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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">Vyykhd4F9vTFxDvdNHxh6Sg</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00020</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2010001200020</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(10)09500220</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2010001200020</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Aterosclerose experimental em coelhos</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Dornas</surname>
            <given-names>Waleska C.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>T&#226;nia T. de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Augusto</surname>
            <given-names>Luis E. Franklin</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Nagem</surname>
            <given-names>Tanus J.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="state">Minas Gerais</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff02">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="state"/>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Departamento de Bioqu&#237;mica e Biologia Celular</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>08</month>
        <year>2010</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>95</volume>
      <issue>2</issue>
      <fpage>272</fpage>
      <lpage>278</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>29</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2009</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>27</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2008</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>24</day>
          <month>08</month>
          <year>2009</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>Numerosas pesquisas t&#234;m sido realizadas utilizando modelos experimentais para estudar o desenvolvimento da aterosclerose com dieta induzindo hiperlipidemia. Devido ao fato de que coelhos s&#227;o muito sens&#237;veis a dietas ricas em colesterol e acumulam grandes quantidades no plasma, a utiliza&#231;&#227;o destes animais como modelo experimental para avaliar o desenvolvimento de aterosclerose &#233; de grande relev&#226;ncia, trazendo informa&#231;&#227;o sobre fatores que contribuem para progress&#227;o e regress&#227;o aplicadas a situa&#231;&#245;es humanas. Sendo assim, nessa revis&#227;o a fun&#231;&#227;o aterog&#234;nica do colesterol &#233; mostrada em trabalhos que incluem o coelho como modelo experimental, uma vez que este animal tornou-se o mais popular modelo experimental de aterosclerose.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>Aterosclerose</kwd>
        <kwd>colesterol</kwd>
        <kwd>hipercolesterolemia</kwd>
        <kwd>coelhos</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>10</day>
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2010</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>ARTIGO DE REVIS&#195;O</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Aterosclerose experimental em coelhos </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Waleska C. Dornas<sup>I</sup>; T&#226;nia T. de Oliveira<sup>II</sup>; Luis E. Franklin Augusto<sup>II</sup>; Tanus J. Nagem<sup>I</sup></bold>
    </p>
    <p><sup>I</sup>Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto </p>
    <p><sup>II</sup>Departamento de Bioqu&#237;mica e Biologia Celular </p>
    <p><sup>III</sup>Universidade Federal de Vi&#231;osa, Belo Horizonte, MG -Brasil </p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="nt">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESUMO</bold>
    </p>
    <p> Numerosas pesquisas t&#234;m sido realizadas utilizando modelos experimentais para estudar o desenvolvimento da aterosclerose com dieta induzindo hiperlipidemia. Devido ao fato de que coelhos s&#227;o muito sens&#237;veis a dietas ricas em colesterol e acumulam grandes quantidades no plasma, a utiliza&#231;&#227;o destes animais como modelo experimental para avaliar o desenvolvimento de aterosclerose &#233; de grande relev&#226;ncia, trazendo informa&#231;&#227;o sobre fatores que contribuem para progress&#227;o e regress&#227;o aplicadas a situa&#231;&#245;es humanas. Sendo assim, nessa revis&#227;o a fun&#231;&#227;o aterog&#234;nica do colesterol &#233; mostrada em trabalhos que incluem o coelho como modelo experimental, uma vez que este animal tornou-se o mais popular modelo experimental de aterosclerose. </p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold> Aterosclerose, colesterol, hipercolesterolemia, coelhos. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Introdu&#231;&#227;o </bold>
    </p>
    <p> A import&#226;ncia de dist&#250;rbios de lipoprote&#237;nas plasm&#225;ticas e anormalidades no metabolismo lip&#237;dico caracterizadas por hiperlipidemia e/ou hipercolesterolemia como fator etiol&#243;gico no desenvolvimento de doen&#231;as card&#237;acas coronarianas e aterosclerose potencial s&#227;o, atualmente, cada vez mais apoiadas por consider&#225;vel n&#250;mero de estudos populacionais e epidemiol&#243;gicos<sup>1</sup>. Dieta induzindo hipercolesterolemia em coelhos tem sido largamente utilizada como modelo para estudar o desenvolvimento de aterosclerose humana. </p>
    <p> A primeira investiga&#231;&#227;o sobre indu&#231;&#227;o experimental de aterosclerose ocorreu em 1908. Ignatowski, utilizando coelhos alimentados com leite, carne e ovo, observou espessamento da &#237;ntima em aortas. Em seguida, Lubarsch (1910, 1912) e Steimbiss (1913) foram capazes de desenvolver aterosclerose em aorta de coelhos com dietas que inclu&#237;am &#243;rg&#227;os internos, como f&#237;gado, adrenal e m&#250;sculo. Tais estudos, bem como outros, indicavam uma fun&#231;&#227;o causal de prote&#237;nas animais; entretanto, outros pesquisadores acreditavam que o fator que estabelecia aterosclerose como componente da dieta era o colesterol e n&#227;o as prote&#237;nas de tecido animal<sup>2</sup>. </p>
    <p> Para avaliar a teoria da aterog&#234;nese a partir do colesterol, Clarkson e Newburgh (1926) alimentaram coelhos com dieta normal, aumentando para 25, 113, 253 ou 507 mg/dia de colesterol administrado em c&#225;psula. Encontrou-se moderada aterosclerose em 71% dos coelhos alimentados com 507 mg/ dia de colesterol por 47-87 dias. Meeker &amp; Kesten (1940,1941) dissolveram 60 ou 250 mg de colesterol em &#243;leo vegetal e acrescentaram &#224; dieta de coelhos por tr&#234;s meses. Os animais desenvolveram t&#237;picas les&#245;es ateroscler&#243;ticas similares &#224;quelas vistas em humanos, permanecendo, deste modo, a teoria de que o colesterol &#233; o precursor para o desenvolvimento de doen&#231;a vascular ateroscler&#243;tica<sup>3</sup>. </p>
    <p> Para induzir hipercolesterolemia em animais, t&#234;m-se utilizado dietas contendo colesterol, as quais variam de ra&#231;&#245;es comerciais suplementadas com n&#237;veis substancialmente diferentes de colesterol, assim como modifica&#231;&#245;es nas por&#231;&#245;es de lip&#237;dio e carboidrato e nas diferentes fontes e conte&#250;dos de gordura, contendo ou n&#227;o &#225;cido c&#243;lico<sup>4</sup>. Em nosso laborat&#243;rio, temos produzido hipercolesterolemia em coelhos, com 1% de colesterol em ra&#231;&#245;es comerciais em v&#225;rias pesquisas, para investigarmos subst&#226;ncias que podem ser viabilizadas, no futuro, como medicamentos no controle do metabolismo lip&#237;dico e no desenvolvimento de testes de potenciais terapias e diagn&#243;sticos entre diferentes procedimentos experimentais<sup>5-12</sup>. </p>
    <p> Na presente revis&#227;o, o objetivo foi analisar criticamente o efeito hipercolesterol&#234;mico de dieta rica em colesterol em estudos utilizando coelhos como modelo experimental a partir de investiga&#231;&#245;es que possam levar a um melhor entendimento da biologia da aterosclerose para doen&#231;a cardiovascular. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Aterosclerose experimental </bold>
    </p>
    <p> Para melhor entendimento da rela&#231;&#227;o entre desordens do metabolismo de colesterol e aterog&#234;nesis, manipula&#231;&#227;o diet&#233;tica e a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de animais naturalmente com erros metab&#243;licos, como coelhos Watanabe Heritable Hyperlipidemic (WHHL) e St Thomas Hospital (STH) para produzir hipercolesterolemia familiar e hiperlipidemia combinada &#224; hipercolesterolemia, respectivamente, tem sido o foco de muitos experimentos. Atualmente, a tecnologia de dele&#231;&#227;o de gens tem permitido pesquisas a fim de produzir uma variedade de modelos de animais transg&#234;nicos com desordens de lipoprote&#237;nas e, a despeito dessa revolucion&#225;ria descoberta, muitos desses animais geneticamente modificados t&#234;m sido alimentados com colesterol para acelerar aterog&#234;nesis<sup>2</sup>. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Exposi&#231;&#227;o ao colesterol plasm&#225;tico e disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial </bold>
    </p>
    <p> O termo "disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial", que tem importante implica&#231;&#227;o no cuidado da doen&#231;a cardiovascular, &#233; empregado para descrever situa&#231;&#245;es em que o endot&#233;lio perde sua propriedade vasoprotetora, representando a etapa inicial de v&#225;rios processos de les&#227;o vascular, como dano mec&#226;nico, hipercolesterolemia, aterosclerose e hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica<sup>13</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, ocorre diminui&#231;&#227;o do relaxamento endotelial vascular para acetilcolina, causando vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o e queda do fluxo sangu&#237;neo, como demonstrado por Sun e cols.<sup>14</sup> em coelhos alimentados com colesterol, visto que essa menor vasodilata&#231;&#227;o pode ser ocasionada pela presen&#231;a de placas de lip&#237;dios na aorta. </p>
    <p> Coelhos com 1% de suplementa&#231;&#227;o de colesterol na dieta por 8-10 semanas apresentam prejudicada vasodilata&#231;&#227;o do endot&#233;lio na art&#233;ria car&#243;tida<sup>15</sup> e anormalidades na s&#237;ntese do &#243;xido n&#237;trico (NO), demonstradas em vasos ateroscler&#243;ticos<sup>16</sup>. Considerando hiperlipidemia e aterosclerose, segmentos a&#243;rticos de coelhos hipercolesterol&#234;micos mostram redu&#231;&#227;o significante de &#243;xido n&#237;trico sintase (NOS) endotelial em rela&#231;&#227;o aos animais-controle<sup>17</sup>. Vasquez-Vivar e cols.<sup>18 </sup>relataram que BH4, um cofator para s&#237;ntese de NO em aortas de coelhos com dieta induzindo hipercolesterolemia, foi acentuadamente reduzido quando comparado a coelhos normocolesterol&#234;micos. Radicais livres de oxig&#234;nio, como o &#226;nion super&#243;xido, podem modular a atividade de NO end&#243;geno em coelhos hipercolesterol&#234;micos<sup>19,20</sup>. Interessantemente, isso demonstra que a express&#227;o de NOS relatada em m&#250;sculo liso vascular de coelhos hipercolesterol&#234;micos<sup>21,22</sup> n&#227;o &#233; capaz de dominar os defeitos na fun&#231;&#227;o vascular end&#243;gena. </p>
    <p> O aumento de &#243;xido n&#237;trico basal e de vasodilatadores derivados do endot&#233;lio &#233; visto em maior quantidade em an&#233;is a&#243;rticos do endot&#233;lio de coelhos do sexo feminino do que em machos e depende da concentra&#231;&#227;o de estradiol circulante<sup>23</sup>; portanto, f&#234;meas s&#227;o menos inclinadas &#224; dieta para indu&#231;&#227;o de les&#245;es ateroscler&#243;ticas do que machos, mas dependem do estado do endot&#233;lio arterial, como observado por Holm e cols.<sup>24</sup>. Estradiol inibe a ades&#227;o de mon&#243;citos sobre c&#233;lulas endoteliais com migra&#231;&#227;o transendotelial, componentes de uma resposta inflamat&#243;ria que ocorre continuamente atrav&#233;s do processo aterog&#234;nico ap&#243;s hipercolesterolemia induzida em coelhos<sup>25</sup>. </p>
    <p> O desenvolvimento de interven&#231;&#245;es para inibir aterosclerose a partir de colesterol e a disfun&#231;&#227;o vascular t&#234;m recebido muita aten&#231;&#227;o devido a essa intensa associa&#231;&#227;o. A deple&#231;&#227;o de L-arginina (um substrato para NOS) em modelos animais de aterosclerose e hipercolesterolemia induz agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria, prolifera&#231;&#227;o celular e acumula&#231;&#227;o de mon&#243;cito vascular, ao passo que coelhos hipercolesterol&#234;micos tratados com L-arginina melhoram a vasorreatividade do endot&#233;lio-dependente, atenuando os mecanismos de les&#227;o vascular<sup>26</sup> e inibindo a neoprolifera&#231;&#227;o intimal<sup>27</sup>, que podem ser avaliados por v&#225;rios marcadores propostos de c&#233;lulas endoteliais (<xref ref-type="table" rid="a20tab01">Tabela 1</xref>). </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="a20tab01">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-95-02-0272-00020-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>O fator de Von Willebrand foi estudado recentemente em coelhos com dieta rica em colesterol por 30 dias. Ap&#243;s a interrup&#231;&#227;o do tratamento, observou-se que a hipercolesterolemia induz o aumento deste fator, diminuindo ap&#243;s descontinua&#231;&#227;o da dieta rica em colesterol. Isso demonstra uma correla&#231;&#227;o positiva com forma&#231;&#227;o de camada de gordura em ambas as fases do estudo, enquanto h&#225; um decr&#233;scimo dos n&#237;veis de fator de crescimento endotelial vascular, ap&#243;s cessar a dieta hipercolesterol&#234;mica, podendo ser um mecanismo reparativo na pr&#233;via aterosclerose, o que pode tamb&#233;m indicar dano celular endotelial<sup>28</sup>. </p>
    <p> Avaliando os efeitos da hipercolesterolemia para identificar o risco de aterosclerose com prote&#237;na C-reativa (PCR), Sun e cols.<sup>29</sup> mostraram que PCR &#233; frequentemente depositada em les&#245;es ateroscler&#243;tica em modelos com coelhos. Al&#233;m disso, elevados n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos de PCR associam-se com a gravidade da hipercolesterolemia<sup>30</sup>. </p>
    <p> O aumento na s&#237;ntese de NO pode ser um mecanismo de defesa para compensar a inativa&#231;&#227;o de NO e proteger contra fatores que representam dano ao organismo, com o nitrito como um potente metab&#243;lito correlacionado &#224; forma&#231;&#227;o de camadas de gordura, sendo examinado em curto e longo tempo em coelhos alimentados com colesterol<sup>31</sup>. </p>
    <p> Paralelamente a essas aferi&#231;&#245;es, constata-se que a fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial de segmentos vasculares &#233; a altera&#231;&#227;o mais precoce na aterog&#234;nese. O comprometimento funcional da c&#233;lula endotelial &#233; demonstrado nas repercuss&#245;es cl&#237;nicas, como ocorr&#234;ncia de eventos subsequentes &#224; progress&#227;o da forma&#231;&#227;o de placa na &#237;ntima dos vasos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="a20fig01">Figura 1</xref>). </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="a20fig01">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-95-02-0272-00020-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold> Forma&#231;&#227;o de placas ateroscler&#243;ticas </bold>
    </p>
    <p> O modelo de coelho alimentado com colesterol &#233; not&#225;vel pelo r&#225;pido desenvolvimento de les&#245;es a&#243;rticas e baixo custo para manuten&#231;&#227;o, sendo um regime t&#237;pico para indu&#231;&#227;o de aterosclerose envolvendo suplementa&#231;&#227;o de 0,5% a 4% de colesterol por peso em aproximadamente 8 a 16 semanas. Nessas condi&#231;&#245;es, coelhos tornam-se rapidamente hipercolesterol&#234;micos (com colesterol plasm&#225;tico &gt; 1.000 mg/dl) e as les&#245;es resultantes consistem primariamente de macr&#243;fagos derivados de c&#233;lulas espumosas<sup>32</sup>. Contudo, a rela&#231;&#227;o entre forma&#231;&#227;o da les&#227;o ateroscler&#243;tica e dieta induzindo hipercolesterolemia em coelhos &#233; dependente de exposi&#231;&#227;o cumulativa preferencialmente em n&#237;vel de colesterol administrado, demonstrando em coelhos alimentados com 0,5% e 1,0% de colesterol graus similares de hipercolesterolemia induzida<sup>14</sup>. Alguns pesquisadores apoiam a sugest&#227;o de que a forma&#231;&#227;o de les&#245;es avan&#231;adas depende da idade do animal. Coelhos mais velhos, com 3-4,5 anos de idade, exibem placas fibr&#243;ticas enquanto animais mais jovens (4 meses de idade) n&#227;o apresentam les&#245;es avan&#231;adas<sup>33</sup>. </p>
    <p> Como coelhos t&#234;m sido utilizados vastamente para estudar o desenvolvimento de aterosclerose em humanos, o r&#225;pido desenvolvimento de les&#245;es tem sido produzido com suplementa&#231;&#227;o de colesterol na dieta (&lt; 0,5%), alcan&#231;ando hipercolesterolemia moderada com n&#237;veis de colesterol plasm&#225;ticos na faixa de 200 a 800 mg/dl<sup>34</sup>. Consequentemente, as les&#245;es usualmente produzidas s&#227;o topogr&#225;fica e morfologicamente dissimilares &#224;quelas vistas em humanos. Essa dissimilaridade &#233; devida, em parte, ao fato de que humanos comumente n&#227;o ingerem grandes quantidades de colesterol: em geral, t&#234;m n&#237;veis de colesterol plasm&#225;tico que n&#227;o excedem 800 mg/dl e processam e toleram o consumo de colesterol melhor do que coelhos. Somados a isso, experimentos de longo tempo em coelhos com dietas contendo grandes quantidades de colesterol s&#227;o desencorajados devido &#224; hepatotoxicidade e &#224; fal&#234;ncia do animal. Examina&#231;&#245;es revelam hepatomegalia com evid&#234;ncia de estase biliar em n&#237;vel de colesterol plasm&#225;tico de 3.257 &#177; 266 mg/dl<sup>32</sup>. Contudo, a despeito dessas restri&#231;&#245;es, grande n&#250;mero de pesquisas usa esse modelo para testar a efici&#234;ncia de f&#225;rmacos no desenvolvimento de camadas de gordura. </p>
    <p> Les&#245;es ateroscler&#243;ticas s&#227;o compostas por tr&#234;s componentes maiores. O primeiro &#233; o componente celular, que predominantemente compreende c&#233;lulas musculares lisas e macr&#243;fagos. O segundo componente &#233; o tecido conectivo matriz e lip&#237;dio extracelular. O terceiro componente &#233; o lip&#237;dio intracelular, que se acumula dentro de macr&#243;fagos, convertendo-se, ent&#227;o, em c&#233;lulas espumosas<sup>35</sup>. Em pr&#233;vios eventos celulares, tem sido observada a presen&#231;a de leuc&#243;citos aderidos ao arco a&#243;rtico tor&#225;cico e abdominal de coelhos ap&#243;s tr&#234;s semanas de dieta enriquecida com 0,2% de colesterol. Por 3-5 semanas com a mesma dieta, numerosas c&#233;lulas espumosas s&#227;o encontradas no espa&#231;o subendotelial e constituem o desenvolvimento de camadas de gordura na mesma localiza&#231;&#227;o em que mon&#243;citos aderentes foram observados anteriormente<sup>36</sup>. </p>
    <p> Em aorta, v&#225;rios tipos de placas de camadas de gordura a les&#245;es ateromatosas s&#227;o observados em modelo experimental, dependendo do grau de consumo de colesterol. Dietas contendo &lt; 0,15% de colesterol resultam em desenvolvimento de les&#245;es de camada de gordura, enquanto placas ateromatosas s&#227;o mais encontradas com alta quantidade de colesterol na dieta<sup>32</sup>. </p>
    <p> O grau de aterosclerose em coelhos tende a ser maior na aorta abdominal do que na tor&#225;cica, o que pode ser explicado devido ao efeito hemodin&#226;mico ou pelo fato de que a aorta abdominal de coelhos diminui gradualmente abaixo na bifurca&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica. Dessa forma, a aorta mais distal pode ter mais les&#227;o em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; aorta proximal<sup>37</sup>. Mudan&#231;as ateromatosas com 8 semanas em coelhos alimentados com colesterol s&#227;o formadas na aorta tor&#225;cica e, ent&#227;o, estendem para a aorta abdominal, art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria e outros vasos, predominando les&#245;es conc&#234;ntricas na aorta tor&#225;cica e na por&#231;&#227;o proximal da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria em contraste com aterosclerose branda produzida nas art&#233;rias renal, car&#243;tida e femural na 15&#170; semana da dieta<sup>38</sup>. N&#227;o fica claro, todavia, neste estudo, o quanto a exposi&#231;&#227;o com colesterol influenciou o tipo de les&#227;o. </p>
    <p>A extens&#227;o da aterosclerose em aorta de coelhos pode ser quantificada pela superf&#237;cie de les&#245;es sudanof&#237;licas<sup>39</sup> e por an&#225;lise imuno-histoqu&#237;mica<sup>40</sup>. Recentemente, resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica de imagem (RMI) n&#227;o invasiva tem sido usada no estudo de les&#245;es vasculares. Quantifica&#231;&#227;o em RMI e mudan&#231;as na composi&#231;&#227;o de placas ateroscler&#243;ticas podem ser usadas com RMI para monitorar a progress&#227;o e regress&#227;o da aterosclerose <italic>in vivo</italic>. O m&#233;todo &#233; vantajoso devido ao fato de que estudos em s&#233;rie podem ser realizados em resposta para terapias intervencionais<sup>41</sup>. </p>
    <p>J&#225; a avalia&#231;&#227;o histol&#243;gica pela taxa de estenose &#233; um importante m&#233;todo para avaliar a gravidade da aterosclerose coronariana, pois a taxa de estenose &#233; diretamente considerada reflexo da condi&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica. Por outro lado, o m&#233;todo de avalia&#231;&#227;o atrav&#233;s da observa&#231;&#227;o macrosc&#243;pica em coron&#225;rias ateroscler&#243;ticas em coelhos tem algumas vantagens em rela&#231;&#227;o a m&#233;todos histol&#243;gicos, uma vez que a an&#225;lise da &#225;rea da les&#227;o pode ser conclu&#237;da dentro de um curto tempo, enquanto toda a imagem da distribui&#231;&#227;o da aterosclerose pode ser facilmente entendida. Quando se&#231;&#245;es de tecidos de les&#245;es ateroscler&#243;ticas coronarianas s&#227;o necess&#225;rias, pode-se retirar somente a parte da placa ateroscler&#243;tica, observada macroscopicamente sobre a superf&#237;cie luminal da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria<sup>42</sup>.</p>
    <p> A les&#227;o vascular tem participa&#231;&#227;o importante nas desordens cardiovasculares, embora a participa&#231;&#227;o da hipercolesterolemia em eventos tromboemb&#243;licos seja ainda pouco entendida, necessitando ser melhor conhecida. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Ruptura de placa e trombose </bold>
    </p>
    <p> A ruptura da placa ateroscler&#243;tica &#233; reconhecida como a maior causa de trombose e subsequentes manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas de aterosclerose como angina inst&#225;vel, infarto miocardial e derrame al&#233;m de, tamb&#233;m, consistir um alvo para interven&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica<sup>43-45</sup>. Entretanto, &#233; ainda dif&#237;cil predizer quando a ruptura de placa ocorrer&#225; j&#225; que o est&#237;mulo fisiol&#243;gico adicional requerido para causar o evento &#233; desconhecido. Os mecanismos de ruptura de placa posterior e forma&#231;&#227;o de subsequentes trombos oclusivos n&#227;o s&#227;o ainda muito claros. Ademais, tamb&#233;m n&#227;o &#233; evidente se a placa sem acompanhamento de trombo pode causar ou n&#227;o eventos card&#237;acos<sup>44</sup>. Duas hip&#243;teses principais t&#234;m sido propostas como causas para ruptura de placa (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab02">Tabela 2</xref>). </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab02">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-95-02-0272-00020-gt02.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>H&#225; v&#225;rios modelos animais de ruptura de placa que t&#234;m sido relatados nos &#250;ltimos anos. Comumente em coelhos alimentados com colesterol, usa-se induzir a les&#227;o a partir de um bal&#227;o injetado parenteralmente com veneno de v&#237;bora Russell e histamina, procedimento este que resultar&#225; em ruptura de placa e trombose<sup>37</sup>. Outro modelo &#233; o de coelhos alimentados com colesterol, com implanta&#231;&#227;o de cateter com bal&#227;o em aorta tor&#225;cica. O bal&#227;o &#233; inflado ap&#243;s a les&#227;o ateroscler&#243;tica formar-se ao redor deste, ocasionando ruptura de les&#227;o e trombose<sup>46</sup>. Entretanto, ambos os modelos conduzem para casos agudos provocados mecanicamente em pesquisas. Assim, o valor desses modelos para estudo sobre apoptose celular, inflama&#231;&#227;o, aumento de lip&#237;dios e degrada&#231;&#227;o de c&#225;psula fibrosa &#233; limitado devido a acentuadas e diferentes caracter&#237;sticas das placas formadas nesses modelos comparados &#224;s placas encontradas naturalmente em humanos, uma vez que a les&#227;o est&#225; restrita &#224; regi&#227;o subendotelial, mantendo a integridade da l&#226;mina el&#225;stica interna<sup>47</sup>. </p>
    <p> A placa ateroscler&#243;tica n&#227;o &#233; uma estrutura est&#225;tica. Preferencialmente, seu status em qualquer momento &#233; o resultado de uma intera&#231;&#227;o complexa e din&#226;mica de um grande n&#250;mero de fatores celulares e humorais<sup>48</sup>. A desestabiliza&#231;&#227;o de placa determinada pela quebra de col&#225;geno, com perda local de fonte celular de s&#237;ntese de col&#225;geno, foi vista em coelhos por Rekhter e cols.<sup>49</sup>. Eles demonstraram um decr&#233;scimo do conte&#250;do de col&#225;geno total em placas ricas em lip&#237;dios tempo dependente, enquanto o n&#237;vel de liga&#231;&#227;o cruzada n&#227;o diferiu entre alto e baixo consumo de colesterol nos grupos. Uma liga&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica entre hipercolesterolemia e perda de col&#225;geno &#233; ainda hipot&#233;tica, embora uma fun&#231;&#227;o cr&#237;tica de macr&#243;fagos e outras enzimas proteol&#237;ticas t&#234;m sido fortemente sugeridas. </p>
    <p> Dieta induzindo hipercolesterolemia em coelhos aumenta seletivamente a forma&#231;&#227;o de trombo e emboliza&#231;&#227;o em arter&#237;olas, mas n&#227;o em veias. A observa&#231;&#227;o de que o aumento de colesterol plasm&#225;tico total resulta principalmente em aumento de colesterol LDL sugere que os efeitos observados da hipercolesterolemia sobre tromboembolismo arteriolar sejam causados pelo LDL e que a estimula&#231;&#227;o de produ&#231;&#227;o de NO end&#243;geno como estimulado por excesso de L-arginina seja capaz de antagonizar esse acr&#233;scimo do colesterol, acentuando tromboembolismo arteriolar<sup>50</sup>. </p>
    <p> Se um trombo &#233; oclusivo, ele conduzir&#225; para infarto do mioc&#225;rdio<sup>45</sup>. Como ruptura de placa &#233; a principal complica&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica, a estabiliza&#231;&#227;o da placa &#233; crucial e a diminui&#231;&#227;o de lip&#237;dios pela manipula&#231;&#227;o diet&#233;tica mostrou reduzir significativamente a atividade proteol&#237;tica e o aumento do conte&#250;do de col&#225;geno de ateroma estabelecido em coelhos<sup>51</sup>. O grau substancial de benef&#237;cio cl&#237;nico parece ser n&#227;o proporcional &#224; melhora da estenose produzida por redu&#231;&#227;o do consumo de lip&#237;dio, estabilizando a placa ateromatosa pela redu&#231;&#227;o nos n&#237;veis de atividade de proteinases, que podem degradar componentes estruturais da matriz extracelular arterial<sup>51</sup>. Dessa forma, refor&#231;a-se a habilidade da placa em resistir &#224; ruptura. </p>
    <p> A administra&#231;&#227;o de fatores de crescimento angiog&#234;nicos &#233; uma interessante nova terap&#234;utica para doen&#231;a card&#237;aca isqu&#234;mica. O fator de crescimento de fibroblastos promove reparo vascular e angiog&#234;nese, induzindo express&#227;o de fator tecidual em mon&#243;citos circulantes e na parede vascular em coelhos normais e hipercolesterol&#234;micos<sup>52</sup>. </p>
    <p> Segundo Abela e cols.<sup>53</sup>, o modelo de coelhos com les&#245;es arteriais que desenvolvem trombose ap&#243;s dano arterial mec&#226;nico e dieta rica em colesterol ocasiona placa vulner&#225;vel para ruptura e trombose, sendo capaz de ser usado para testar agentes farmacol&#243;gicos que possam reduzir o desenvolvimento de placas ateroscler&#243;ticas vulner&#225;veis ou quantidade de trombos formados. Agentes redutores de lip&#237;dios, antioxidantes, bloqueadores de canal de c&#225;lcio e inibidores da enzima conversora de angiotensina, al&#233;m de f&#225;rmacos antiplaquet&#225;rios e antitromb&#243;ticos, podem ser testados para avaliar a habilidade de reduzir a quantidade de trombos. No entanto, a ruptura espont&#226;nea da placa n&#227;o ocorre nesses modelos, embora o est&#237;mulo desencadeador possa provocar trombose arterial. Les&#245;es pr oduzidas nesses animais por les&#227;o mais lip&#237;dio formam c&#225;psulas fibrosas constitu&#237;das por c&#233;lulas musculares lisas. O ateroma humano, tipicamente formado por d&#233;cadas, pode ter aspectos n&#227;o parecidos ao obtido em tempo relativamente curto em experimentos com coelho<sup> 51</sup>. </p>
    <p>
      <bold> Regula&#231;&#227;o metab&#243;lica em coelhos hipercolesterol&#234;micos </bold>
    </p>
    <p> O coelho &#233; uma esp&#233;cie animal que tem v&#225;rios aspectos similares aos dos humanos em rela&#231;&#227;o ao metabolismo de lipoprote&#237;nas, exceto pela defici&#234;ncia de lipase hep&#225;tica<sup>54</sup>. V&#225;rias caracter&#237;sticas dos coelhos fazem deles um excelente modelo para avaliar os efeitos dos transgenes humanos sobre metabolismo de lipoprote&#237;nas e susceptibilidade para aterosclerose: 1) lipoprote&#237;nas contendo apoB s&#227;o similares &#224;quelas vistas em humanos<sup>55</sup>; 2) f&#237;gado de coelhos produzem VLDL contendo apoB-100, como em humanos<sup>56</sup>; 3) abund&#226;ncia de prote&#237;na de transfer&#234;ncia de &#233;steres no plasma de coelhos<sup>57</sup>. </p>
    <p> Pelo menos 4 mecanismos s&#227;o respons&#225;veis pela homeostase do colesterol e afetam as concentra&#231;&#245;es de colesterol plasm&#225;tico (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab03">Tabela 3</xref>). </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab03">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-95-02-0272-00020-gt03.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p> Em coelhos, a atividade da 7&#945;-hidroxilase e n&#237;veis de mRNA s&#227;o inibidos ap&#243;s dieta hipercolesterol&#234;mica com n&#237;veis de colesterol plasm&#225;tico substancialmente elevados<sup>58</sup>. Entretanto, Overturf e cols.<sup>59</sup> descobriram que, alimentando coelhos com 0,1% de suplementa&#231;&#227;o de colesterol por 7 meses, n&#227;o produziram hipercolesterolemia, ao passo que aumentando gradualmente o consumo de colesterol diet&#233;tico, aumentou-se o tamanho do <italic>pool</italic> de &#225;cidos biliares inversamente &#224; atividade da 7&#945;-hidroxilase<sup>60</sup>. </p>
    <p> A excre&#231;&#227;o de &#225;cidos biliares aumenta a taxa do <italic>clearance</italic>, o qual diminui a concentra&#231;&#227;o efetiva do colesterol intracelular, inibindo que o colesterol exer&#231;a influ&#234;ncia sobre a express&#227;o do receptor de LDL, j&#225; que os &#225;cidos biliares s&#227;o predominantemente reabsorvidos pela circula&#231;&#227;o &#234;nterohep&#225;tica e retornam ao f&#237;gado para exercer controle de retroalimenta&#231;&#227;o negativa sobre a enzima 7&#945;-hidroxilase e para regular o metabolismo do colesterol<sup>61</sup>. </p>
    <p> &#193;cidos biliares s&#227;o conhecidos por serem reabsorvidos no intestino por mecanismos passivos e ativos. Passivamente, o consumo ocorre via n&#227;o i&#244;nica, i&#244;nica e difus&#227;o de micelas conjugadas ou n&#227;o conjugadas a &#225;cidos biliares e, ativamente, a absor&#231;&#227;o satur&#225;vel ocorre via Na<sup>+</sup> dependente de &#225;cidos biliares conjugados contra o gradiente de concentra&#231;&#227;o. V&#225;rias esp&#233;cies, incluindo coelhos, demostram possuir ambos os processos de reabsor&#231;&#227;o de &#225;cidos biliares<sup>62</sup>.E, no entanto, devido &#224; natureza hidrof&#237;lica relativa de &#225;cidos biliares conjugadosa por&#233;m, sofrem uma reabsor&#231;&#227;o intestinal passiva m&#237;nima devido &#224; natureza hidrof&#237;lica relativa de &#225;cidos biliares conjugados. O s&#237;tio prim&#225;rio de reabsor&#231;&#227;o de &#225;cido biliar predominantemente &#233; mediado por co-transportador &#225;cido biliar Na<sup>+</sup>/bile ileal (ABST) e, a interrup&#231;&#227;o da circula&#231;&#227;o &#234;ntero-hep&#225;tica dos &#225;cidos biliares pela atenua&#231;&#227;o da reabsor&#231;&#227;o de &#225;cidos biliares intestinais &#233; considerada uma das melhores vias de redu&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de colesterol plasm&#225;tico<sup>62</sup>. Higaki e cols.<sup>63</sup> demonstraram com inibidor de ABST redu&#231;&#227;o das quantidades de retorno de &#225;cido biliar para o f&#237;gado e aumento da convers&#227;o de colesterol para &#225;cido biliar em coelhos alimentados com colesterol. </p>
    <p> O efeito inibit&#243;rio do colesterol diet&#233;tico sobre 7&#945;-hidroxilase em coelhos pode ajudar a explicar porque alguns indiv&#237;duos s&#227;o mais sens&#237;veis ao colesterol na dieta e aumentam as concentra&#231;&#245;es plasm&#225;ticas. Esses indiv&#237;duos podem responder a dieta hipercolesterol&#234;mica com diminu&#237;da s&#237;ntese de &#225;cido biliar contribuindo para elevar os n&#237;veis de colesterol plasm&#225;ticos e reduzir os receptores de LDL. Alternativamente, outras pessoas respondem para dieta rica em colesterol com a s&#237;ntese de &#225;cido biliar sendo estimulada e, assim, os n&#237;veis de colesterol plasm&#225;ticos n&#227;o aumentam. Identificando esses indiv&#237;duos, pode-se ajudar a esclarecer seu risco aterog&#234;nico e, assim, usar recomenda&#231;&#245;es diet&#233;ticas mais sens&#237;veis para o tratamento<sup>58</sup>. </p>
    <p>
      <bold> Considera&#231;&#245;es finais </bold>
    </p>
    <p> Considerando que a preval&#234;ncia de aterosclerose e doen&#231;a card&#237;aca isqu&#234;mica est&#225; aumentando no mundo, ocasionando s&#233;rias consequ&#234;ncias cl&#237;nicas que exigem esfor&#231;os para melhorar o conhecimento de sua patog&#234;nese, entende-se que &#233; necess&#225;rio buscar melhorias nas t&#233;cnicas experimentais e nos novos tratamentos para essas condi&#231;&#245;es, com avan&#231;os no uso de modelos experimentais. </p>
    <p> Nesse sentido, o coelho como modelo experimental &#233; uma importante ferramenta para o estudo da aterosclerose entre os animais que t&#234;m sido utilizados nas investiga&#231;&#245;es cient&#237;ficas. Representa, dentre os animais estudados, o &#250;nico que tem tend&#234;ncia para exibir hipercolesterolemia pela acumula&#231;&#227;o de colesterol ex&#243;geno com poucos dias de altas concentra&#231;&#245;es na dieta, j&#225; que n&#227;o pode aumentar a excre&#231;&#227;o de ester&#243;is. No entanto, cuidadosas extrapola&#231;&#245;es devem ser realizadas em rela&#231;&#227;o ao grau de hipercolesterolemia produzido em animais de laborat&#243;rio, uma vez que excedem o que usualmente encontramos em humanos. Limita&#231;&#245;es e avan&#231;os devem ser discutidos para que possam contribuir e elucidar os conhecimentos sobre etiologia, fisiopatologia e tratamento da aterosclerose com a caracteriza&#231;&#227;o dessas descobertas. </p>
    <p>
      <bold> Agradecimentos </bold>
    </p>
    <p> Os autores agradecem &#224; Funda&#231;&#227;o de Amparo &#224; Pesquisa de Minas Gerais (FAPEMIG) pelo apoio financeiro e bolsa de pesquisa e &#224; Rede Mineira de Toxicologia e Farmacologia -TOXIFAR da Fapemig. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses </bold>
    </p>
    <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fontes de Financiamento </bold>
    </p>
    <p>O presente estudo foi financiado pela FAPEMIG. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica </bold>
    </p>
    <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de disserta&#231;&#227;o de Mestrado de Waleska Cl&#225;udia Dornas pela Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto. </p>
    <p>
      <fn id="nt" fn-type="corresp">
        <p>Correspond&#234;ncia:</p>
        <p> Tanus Jorge Nagem </p>
        <p> Rua Tulipa, 357 - Esplanada </p>
        <p> 30280-200 - Belo Horizonte, MG - Brasil </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="tanus@ufop.br">tanus@ufop.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p> Artigo recebido em 27/11/08; revisado recebido em 29/06/09; aceito em 24/08/09.</p>
  </body>
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              <surname>Calcaterra</surname>
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        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Inhibition of ileal Na+/bile acid cotransporter by S-8921 reduces serum cholesterol and prevents atherosclerosis in rabbits</article-title>
          <source>Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol</source>
          <date>
            <year>1998</year>
          </date>
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          <lpage>11</lpage>
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              <surname>Higaki</surname>
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  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Experimental atherosclerosis in rabbits</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>Many researches have been conducted in experimental models in order to study the development of atherosclerosis from hyperlipidemia-inducing diets. Since rabbits are very sensitive to cholesterol-rich diets and accumulate large amounts of cholesterol in their plasma, their use as experimental models to evaluate the development of atherosclerosis is highly relevant and brings information on factors that contribute to the progression and regression of this condition that can be applied to humans. As such, this review includes studies on the atherogenic function of cholesterol based on rabbits as the experimental model, since they have become the most largely used experimental model of atherosclerosis.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Atherosclerosis</kwd>
        <kwd>cholesterol</kwd>
        <kwd>hypercholesterolemia</kwd>
        <kwd>rabbits</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>REVIEW ARTICLE</bold>
      </p>
      <p><undefined id="tx-body2"/>Experimental atherosclerosis in rabbits</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Waleska C. Dornas<sup>I</sup>; T&#226;nia T. de Oliveira<sup>II</sup>; Luis E. Franklin Augusto<sup>II</sup>; Tanus J. Nagem<sup>I</sup></bold>
      </p>
      <p><sup>I</sup>Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto</p>
      <p><sup>II</sup>Departamento de Bioqu&#237;mica e Biologia Celular</p>
      <p><sup>III</sup>Universidade Federal de Vi&#231;osa, Belo Horizonte, MG - Brazil</p>
      <p>Mailing address</p>
      <p>
        <bold>SUMMARY</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Many researches have been conducted in experimental models in order to study the development of atherosclerosis from hyperlipidemia-inducing diets. Since rabbits are very sensitive to cholesterol-rich diets and accumulate large amounts of cholesterol in their plasma, their use as experimental models to evaluate the development of atherosclerosis is highly relevant and brings information on factors that contribute to the progression and regression of this condition that can be applied to humans. As such, this review includes studies on the atherogenic function of cholesterol based on rabbits as the experimental model, since they have become the most largely used experimental model of atherosclerosis. </p>
      <p><bold>Key words: </bold>Atherosclerosis; cholesterol; hypercholesterolemia; rabbits.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The importance of plasma lipoprotein and lipid metabolism abnormalities characterized by hyperlipidemia and/or hypercholesterolemia as the cause of coronary heart diseases and potential atherosclerosis is increasingly being supported by a considerable number of population-based and epidemiological studies today<sup>1</sup>. Hypercholesterolemia-inducing diets in rabbits have been largely used as a model to study the development of human atherosclerosis.</p>
      <p>The first investigation on experimentally induced atherosclerosis dates back to 1908. Ignatowski used rabbits fed milk, meat and eggs and observed increased intimal thickness of the aorta. Later, Lubarsch (1910, 1912) and Steimbiss (1913) were able to develop atherosclerosis in the aorta of rabbits fed diets including internal organs such as liver, adrenal gland and muscle. These studies, as well as others, showed a causal effect of animal proteins; however, other researchers believe that the element of the diet that caused atherosclerosis was cholesterol rather than animal tissue proteins<sup>2</sup>.</p>
      <p>In order to evaluate the theory of atherogenesis from cholesterol, Clarkson and Newburgh (1926) fed rabbits a normal diet, with increasing doses of cholesterol of 25, 113, 253 or 507 mg/day, administered in capsules. Moderate atherosclerosis was found in 71% of the rabbits fed 507 mg/day of cholesterol for 47-87 days. Meeker &amp; Kesten (1940, 1941) dissolved 60 or 250 mg of cholesterol in vegetable oil and added it to the diet of rabbits for three months. The animals developed typical atherosclerotic lesions similar to those seen in humans, thus corroborating the theory that cholesterol was the precursor for the development of atherosclerotic vascular disease<sup>3</sup>.</p>
      <p>In order to induce hypercholesterolemia in animals, cholesterol-containing diets have been used, and these vary from commercial chow supplemented with substantially different levels of cholesterol, to changes in the amount of lipids, carbohydrates and the different fat sources and contents, whether with or without cholic acid<sup>4</sup>. In our laboratory, we have been inducing hypercholesterolemia in rabbits by adding 1% of cholesterol to commercial chow in several studies with the purpose of investigating substances that can be further made viable as medications for the control of lipid metabolism, and also of developing tests of potential therapies and diagnosis between different experimental procedures<sup>5-12</sup>.</p>
      <p>The objective of the present review was to make a critical analysis of the hypercholesterolemic effect of cholesterol-rich diets in studies using rabbits as the experimental model that can lead to a better understanding of the biology of atherosclerosis in cardiovascular diseases.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Experimental atherosclerosis</bold>
      </p>
      <p>For a better understanding of the relationship between disorders of cholesterol metabolism and atherogenesis, diet manipulation and the use of animals with inherited metabolic errors such as Watanabe Heritable Hyperlipidemic (WHHL) and St. Thomas Hospital (STH) rabbits to induce familial hypercholesterolemia and hyperlipidemia combined with hypercholesterolemia, respectively, have been the focus of many experiments. Today, gene deletion technology has made possible studies producing a variety of transgenic animal models with lipoprotein disorders but, despite this revolutionary breakthrough, many of these genetically modified animals have been fed cholesterol to accelerate atherogenesis<sup>2</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Exposure to plasma cholesterol and endothelial dysfunction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The term "endothelial dysfunction", which has an important implication in the management of cardiovascular diseases, is used to describe situations in which the endothelium loses its vasoprotective property, and represents the initial phase of several processes of vascular lesion such as mechanical damage; hypercholesterolemia; atherosclerosis; and systemic hypertension<sup>13</sup>. In addition, vascular endothelial relaxation in response to acetylcholine is decreased, thus leading to vasoconstriction and reduced blood flow, as demonstrated by Sun et al<sup>14</sup> in cholesterol-fed rabbits, since this decreased vasodilation may be caused by the presence of lipid plaques in the aorta.</p>
      <p>Rabbits receiving a supplementation of 1% cholesterol in their diets for 8-10 weeks show impaired endothelial vasodilation in the carotid artery<sup>15</sup> and abnormalities of the nitric oxide (NO) synthesis, as demonstrated in atherosclerotic vessels<sup>16</sup>. Considering hyperlipidemia and atherosclerosis, aortic segments of hypercholesterolemic rabbits show significant reduction of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (NOS) in relation to controls<sup>17</sup>. Vasquez-Vivar et al<sup>18</sup> reported that BH4, a cofactor for the synthesis of NO in the aorta of rabbits fed a hypercholesterolemia-inducing diet, was markedly reduced in comparison to normocholesterolemic rabbits. Oxygen-free radicals such as the superoxide anion can modulate the activity of endogenous NO in hypercholesterolemic rabbits<sup>19,20</sup>. Interestingly, this demonstrates that NOS expression reported in vascular smooth muscle of hypercholesterolemic rabbits<sup>21,22</sup> is not able to dominate the defects of the endogenous vascular function. </p>
      <p>The increase in basal nitric oxide and in endothelium-derived vasodilators is more significant in endothelium-intact aortic rings of female rabbits than in those of males and depends on circulating estradiol concentrations<sup>23</sup>. Therefore, females are less susceptible to a diet inducing atherosclerotic lesions than males, but it depends on the state of the arterial endothelium, as observed by Holm et al<sup>24</sup>. Estradiol inhibits monocyte adhesion to endothelial cells with transendothelial migration, components of an inflammatory response that continually occurs throughout the atherogenic process after induced hypercholesterolemia in rabbits<sup>25</sup>.</p>
      <p>The development of interventions aimed at inhibiting atherosclerosis from cholesterol, and vascular dysfunction have received much attention because of this important association. L-arginine (a NOS substrate) depletion in animal models of atherosclerosis and hypercholesterolemia induces platelet aggregation, cell proliferation, and vascular monocyte accumulation, whereas endothelial-dependent vasoreactivity is improved in hypercholesterolemic rabbits treated with L-arginine, thus attenuating the mechanisms of vascular lesion<sup>26</sup> and inhibiting neointimal proliferation<sup>27</sup>, which can be assessed by means of several endothelial cell markers proposed (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_a20tab01-body2">Table 1</xref>). </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_a20tab01-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-95-02-0272-00020-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>Von Willebrand factor was recently studied in rabbits fed a cholesterol-rich diet for 30 days. Hypercholesterolemia was observed to induce increased levels of this factor, which later decreased after withdrawal of the cholesterol-rich diet. This showed a positive correlation with fatty streak formation in both study phases, while there was a decrease in vascular endothelial growth factor levels after withdrawal of the cholesterol-rich diet. This could be a reparative mechanism in the early atherosclerosis, and could also reflect endothelial cell damage<sup>28</sup>.</p>
      <p>While evaluating the effects of hypercholesterolemia on the risk of atherosclerosis using C-reactive protein (CRP), Sun et al<sup>29</sup> showed that CRP is frequently deposited in atherosclerotic lesions in rabbit models. Additionally, high plasma CRP levels are associated with the severity of hypercholesterolemia<sup>30</sup>.</p>
      <p>Increased NO synthesis may be a defense mechanism to compensate NO inactivation and protect against factors that represent body damage, with nitrite being a potent metabolite correlated with fatty streak formation; this has already been studied in the short and long term in cholesterol-fed rabbits<sup> 31</sup>. </p>
      <p>Parallel to these findings, endothelial function of vascular segments has been proven to be the earliest alteration in atherogenesis. The functional impairment of endothelial cells is demonstrated in the clinical consequences, such as the occurrence of events subsequent to the progression of plaque formation in the intima (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a20fig01-body2">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_a20fig01-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-95-02-0272-00020-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Atherosclerotic plaque formation</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The cholesterol-fed rabbit model is remarkable because of the rapid development of aortic lesions and low maintenance cost, and the typical diet to induce atherosclerosis involves supplementation of 0.5% to 4% cholesterol per weight for approximately 8 to 16 weeks. Under these conditions, rabbits rapidly become hypercholesterolemic (plasma cholesterol &gt; 1,000 mg/dl), and the resulting lesions primarily consist of macrophage-derived foam cells<sup>32</sup>. However, the relationship between atherosclerotic lesion formation and hypercholesterolemia-inducing diets in rabbits is dependent on the cumulative exposure rather than on the level of administered cholesterol, with rabbits fed 5.5% and 1.0% cholesterol showing similar degrees of induced hypercholesterolemia<sup>14</sup>. Some researchers support the suggestion that the formation of advanced lesions depends on the age of the animal. Aged rabbits, with 3-4.5 years of age, show fibrotic plaques, whereas young animals (4 months of age) do not show advanced lesions<sup>33</sup>.</p>
      <p>Since rabbits have been widely used to study the development of atherosclerosis in humans, rapid development of lesions has been achieved by supplementing their diet with cholesterol (&lt;0.5%), thus reaching moderate hypercholesterolemia, with plasma cholesterol levels in the range of 200 to 800 mg/dl<sup>34</sup>. Consequently, the lesions usually produced are topographically and morphologically different from those seen in humans. This difference is partly due to the fact that humans do not usually eat large amounts of cholesterol: generally their plasma cholesterol levels do not exceed 800 mg/dl, and they process and tolerate cholesterol intake better than rabbits. Additionally, long-term experiments in rabbits fed diets containing large amounts of cholesterol are discouraging due to hepatotoxicity and failure of the animal to thrive. Gross examinations revealed hepatomegaly with evidence of bile stasis at plasma cholesterol levels of 3,257 &#177; 266 mg/dl<sup>32</sup>. However, despite these restrictions, a large number of studies use this model to test the efficiency of drugs in the development of fatty streaks. </p>
      <p>Atherosclerotic lesions are composed of three major components. The first is the cell component, which is predominantly comprised of smooth muscle cells and macrophages. The second component is the connective tissue matrix and extracellular lipid. The third is intracellular lipid, which accumulates within macrophages, then converting into foam cells<sup>35</sup>. In previous cell events, the presence of leukocytes adhered to the thoracic and abdominal aorta has been observed in rabbits fed a 0.2% cholesterol-enriched diet for three weeks. After 3-5 weeks on the same diet, numerous foam cells are found in the subendothelial space and constitute the development of fatty streaks in the same site where adherent monocytes had been previously observed<sup>36</sup>.</p>
      <p>In the aorta, several types of plaques going from fatty streak to atheromatous lesions are observed in experimental models, depending on the degree of cholesterol intake. Diets containing &lt; 0.15% cholesterol result in the development of fatty streak lesions, whereas atheromatous plaques are more frequently found when high amounts of cholesterol are present in the diet<sup>32</sup>.</p>
      <p>The degree of atherosclerosis in rabbits tends to be greater in the abdominal aorta than in the thoracic aorta, and this can be explained by the hemodynamic effect or by the fact that the abdominal aorta of rabbits gradually tapers down to the aortic bifurcation. Therefore, the distal aorta may have more lesions than the proximal aorta<sup>37</sup>. Atheromatous changes after 8 weeks in rabbits fed cholesterol initiate in the thoracic aorta and then extend to the abdominal aorta, coronary artery and other vessels, with a predominance of concentric lesions in the thoracic aorta and proximal portion of the coronary artery in contrast to mild atherosclerosis found in the renal, carotid and femoral arteries in the 15th week of diet<sup>38</sup>. However, the extent to which the exposure to cholesterol influenced this type of lesion is not clear in this study.</p>
      <p>The extent of atherosclerosis in the aorta of rabbits may be quantified by the area of sudanophilic lesions<sup>39</sup> and by immunohistochemical analyses<sup>40</sup>. Recently, non-invasive magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has been used in the study of vascular lesions. MRI quantification and changes in the composition of atherosclerotic plaques may be used with MRI to monitor the progression and regression of in vivo atherosclerosis. The advantage of this method is that serial studies may be conducted in order to verify the response to therapeutic interventions<sup>41</sup>.</p>
      <p>Histological studies on the rate of stenosis, in turn, are an important method for the assessment of the severity of coronary atherosclerosis, because the rate is considered a direct reflex of the clinical condition. On the other hand, the assessment method using gross examination of atherosclerotic coronary arteries in rabbits has some advantages in relation to histological methods, since the analysis of the lesion area may be carried out in a short time, while the overall image of the atherosclerosis distribution may be easily understood. When tissue sections of atherosclerotic coronary lesions are necessary, it is possible to remove only the atherosclerotic plaque portion, which can be macroscopically observed from the luminal surface of the coronary artery<sup>42</sup>. </p>
      <p>Vascular lesions play an important role in cardiovascular disorders, although the participation of hypercholesterolemia in thromboembolic events remains poorly understood, thus requiring a better understanding. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Plaque rupture and thrombosis</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Rupture of the atherosclerotic plaque is known to be the major cause of thrombosis and subsequent clinical manifestations of atherosclerosis such as unstable angina, myocardial infarction and stroke, in addition to being a target of clinical intervention<sup>43-45</sup>. However, it is still difficult to predict when plaque rupture will occur, since the additional physiological stimulus required to trigger this event is unknown. The mechanisms of posterior plaque rupture and formation of subsequent occlusive thrombi remain not fully understood. Furthermore, it is still not clear whether plaques without thrombi can cause cardiac events<sup>44</sup>. Two main hypotheses have been proposed for the causes of plaque rupture (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab02-body2">Table 2</xref>).</p>
      <table-wrap id="tab02-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-95-02-0272-00020-gt02-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>Several animal models of plaque rupture have been reported in the past few years. In cholesterol-fed rabbits, the lesion is commonly induced using an intravenously injected balloon containing Russel&#146;s viper venom and histamine, a procedure that will result in plaque rupture and thrombosis<sup>37</sup>. Another model is that of cholesterol-fed rabbits with implantation of a balloon catheter in the thoracic aorta. The balloon is inflated after the atherosclerotic lesion is formed around it, thus leading to lesion rupture and thrombosis<sup>46</sup>. However, both are models of acute mechanically-induced cases in a research context. Thus, the value of these models for the study of cell apoptosis, inflammation, increased lipids, and degradation of the fibrous capsule is limited due to different and marked characteristics of the plaques formed in these models in comparison to those found naturally in humans since, in the latter, the lesions are restricted to the subendothelial region, thus maintaining the integrity of the internal elastic layer<sup>47</sup>.</p>
      <p>The atherosclerotic plaque is not a static structure. Rather, its status at any given moment is the result of the complex and dynamic interplay of a very large number of cellular and humoral factors<sup>48</sup>. Rekhter et al<sup>49</sup> observed plaque destabilization determined by collagen breakdown with local loss of the cellular source of collagen synthesis in rabbits<sup>49</sup>. The authors demonstrated a time-dependent decrease in total collagen content in lipid-rich plaques, whereas the level of cross-linking did not differ between high and low cholesterol intake in the groups. A mechanical link between hypercholesterolemia and collagen loss is still hypothetical, although a critical function of macrophages and other proteolytic enzymes has been strongly suggested. </p>
      <p>Hypercholesterolemia-inducing diet in rabbits selectively increases thrombus formation and embolism in arterioles, but not in venules. The observation that increased total plasma cholesterol results mainly in increased LDL cholesterol suggests that the effects seen of hypercholesterolemia on arteriolar thromboembolism are caused by LDL, and that the stimulus to endogenous NO production by excess L-arginine is able to antagonize this increased cholesterol, hence this enhancement of arteriolar thromboembolism<sup>50</sup>.</p>
      <p>If a thrombus is occlusive, it will lead to myocardial infarction<sup>45</sup>. Since plaque rupture is the main clinical complication, plaque stabilization is crucial, and a lipid-lowering diet proved able to significantly reduce the proteolytic activity and increase the collagen content in atheromas established in rabbits<sup>51</sup>. The substantial degree of clinical benefit seems not to be proportional to the improvement in the stenosis produced by lipid lowering that stabilizes the atheromatous plaque by reducing the levels and activity of proteinases that can degrade key structural components of the arterial extracellular matrix<sup>51</sup>. Thus, the ability of the plaque to resist rupture is reinforced.</p>
      <p>The administration of angiogenic growth factors is an interesting new approach to ischemic cardiac disease. Fibroblast growth factor promotes vascular repair and angiogenesis, inducing tissue factor expression in circulating monocytes and the vascular wall of normal and hypercholesterolemic rabbits<sup>52</sup>.</p>
      <p>According to Abela et al<sup>53</sup>, rabbit models with arterial lesions that develop thrombosis after mechanical arterial wall injury and cholesterol-rich diet lead to plaques vulnerable to rupture and thrombosis, and can be used to test pharmacological agents that may reduce the development of vulnerable atherosclerotic plaques such as lipid-lowering agents; antioxidants; calcium channel blocking agents; and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors. Antiplatelet and antithrombotic agents can be tested for their ability to reduce the amount of thrombus complicating plaque disruption. However, spontaneous plaque rupture does not occur in these models, although the triggering stimulus may lead to arterial thrombosis. Lesions produced in these animals by a combination of injury and a high-lipid diet lead to the formation of fibrous caps consisting of smooth muscle cells. Some aspects of human atheromas, typically formed in decades, may not be similar to those of atheromas obtained in a relatively short time in rabbit experiments<sup>51</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Metabolic regulation in hypercholesterolemic rabbits</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Rabbits are an animal species that have several aspects similar to those of humans as regards the lipoprotein metabolism, except for hepatic l&#237;pase defficiency<sup>54</sup>. Several characteristics of rabbits make them an excellent model for the assessment of effects of human transgenes on lipoprotein metabolism and susceptibility to atherosclerosis: 1) apoB-containing lipoproteins are similar to those seen in humans<sup>55</sup>; 2) rabbit liver produces apoB-100-containing VLDL, like in humans<sup>56</sup>; 3) abundance of ester-transfer protein in rabbit plasma<sup>57</sup>.</p>
      <p>At least four mechanisms are responsible for cholesterol homeostasis and affect plasma cholesterol concentrations (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab03-body2">Table 3</xref>).</p>
      <table-wrap id="tab03-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-95-02-0272-00020-gt03-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>In rabbits, 7&#945;-hydroxylase activity and mRNA levels are inhibited after a hypercholesterolemia-inducing diet with significantly high plasma cholesterol levels<sup>58</sup>. However, Overturf et al<sup>59</sup> found that by feeding rabbits a diet supplemented with 0.1% cholesterol for 7 months, this did not induce hypercholesterolemia, whereas by gradually increasing diet cholesterol intake, the bile acid pool increased inversely to 7&#945;-hydroxylase activity<sup>60</sup>. </p>
      <p>Bile acid excretion increases the clearance rate, which decreases the effective concentration of intracellular cholesterol, thus inhibiting the influence of cholesterol on the expression of LDL receptors, since bile acids are predominantly reabsorbed via the enterohepatic circulation and return to the liver to exert a negative feedback control on the 7&#945;-hydroxylase enzyme and to regulate cholesterol metabolism<sup>61</sup>.</p>
      <p>Bile acids are known to be reabsorbed in the intestine via passive and active mechanisms. Passive uptake occurs via non-ionic, ionic and micellar diffusion of conjugated or unconjugated bile acids; active, Na<sup>+</sup>-dependent, saturable absorption of conjugated bile acids occur against a concentration gradient. It has been proven that several species, rabbits included, have both bile acid reabsorption processes<sup>62</sup>. However, they have minimal passive intestinal reabsorption due to the relative hydrophilic nature of conjugated bile acids. The primary site of bile acid reabsorption is predominantly mediated by the ileal Na+/bile acid (IBAT) cotransporter and the interruption of the enterohepatic circulation of bile acids through attenuation of intestinal bile acid reabsorption is considered one of the best pathways for the reduction of plasma cholesterol levels<sup>62</sup>. Higaki et al<sup>63</sup> used IBAT inhibitor and demonstrated a reduction in the amount of bile acid return to the liver and increased conversion of cholesterol into bile acid in cholesterol-fed rabbits.</p>
      <p>The inhibitory effect of diet cholesterol on 7&#945;-hydroxylase in rabbits can help explain why some individuals are more sensitive to diet cholesterol and have their plasma cholesterol concentration increased. These individuals may respond to a high-cholesterol diet with a decreased bile acid synthesis, thus contributing to the elevation of plasma cholesterol levels and reduction of LDL receptors. Alternatively, other individuals respond to a cholesterol-rich diet with increased bile acid synthesis and, thus, plasma cholesterol levels do not increase. Identifying these individuals may help determine their atherosclerosis risk so that more sensible recommendations can be made for dietary treatment<sup>58</sup>. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Final considerations</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Considering that the prevalence of atherosclerosis and ischemic heart disease is increasing worldwide, with serious clinical consequences that require efforts for a better understanding of their pathogenesis, it is clear that the search for improved experimental techniques and new therapies for these conditions is necessary, seeing the advances in the use of experimental models.</p>
      <p>In this sense, rabbits as experimental models are an important tool for the study of atherosclerosis among the animals that have been used in clinical investigations. Among the animals studied, only rabbits show a tendency to develop hypercholesterolemia via accumulation of exogenous cholesterol after a few days receiving high-cholesterol diets, since their sterol excretion cannot be increased. However, careful extrapolations should be made in relation to the degree of hypercholesterolemia produced in laboratory animals, since they exceed the levels usually found in humans. Limitations and advances should be discussed so that they can contribute to and broaden the knowledge on the etiology, pathophysiology and treatment of atherosclerosis with the characterization of these findings. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Acknowledgements</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The authors thank <italic>Funda&#231;&#227;o de Amparo &#224; Pesquisa de Minas Gerais </italic>(FAPEMIG) for the financial support and research grant, and <italic>Rede Mineira de Toxicologia e Farmacologia</italic> - TOXIFAR, FAPEMIG.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
      </p>
      <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This study was funded by FAPEMIG.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Study Association</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This article is part of the thesis of master submitted by Waleska Cl&#225;udia Dornas, from <italic>Universidade Federal de Outo Preto</italic>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
</article>
