiones codificadoras pueden resultar en alteraci&#243;n de actividad enzim&#225;tica<sup>63</sup>. </p>
      <p>El residuo 298 est&#225; ubicado externamente en el dominio oxidasa de la enzima, sitios de ligaz&#243;n para L-arginina o BH<sub>4</sub>. Estudios enzim&#225;ticos que utilizaron eNOS recombinante mostraron que no hay diferencia en la constante de Michaelis (<italic>k</italic><sub>m</sub>) ni en la <italic>V</italic><sub>m&#225;x.</sub> entre las dos formas de la enzima<sup>63</sup>. Aunque la actividad enzim&#225;tica parezca no ser afectada por la forma Asp<sup>298</sup> de la enzima, Tesauro et al<sup>64</sup> mostraron que esa variante presenta mayor susceptibilidad al clivaje proteol&#237;tico en fragmentos de 100 y 35 KDa, precisamente en la posici&#243;n Asp<sup>298</sup>-Pro<sup>299</sup>, cuando es comparada a la variante Glu<sup>298</sup>. Mientras tanto, Fairchild et al<sup>65</sup> demostraron que tal susceptibilidad proteol&#237;tica ocurr&#237;a por causa de un artefacto de la preparaci&#243;n del experimento. La inconsistencia de esos resultados no excluye la posibilidad de que, <italic>in vivo, </italic>un desconocido mecanismo proteol&#237;tico, o hasta aun una alteraci&#243;n en la regulaci&#243;n post transcripcional, pueda estar siendo modulado por la variante Asp<sup>298</sup> de la enzima. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Asociaci&#243;n de la variante G894T del gen de la eNOS con fenotipos cardiovasculares</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Diversas enfermedades han sido asociadas a anormalidades en la bios&#237;ntesis del NO, y muchas de esas condiciones est&#225;n relacionadas a la disfunci&#243;n auton&#243;mica. Estudios en gen&#233;tica poblacional han demostrado importante asociaci&#243;n del polimorfismo G894T del gen de la eNOS con enfermedad arterial coronaria (EAC)<sup>66-68</sup> y tambi&#233;n con el espasmo coronario inducido por acetilcolina (Ach)<sup>69</sup>. Entre las disfunciones cardiovasculares, fue aun verificado que la variante G894T se encuentra asociada a la hipertensi&#243;n arterial<sup>70,71</sup>, aunque esa asociaci&#243;n no haya sido verificada en otras poblaciones<sup>72,73</sup>.</p>
      <p>La correlaci&#243;n entre genotipo y fenotipo cl&#237;nico var&#237;a cuantitativa y cualitativamente, y la inconsistente asociaci&#243;n entre el polimorfismo de la eNOS y varios fenotipos cl&#237;nicos es un fen&#243;meno frecuentemente observado en otros genes asociados la fen&#243;tipos<sup>27</sup>. Esa inconsistencia ha sido atribuida a factores ambientales, alelos independientes, interacci&#243;n entre genes y variabilidades en fenotipos cl&#237;nicos. La importancia de los factores ambientales en la g&#233;nesis de enfermedades se refleja en las diferencias de morbilidad y mortalidad entre grupos gen&#233;ticamente homog&#233;neos, aunque con estilos de vida diferentes.</p>
      <p>Una variaci&#243;n gen&#233;tica puede no ser relevante a una determinada poblaci&#243;n, reflejando diferencias en la frecuencia de la distribuci&#243;n de los alelos. Un ejemplo de eso es la frecuencia del alelo 894T que es significativamente mayor en poblaciones blancas cuando es comparado a la poblaci&#243;n japonesa<sup>23</sup>. La inconsistente asociaci&#243;n entre el polimorfismo de la eNOS y las alteraciones vasculares aun ha sido atribuida a la variaci&#243;n en la distribuci&#243;n de la eNOS en diferentes &#243;rganos. Arterias de &#243;rganos espec&#237;ficos son sujetas a diferentes presiones hemodin&#225;micas, determinando la respuesta de la pared del vaso y el consecuente grado de disfunci&#243;n endotelial<sup>27</sup>.</p>
      <p>Philip et al<sup>62</sup> observaron, en pacientes sometidos a cirug&#237;a de revascularizaci&#243;n, que la reactividad vascular a la infusi&#243;n de fenilefrina (PE) es influenciada por la variante G894T del gen de la eNOS. La respuesta vasoconstrictora dosis-dependiente a la PE fue significativamente mayor para los alelos TT y GT, cuando fue comparada al grupo homocigoto GG, indicando que la reactividad vascular a las drogas vasoconstrictoras puede ser influenciada por el polimorfismo de la eNOS en humanos. La mayor respuesta dosis-dependiente de los pacientes con la variante 894T sugiere una reducida bios&#237;ntesis del NO. La administraci&#243;n sist&#233;mica de <italic>N</italic><sup>G</sup>-nitro-<sub>L-</sub>arginina metil ester (L-NAME) provoca hipertensi&#243;n en humanos<sup>74,75</sup>. Seg&#250;n Frandsenn et al<sup>76</sup>, la administraci&#243;n de 4 mg/kg de L-NAME en humanos reduce en 67% la actividad de la eNOS. La posible biodisponibilidad reducida del NO, en consecuencia de las variaciones en el gen de la eNOS, es un importante candidata para la susceptibilidad al desarrollo de la disfunci&#243;n endotelial<sup>62,63</sup> y a la alteraci&#243;n de la modulaci&#243;n de la actividad nerviosa simp&#225;tica sobre el vaso<sup>77</sup>. </p>
      <p>Las investigaciones que demostraron asociaci&#243;n de la variante G894T del gen de la eNOS con fenotipos cardiovasculares se&#241;alan una posible reducci&#243;n de la biodisponibilidad del NO, sugiriendo que la eNOS transcripta del alelo mutante presenta actividad enzim&#225;tica alterada. La falta de evidencias sobre este racional nos incentiv&#243; a testear la funcionalidad de la variante gen&#233;tica en el fenotipo de vasodilataci&#243;n muscular<sup>78</sup>. Si la variante G894T del gen de la eNOS fuese capaz de disminuir la actividad enzim&#225;tica, individuos portadores del alelo mutante (T) presentar&#237;an menor aumento del flujo sangu&#237;neo muscular en respuesta al ejercicio isom&#233;trico de <italic>handgrip</italic>. Para testear tal hip&#243;tesis, 287 individuos fueron genotipados, y, entre ellos, se seleccionaron 33 sanos para representar tres genotipos: GG (<italic>wild-type</italic>), GT y TT. Como resultado, la atenuada vasodilataci&#243;n muscular refleja al ejercicio ocurri&#243; apenas en el genotipo TT, una vez que la vasodilataci&#243;n entre los heterocigotos (genotipo GT) fue similar a aquella observada entre los individuos homocigotos para el alelo G (genotipo GG). Esos resultados sugieren que la presencia del alelo G es lo suficiente para superar la posible deficiencia del alelo T. An&#225;lisis subsecuentes <italic>in vivo</italic> comprobaron que la atenuada vasodilataci&#243;n muscular observada en el genotipo TT es consecuencia de la reducida vasodilataci&#243;n mediada por la eNOS, una vez que la infusi&#243;n intraarterial de L-NMMA no alter&#243; la respuesta vasodilatadora al ejercicio en ese genotipo. En contraste, el L-NMMA redujo de forma significativa la respuesta vasodilatadora al ejercicio en el genotipo GG, para valores similares a los del genotipo TT. Adem&#225;s de eso, nuestro estudio demostr&#243; que la atenuada vasodilataci&#243;n muscular observada en el genotipo TT no puede ser acreditada a un posible tono simp&#225;tico vasoconstrictor aumentado. De hecho, la actividad nerviosa simp&#225;tica muscular, medida directamente en el nervio fibular por la t&#233;cnica de microneurograf&#237;a, aument&#243; de forma semejante entre los genotipos durante el ejercicio. Aunque esos resultados no confirmen la funcionalidad del alelo T en la alteraci&#243;n de la actividad enzim&#225;tica (esa variante puede estar en desequilibrio de ligaz&#243;n con otra variante funcional en el mismo gen o en un gen pr&#243;ximo en el mismo cromosoma), pueden ser utilizados como un marcador de la disfunci&#243;n observada del fenotipo de vasodilataci&#243;n muscular. Esta es la primera demostraci&#243;n de que la variante G894T del gen de la eNOS est&#225; funcionalmente asociado a la reducida vasodilataci&#243;n mediada por la eNOS. Adem&#225;s de eso, tales resultados sugieren que la reducida vasodilataci&#243;n endotelio-dependiente pueda anticipar una disfunci&#243;n vascular en individuos portadores del genotipo TT.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Conclusi&#243;n</bold>
      </p>
      <p>La verificaci&#243;n de que las sintasas de NO son constitutivamente expresadas (eNOS y nNOS) y que el NO desempe&#241;a importante funci&#243;n en la regulaci&#243;n de las actividades cardiovasculares aument&#243; el inter&#233;s por el entendimiento de los mecanismos celulares y moleculares que rigen su funcionalidad. Aunque esos mecanismos sean complejos y de dif&#237;cil acceso, una parte de ellos ya fue elucidada, permitiendo parcial comprensi&#243;n de la biolog&#237;a del NO. En ese contexto, los avances en las t&#233;cnicas de biolog&#237;a molecular posibilitaron la identificaci&#243;n de variantes en el c&#243;digo gen&#233;tico humano que pudiesen explicar, por lo menos en parte, la variaci&#243;n de respuesta fenot&#237;pica entre individuos. Los estudios de asociaci&#243;n en gen&#233;tica no son f&#225;ciles de comprender. Un &#250;nico gen puede desempe&#241;ar de media a moderada participaci&#243;n en la regulaci&#243;n de un fenotipo multig&#233;nico, y, en esa situaci&#243;n, una determinada variante gen&#233;tica funcional en ese gen podr&#237;a explicar apenas una peque&#241;a parte de la variaci&#243;n de respuesta del fenotipo. El rastreo de genes candidatos, o sea, la identificaci&#243;n de m&#250;ltiples genes y sus respectivos polimorfismos desencadenantes de variaciones en la funci&#243;n cardiovascular, camina hacia el momento en que parte del diagn&#243;stico y de la conducta adoptados para el tratamiento ser&#225; basada en la medicina gen&#243;mica. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potencial Conflicto de Intereses</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Declaro no haber conflicto de intereses pertinentes.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Fuentes de Financiamiento</bold>
      </p>
      <p>El presente estudio fue financiado por la FAPESP.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Vinculaci&#243;n Acad&#233;mica</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Este art&#237;culo es parte de tesis de Doctorado de Rodrigo Gon&#231;alves Dias por la Universidad Estadual de Campinas e Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o - InCor (HCFMUSP) de S&#227;o Paulo.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Referencias</bold>
      </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">1. Furchgott RF, Zawadzki JV. The obligatory role of endothelial cells in the relaxation of arterial smooth muscle by acetylcholine. Nature. 1980; 288: 373-6. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">2. Ignarro LJ, Buga GM, Wood KS, Byrns RE, Chaudhuri G. Endothelium-derived relaxing factor produced and released from artery and vein is nitric oxide. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1987; 84: 9265-9. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">3. Vila E, Salaices M. Cytokines and vascular reactivity in resistance arteries. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2005; 288: H1016-21. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">4. Moncada S, Palmer RM, Higgs EA. The biological significance of nitric oxide formation from L-arginine. Biochem Soc Trans. 1989; 17: 642-4. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">5. Kojda G, Harrison D. Interactions between NO and reactive oxygen species: pathophysiological importance in atherosclerosis, hypertension, diabetes and heart failure. Cardiovasc Res. 1999; 43: 562-71. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">6. Palmer RM, Ferrige AG, Moncada S. Nitric oxide release accounts for the biological activity of endothelium-derived relaxing factor. Nature. 1987; 327: 524-6. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">7. F&#246;rstermann U. Janus-faced role of endothelial NO synthase in vascular disease: uncoupling of oxygen reduction from NO synthesis and its pharmacological reversal. Biol Chem. 2006; 387 (12): 1521-33. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">8. Ludmer PL, Selwyn AP, Shook TL, Wayne RR, Mudge GH, Alexander RW, et al. Paradoxical vasoconstriction induced by acetylcholine in atherosclerotic coronary arteries. N Engl J Med. 1986; 315: 1046-51. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">9. Verma S, Buchanan MR, Anderson TJ. Endothelial function testing as a biomarker of vascular disease. Circulation. 2003; 108: 2054-9. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">10. Pepine CJ The impact of nitric oxide in cardiovascular medicine: untapped potential utility.Am J Med. 2009; 122 (5 Suppl): S10-5. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">11. Madamanchi NR, Vendrov A, Runge MS. Oxidative stress and vascular disease.Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2005; 25: 29-38. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">12. Cai H. NAD(P)H oxidase-dependent self-propagation of hydrogen peroxide and vascular disease. Circ Res. 2005; 96: 818-22. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">13. Gao L, Mann GE.Vascular NAD(P)H oxidase activation in diabetes: a double-edged sword in redox signalling.Cardiovasc Res. 2009; 82 (1): 9-20.  </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">14. De Gennaro Colonna V, Bianchi M, Pascale V, Ferrario P, Morelli F, Pascale W, et al. Asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA): an endogenous inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase and a novel cardiovascular risk molecule. Med Sci Monit. 2009; 15 (4): RA91-101. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">15. Sessa WC. eNOS at a glance. J Cell Sci. 2004; 117: 2427-9. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">16. Marletta MA. Nitric oxide synthase: aspects concerning structure and catalysis. Cell. 1994; 78: 927-30. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">17. Govers R, Rabelink TJ. Cellular regulation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2001; 280: F193-206. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">18. Stuehr DJ. Structure-function aspects in the nitric oxide synthases. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 1997; 37: 339-59. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">19. Ferreiro CR, Chagas AC, Carvalho MH, Dantas AP, Scavone C, Souza LC, et al. Expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase is increased in patients with heart failure due to ischemic disease. Braz J Med Biol Res. 2004; 37: 1313-20. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">20. Andrew PJ, Mayer B. Enzymatic function of nitric oxide synthases. Cardiovasc Res. 1999; 43: 521-31. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">21. Alderton WK, Cooper CE, Knowles RG. Nitric oxide synthases: structure, function and inhibition. Biochem J. 2001; 357: 593-615. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">22. Shaul PW, Anderson RG. Role of plasmalemmal caveolae in signal transduction. Am J Physiol. 1998; 275: L843-51. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">23. Wang XL, Sim AS, Wang MX, Murrell GA, Trudinger B, Wang J. Genotype dependent and cigarette specific effects on endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene expression and enzyme activity. FEBS Lett. 2000; 471: 45-50. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">24. Garcia-Cardena G, Martasek P, Masters BS, Skidd PM, Couet J, Li S, et al. Dissecting the interaction between nitric oxide synthase (NOS) and caveolin: functional significance of the nos caveolin binding domain in vivo. J Biol Chem. 1997; 272: 25437-40. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">25. Razani B, Lisanti MP. Caveolin-deficient mice: insights into caveolar function human disease. J Clin Invest. 2001; 108: 1553-61. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">26. Bucci M, Gratton JP, Rudic RD, Acevedo L, Roviezzo F, Cirino G, et al. In vivo delivery of the caveolin-1 scaffolding domain inhibits nitric oxide synthesis and reduces inflammation. Nat Med. 2000; 6: 1362-7. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">27. Wang XL, Wang J. Endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene sequence variations and vascular disease. Mol Genet Metab. 2000; 70: 241-51. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">28. Albrecht EW, Stegeman CA, Heeringa P, Henning RH, van Goor H. Protective role of endothelial nitric oxide synthase. J Pathol. 2003; 199: 8-17. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">29. Griffith OW, Stuehr DJ. Nitric oxide synthases: properties and catalytic mechanism. Annu Rev Physiol. 1995; 57: 707-36. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">30. Korth HG, Sustmann R, Thater C, Butler AR, Ingold KU. On the mechanism of the nitric oxide synthase-catalyzed conversion of N omega-hydroxyl-L-arginine to citrulline and nitric oxide. J Biol Chem. 1994; 269: 17776-9. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">31. Harrison DG. Cellular and molecular mechanisms of endothelial cell dysfunction. J Clin Invest. 1997; 100: 2153-7. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">32. Vasquez-Vivar J, Kalyanaraman B, Martasek P, Hogg N, Masters BS, Karoui H, et al. Superoxide generation by endothelial nitric oxide synthase: the influence of cofactors. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1998; 95: 9220-5. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">33. Cai H, Harrison DG. Endothelial dysfunction in cardiovascular diseases: the role of oxidant stress. Circ Res. 2000; 87: 840-4. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">34. Klatt P, Pfeiffer S, List BM, Lehner D, Glatter O, Bachinger HP, et al. Characterization of heme-deficient neuronal nitric-oxide synthase reveals a role for heme in subunit dimerization and binding of the amino acid substrate and tetrahydrobiopterin. J Biol Chem. 1996; 271: 7336-42. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">35. Mayer B, John M, Heinzel B, Werner ER, Wachter H, Schultz G, et al. Brain nitric oxide synthase is a biopterin- and flavin-containing multi-functional oxido-reductase. FEBS Lett. 1991; 288: 187-91. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">36. Beckman JS, Koppenol WH. Nitric oxide, superoxide, and peroxynitrite: the good, the bad, and ugly. Am J Physiol. 1996; 271: C1424-37. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">37. Searles CD. Transcriptional and posttranscriptional regulation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase expression. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2006; 291: C803-16. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">38. Marsden PA, Heng HH, Scherer SW, Stewart RJ, Hall AV, Shi XM, et al. Structure and chromosomal localization of the human constitutive endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene. J Biol Chem. 1993; 268: 17478-88. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">39. Karantzoulis-Fegaras F, Antoniou H, Lai SL, Kulkarni G, D'Abreo C, Wong GK, et al. Characterization of the human endothelial nitric-oxide synthase promoter. J Biol Chem. 1999; 274: 3076-93. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">40. Malek AM, Jiang L, Lee I, Sessa WC, Izumo S, Alper SL. Induction of nitric oxide synthase mRNA by shear stress requires intracellular calcium and G-protein signals and is modulated by PI 3 kinase. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1999; 254: 231-42. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">41. Silacci P, Formentin K, Bouzourene K, Daniel F, Brunner HR, Hayoz D. Unidirectional and oscillatory shear stress differentially modulate NOS III gene expression. Nitric Oxide. 2000;4:47-56. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">42. Davis ME, Grumbach IM, Fukai T, Cutchins A, Harrison DG. Shear stress regulates endothelial nitric-oxide synthase promoter activity through nuclear factor kappaB binding. J Biol Chem. 2004; 279: 163-8. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">43. Davis ME, Cai H, Drummond GR, Harrison DG. Shear stress regulates endothelial nitric oxide synthase expression through c-Src by divergent signaling pathways. Circ Res. 2001; 89: 1073-80. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">44. Michel T, Feron O. Nitric oxide synthases: which, where, how, and why? J Clin Invest. 1997; 100: 2146-52. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">45. Zhang Q, Church JE, Jagnandan D, Catravas JD, Sessa WC, Fulton D. Functional relevance of Golgi- and plasma membrane-localized endothelial NO synthase in reconstituted endothelial cells. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2006; 26: 1015-21. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">46. Boo YC, Kim HJ, Song H, Fulton D, Sessa W. Coordinated regulation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase activity by phosphorylation and subcellular localization. Free Radic Biol Med. 2006; 41 (1): 144-53. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">47. Fulton D, Gratton JP, McCabe TJ, Fontana J, Fujio Y, Walsh K, et al. Regulation of endothelium-derived nitric oxide production by the protein kinase Akt. Nature. 1999; 399: 597-601. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">48. Dimmeler S, Fleming I, Fisslthaler B, Hermann C, Busse R, Zeiher AM. Activation of nitric oxide synthase in endothelial cells by Akt-dependent phosphorylation. Nature. 1999; 399: 601-5. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">49. Mount PF, Kemp BE, Power DA. Regulation of endothelial and myocardial NO synthesis by multi-site eNOS phosphorylation. J Mol Cell Cardiol. 2007; 42: 271-9. </p>
      <p>50. Krieger MH, Di Lorenzo A, Sessa W. Telmisartan reverts endothelial</p>
      <p>dysfunction. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2009. In press.</p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">51. Joyner MJ, Dietz NM. Nitric oxide and vasodilation in human limbs. J Appl Physiol. 1997; 83: 1785-96. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">52. Abrahams VC, Hilton SM. The role of active muscle vasodilatation in the alerting stage of the defence reaction. J Physiol. 1964; 171: 189-202. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">53. Bolme P, Fuxe K. Adrenergic and cholinergic nerve terminals in skeletal muscle vessels. Acta Physiol Scand. 1970; 78: 52-9. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">54. Matsukawa K, Shindo T, Shirai M, Ninomiya I. Nitric oxide mediates cat hindlimb cholinergic vasodilation induced by stimulation of posterior hypothalamus. Jpn J Physiol. 1993; 43: 473-83. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">55. Blair DA, Glover WE, Greenfield AD, Roddie IC. Excitation of cholinergic vasodilator nerves to human skeletal muscles during emotional stress. J Physiol. 1959; 148: 633-47. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">56. Dietz NM, Rivera JM, Warner DO, Joyner MJ. Is nitric oxide involved in cutaneous vasodilation during body heating in humans? J Appl Physiol. 1994; 76: 2047-53. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">57. Dietz NM, Engelke KA, Samuel TT, Fix RT, Joyner MJ. Evidence for nitric oxide-mediated sympathetic forearm vasodiolatation in humans. J Physiol. 1997; 498 (Pt 2): 531-40. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">58. Milner P, Kirkpatrick KA, Ralevic V, Toothill V, Pearson J, Burnstock G. Endothelial cells cultured from human umbilical vein release ATP, substance P and acetylcholine in response to increased flow. Proc Biol Sci. 1990; 241: 245-8. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">59. Majmudar NG, Anumba D, Robson SC, Ford GA. Contribution of nitric oxide to beta2-adrenoceptor mediated vasodilatation in human forearm arterial vasculature. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1999; 47: 173-7. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">60. Poirier O, Mao C, Mallet C, Nicaud V, Herrmann SM, Evans A, et al. Polymorphisms of the endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene - no consistent association with myocardial infarction in the ECTIM study. Eur J Clin Invest. 1999; 29: 284-90. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">61. Miyahara K, Kawamoto T, Sase K, Yui Y, Toda K, Yang LX, et al. Cloning and structural characterization of the human endothelial nitric-oxide-synthase gene. Eur J Biochem. 1994; 223: 719-26. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">62. Philip I, Plantefeve G, Vuillaumier-Barrot S, Vicaut E, LeMarie C, Henrion D, et al. G894T polymorphism in the endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene is associated with an enhanced vascular responsiveness to phenylephrine. Circulation. 1999; 99: 3096-8. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">63. Hingorani AD. Polymorphisms in endothelial nitric oxide synthase and atherogenesis: John French Lecture 2000. Atherosclerosis. 2001; 154: 521-7. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">64. Tesauro M, Thompson WC, Rogliani P, Qi L, Chaudhary PP, Moss J. Intracellular processing of endothelial nitric oxide synthase isoforms associated with differences in severity of cardiopulmonary diseases: cleavage of proteins with aspartate vs. glutamate at position 298. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2000; 97: 2832-5. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">65. Fairchild TA, Fulton D, Fontana JT, Gratton JP, McCabe TJ, Sessa WC. Acidic hydrolysis as a mechanism for the cleavage of the Glu(298)--&gt;Asp variant of human endothelial nitric-oxide synthase. J Biol Chem. 2001; 276: 26674-9. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">66. Hingorani AD, Liang CF, Fatibene J, Lyon A, Monteith S, Parsons A, et al.. A common variant of the endothelial nitric oxide synthase (Glu298--&gt;Asp) is a major risk factor for coronary artery disease in the UK. Circulation. 1999; 100: 1515-20. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">67. Hibi K, Ishigami T, Tamura K, Mizushima S, Nyui N, Fujita T, et al. Endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene polymorphism and acute myocardial infarction. Hypertension. 1998; 32: 521-6. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">68. Shimasaki Y, Yasue H, Yoshimura M, Nakayama M, Kugiyama K, Ogawa H, et al. Association of the missense Glu298Asp variant of the endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene with myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1998; 31: 1506-10. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">69. Yoshimura M, Yasue H, Nakayama M, Shimasaki Y, Sumida H, Sugiyama S, et al. A missense Glu298Asp variant in the endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene is associated with coronary spasm in the Japanese. Hum Genet. 1998; 103: 65-9. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">70. Miyamoto Y, Saito Y, Kajiyama N, Yoshimura M, Shimasaki Y, Nakayama M, et al. Endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene is positively associated with essential hypertension. Hypertension. 1998; 32: 3-8. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">71. Lacolley P, Gautier S, Poirier O, Pannier B, Cambien F, Benetos A. Nitric oxide synthase gene polymorphisms, blood pressure and aortic stiffness in normotensive and hypertensive subjects. J Hypertens. 1998; 16: 31-5. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">72. Kato N, Sugiyama T, Morita H, Nabika T, Kurihara H, Yamori Y, et al. Lack of evidence for association between the endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene and hypertension. Hypertension. 1999; 33: 933-6. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">73. Benjafield AV, Morris BJ. Association analyses of endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene polymorphisms in essential hypertension. Am J Hypertens. 2000; 13: 994-8. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">74. Vallance P, Collier J, Moncada S. Effects of endothelium-derived nitric oxide on peripheral arteriolar tone in man. Lancet. 1989; 2: 997-1000. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">75. Haynes WG, Noon JP, Walker BR, Webb DJ. Inhibition of nitric oxide synthesis increases blood pressure in healthy humans. J Hypertens. 1993; 11: 1375-80. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">76. Frandsenn U, Bangsbo J, Sander M, Hoffner L, Betak A, Saltin B, et al. Exercise-induced hyperaemia and leg oxygen uptake are not altered during effective inhibition of nitric oxide synthase with N(G)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester in humans. J Physiol. 2001; 531: 257-64. </p>
      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">77. Fabi F, Argiolas L, Chiavarelli M, Del Basso P. Nitric oxide-dependent and -independent modulation of sympathetic vasoconstriction in the human saphenous vein. Eur J Pharmacol. 1996; 309: 41-50. </p>
      <p>78. Dias RG, Alves MJ, Pereira AC, Rondon MU, Dos Santos MR, Krieger JE, et al. Glu298Asp eNOS gene polymorphism causes attenuation in non-exercising muscle vasodilatation. Physiol Genomics. 2009; 37 (2): 99-107.      </p>
      <p>
        <fn id="nota1-body3" fn-type="corresp">
          <label>
            <bold>Correspondencia:</bold>
          </label>
          <p> Rodrigo Gon&#231;alves Dias</p>
          <p> Unidade de Hipertens&#227;o - Laborat&#243;rio de Gen&#233;tica e Cardiologia Molecular</p>
          <p> Av. Dr. En&#233;as de Carvalho Aguiar, 44 (2&#186; andar; Bloco II) - Cerqueira C&#233;sar</p>
          <p> 05403-000 - S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil</p>
          <p> E-mail: </p>
          <p>
            <email xlink:href="diasrg99@yahoo.com.br">diasrg99@yahoo.com.br</email>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p>Art&#237;culo recibido en 12/02/09; revisado recibido en 26/06/09; aceptado en 14/08/09.</p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
</article>
