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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">975jHK8kJNRQ4FR9nj69H8j</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00010</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2010001200010</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(10)09500210</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2010005000087</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigos Originais</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Obesidade e fatores de risco cardiovascular em adolescentes de escolas p&#250;blicas</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Cobayashi</surname>
            <given-names>Fernanda</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Fernanda Luisa Ceragioli</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Escriv&#227;o</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Arlete Meil Schimith</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Daniela</surname>
            <given-names>Silveira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Taddei</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Augusto de Aguiar Carrazedo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>08</month>
        <year>2010</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>95</volume>
      <issue>2</issue>
      <fpage>200</fpage>
      <lpage>206</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>02</day>
          <month>02</month>
          <year>2010</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>29</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2009</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>15</day>
          <month>03</month>
          <year>2010</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>FUNDAMENTO: O excesso de peso na adolesc&#234;ncia &#233; fator de risco para o desenvolvimento de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares na vida adulta. OBJETIVO: Estudar a associa&#231;&#227;o dos fatores de risco cardiovascular (FRC) em adolescentes com excesso de peso e eutr&#243;ficos, de ambos os sexos, de 14 a 19 anos em escolas p&#250;blicas. M&#201;TODOS: Estudo caso-controle com 163 adolescentes com excesso de peso e 151 eutr&#243;ficos. An&#225;lise de regress&#227;o log&#237;stica m&#250;ltipla foi utilizada para avaliar as associa&#231;&#245;es entre excesso de peso e os FRC (perfil lip&#237;dico, press&#227;o arterial e insulina basal). Um conjunto de FRC foi definido para cada indiv&#237;duo, variando de 0 (nenhuma das condi&#231;&#245;es) at&#233; 6 (presen&#231;a de todas essas condi&#231;&#245;es). RESULTADOS: Adolescentes com excesso de peso (&#237;ndice de massa corporal &gt; percentil 85) apresentaram maiores frequ&#234;ncias dos FRC quando comparados ao grupo de eutr&#243;ficos. Os FRC associados ao excesso de peso foram HDLc &lt; 35 mg/dl (OR = 3,41; IC: 1,24-9,38), triglic&#233;rides &gt; 150 mg/dl (OR = 3,04; IC: 1,01-9,13), insulina basal alterada &gt; 15 &#181;U/ml (OR = 8,65; IC: 4,03-18,56) e press&#227;o arterial alterada (OR = 3,69; IC: 1,76-7,72). Entre os adolescentes com excesso de peso, 22,09% tinham mais do que tr&#234;s fatores de risco, enquanto que entre os eutr&#243;ficos, este percentual foi de 6,12%. CONCLUS&#195;O: Adolescentes com excesso de peso apresentaram fatores de risco para doen&#231;as cardiovasculares. Ressalta-se a necessidade de programas e pol&#237;ticas de diagn&#243;stico e de tratamento, a fim de reduzir os riscos de morbimortalidade na idade adulta.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>Obesidade</kwd>
        <kwd>fatores de risco</kwd>
        <kwd>adolescentes</kwd>
        <kwd>preven&#231;&#227;o de doen&#231;as</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>09</day>
        <month>07</month>
        <year>2010</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>ARTIGO ORIGINAL </p>
    <p> EPIDEMIOLOGIA</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Obesidade e fatores de risco cardiovascular em adolescentes de escolas p&#250;blicas</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fernanda Cobayashi; Fernanda Luisa Ceragioli Oliveira; Maria Arlete Meil Schimith Escriv&#227;o; Daniela Silveira; Jos&#233; Augusto de Aguiar Carrazedo Taddei</bold>
    </p>
    <p> Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo - Unifesp, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="endb">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESUMO</bold>
    </p>
    <p><bold>FUNDAMENTO:</bold> O excesso de peso na adolesc&#234;ncia &#233; fator de risco para o desenvolvimento de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares na vida adulta. </p>
    <p><bold>OBJETIVO:</bold> Estudar a associa&#231;&#227;o dos fatores de risco cardiovascular (FRC) em adolescentes com excesso de peso e eutr&#243;ficos, de ambos os sexos, de 14 a 19 anos em escolas p&#250;blicas. </p>
    <p><bold>M&#201;TODOS:</bold> Estudo caso-controle com 163 adolescentes com excesso de peso e 151 eutr&#243;ficos. An&#225;lise de regress&#227;o log&#237;stica m&#250;ltipla foi utilizada para avaliar as associa&#231;&#245;es entre excesso de peso e os FRC (perfil lip&#237;dico, press&#227;o arterial e insulina basal). Um conjunto de FRC foi definido para cada indiv&#237;duo, variando de 0 (nenhuma das condi&#231;&#245;es) at&#233; 6 (presen&#231;a de todas essas condi&#231;&#245;es). </p>
    <p><bold>RESULTADOS:</bold> Adolescentes com excesso de peso (&#237;ndice de massa corporal &gt; percentil 85) apresentaram maiores frequ&#234;ncias dos FRC quando comparados ao grupo de eutr&#243;ficos. Os FRC associados ao excesso de peso foram HDLc <underline>&lt;</underline> 35 mg/dl (OR = 3,41; IC: 1,24-9,38), triglic&#233;rides <underline>&gt;</underline> 150 mg/dl (OR = 3,04; IC: 1,01-9,13), insulina basal alterada &gt; 15 &#181;U/ml (OR = 8,65; IC: 4,03-18,56) e press&#227;o arterial alterada (OR = 3,69; IC: 1,76-7,72). Entre os adolescentes com excesso de peso, 22,09% tinham mais do que tr&#234;s fatores de risco, enquanto que entre os eutr&#243;ficos, este percentual foi de 6,12%. </p>
    <p><bold>CONCLUS&#195;O:</bold> Adolescentes com excesso de peso apresentaram fatores de risco para doen&#231;as cardiovasculares. Ressalta-se a necessidade de programas e pol&#237;ticas de diagn&#243;stico e de tratamento, a fim de reduzir os riscos de morbimortalidade na idade adulta.</p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold> Obesidade, fatores de risco, adolescentes, preven&#231;&#227;o de doen&#231;as.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O aumento da obesidade em crian&#231;as e adolescentes &#233; considerado problema mundial de sa&#250;de p&#250;blica. Nos Estados Unidos, estimativas do <italic>National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey</italic> (NHANES IV) mostraram que, na faixa et&#225;ria de 12 a 19 anos<sup>1</sup>, o excesso de peso aumentou de 14,8% para 18,3% em meninos, e de 14,8% para 16,4% em meninas. No Brasil, de acordo com o &#250;ltimo estudo nacional realizado, na faixa de 10 a 19 anos de idade<sup>2</sup>, a preval&#234;ncia de excesso de peso foi de 18,0% nos meninos e 15,4% nas meninas.</p>
    <p>Embora fatores gen&#233;ticos predisponham o desenvolvimento da obesidade, v&#225;rios estudos t&#234;m enfatizado fatores ambientais e comportamentais, como a falta de atividade f&#237;sica<sup>3</sup>, maior tempo gasto assistindo televis&#227;o<sup>4</sup> e aumento do consumo de <italic>fast food</italic><sup>5</sup>, como determinantes do seu crescimento.</p>
    <p>O excesso de peso na inf&#226;ncia aumenta as chances de obesidade na idade adulta. Deshmukh-Taskar e cols.<sup>6</sup> analisaram dados de peso e altura de crian&#231;as do <italic>Bogalusa Heart Study</italic>, inicialmente na inf&#226;ncia, dos 9 aos 11 anos de idade, e depois, novamente, dos 19 aos 35 anos de idade. Observou-se que dos 841 indiv&#237;duos que estavam localizados no &#250;ltimo quartil de IMC, 61,9% permaneceram nesta mesma posi&#231;&#227;o na idade adulta.</p>
    <p>O excesso de peso &#233; fator de risco importante para doen&#231;as cardiovasculares. Embora as manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas dessas doen&#231;as ocorram na maturidade, estudos mostraram que comorbidades, como as dislipidemias, hipertens&#227;o arterial e resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina, podem estar presentes na inf&#226;ncia e na adolesc&#234;ncia<sup>7,8</sup>, sendo respons&#225;veis pelo aumento de risco de morbimortalidade na vida adulta<sup>9,10</sup>.</p>
    <p>Poucos estudos t&#234;m sido conduzidos em adolescentes relacionando a obesidade e os fatores de risco cardiovascular em pa&#237;ses em desenvolvimento, particularmente no Brasil. No entanto, de acordo com o relat&#243;rio da Organiza&#231;&#227;o Mundial da Sa&#250;de<sup>11</sup>, crian&#231;as e adolescentes de baixo n&#237;vel socioecon&#244;mico est&#227;o t&#227;o expostos &#224; obesidade e aos fatores de risco cardiovascular quanto aquelas de alto n&#237;vel socioecon&#244;mico. Para o desenvolvimento de programas de preven&#231;&#227;o e de interven&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nicos mais eficientes s&#227;o necess&#225;rios estudos direcionados a essa popula&#231;&#227;o. </p>
    <p>O objetivo do presente estudo foi avaliar a associa&#231;&#227;o entre a obesidade e os fatores de riscos cardiovasculares em adolescentes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Materiais e m&#233;todos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O estudo analisou dois bancos de dados da cidade de S&#227;o Paulo, o primeiro coletado em 2002 e o segundo em 2006. O primeiro foi proveniente de estudo caso-controle que, por meio de equipe treinada de nutricionistas e pediatras, realizou antropometria de 1.420 adolescentes, entre 14-19 anos de idade, representando 98,68% de todos os estudantes matriculados em uma escola p&#250;blica para a sele&#231;&#227;o de casos (adolescentes com excesso de peso) e controles (adolescentes eutr&#243;ficos). </p>
    <p>Dezesseis adolescentes (1,12%) recusaram-se a ser avaliados e tr&#234;s (0,21%) n&#227;o foram encontrados depois de tr&#234;s tentativas. Os grupos foram pareados por idade, sexo, est&#225;dio puberal (Tanner - mamas e g&#244;nadas <underline>&gt;</underline> 4)<sup>12</sup> e n&#237;vel socioecon&#244;mico. A defini&#231;&#227;o de excesso de peso e eutrofia foi baseada no crit&#233;rio de Must e cols.<sup>13</sup>. </p>
    <p>Os adolescentes foram pesados e medidos durante as aulas de educa&#231;&#227;o f&#237;sica. Ap&#243;s consider&#225;-los eleg&#237;veis para participar do estudo, foram convidados a comparecerem a escola junto com os pais ou respons&#225;veis a fim de serem informados sobre os objetivos da pesquisa e obter o termo de consentimento. </p>
    <p>Dos 340 participantes eleg&#237;veis para o estudo, 77 adolescentes recusaram-se a participar. Dos 263 participantes, 4 casos foram exclu&#237;dos devido ao diagn&#243;stico de hipotireoidismo, ap&#243;s exame m&#233;dico e dosagem de horm&#244;nios tireoideanos. Finalmente, dos 259 adolescentes, 83 foram definidos como casos (excesso de peso com &#237;ndice de massa corporal [IMC] maior ou igual ao percentil 85) e 176 controles (eutr&#243;ficos com IMC maior do que o percentil 5 e menor do que o percentil 85).</p>
    <p>Uma vez que a an&#225;lise dos dados do estudo caso-controle de 2002 revelou baixo poder estat&#237;stico para estimar os fatores de risco para a obesidade em adolescentes<sup>4</sup>, decidiu-se aumentar o n&#250;mero de casos incluindo somente adolescentes com excesso de peso. A segunda base de dados foi composta somente de adolescentes acima do percentil 95, de acordo com o crit&#233;rio proposto por Must e cols.<sup>13</sup>. Para isso foram identificados, em 2006, 4 escolas p&#250;blicas da mesma regi&#227;o do estudo de 2002. Do total de 2.663 estudantes matriculados nessas escolas, 144 (5,04%) n&#227;o foram encontrados depois de tr&#234;s tentativas e 189 (7,09%) recusaram-se a ser avaliados. Dos 150 adolescentes com excesso de peso, 124 eram eleg&#237;veis para o estudo, uma vez que 26 deles n&#227;o atenderam os crit&#233;rios de inclus&#227;o do estudo, pois tinham mais do que 19 anos de idade ou j&#225; recebiam tratamento para perda de peso. Dos 124 indiv&#237;duos eleg&#237;veis para o estudo, 42 (33,87%) recusaram-se a participar e dois (1,61%) sa&#237;ram da escola depois da primeira avalia&#231;&#227;o antropom&#233;trica. </p>
    <p>A amostra foi composta de 80 adolescentes com excesso de peso. Visando identificar eventuais vieses de sele&#231;&#227;o, a distribui&#231;&#227;o de IMC por sexo dos 80 adolescentes inclu&#237;dos no estudo foi comparada com a dos que desistiram do estudo, n&#227;o havendo diferen&#231;as estatisticamente significantes entre elas.</p>
    <p>A amostra total de ambos os bancos de dados foi de 339 adolescentes, sendo 163 com excesso de peso e 176 eutr&#243;ficos. Para essas an&#225;lises, 25 adolescentes que apresentaram escore "z" de estatura para a idade <underline>&gt;</underline> -2,0 foram exclu&#237;dos, resultando em amostra final de 314 adolescentes (163 casos e 151 controles).</p>
    <p>Todos os procedimentos descritos a seguir (medidas antropom&#233;tricas e exames bioqu&#237;micos) foram exatamente os mesmos adotados nas coletas de dados de 2002 e de 2006.</p>
    <p>Os dados da hist&#243;ria familiar para doen&#231;a cardiovascular, incluindo ascendentes de primeiro e segundo graus e o uso de medicamentos, foram coletados utilizando question&#225;rio validado e pr&#233;-testado no estudo-piloto, aplicado por nutricionistas e pediatras treinados. As vari&#225;veis de hist&#243;ria familiar foram codificadas em sim (presen&#231;a da doen&#231;a) ou n&#227;o (aus&#234;ncia da doen&#231;a).</p>
    <p>As medidas antropom&#233;tricas (peso e altura) foram realizadas de acordo com procedimentos padronizados<sup>14</sup>. A altura foi medida em antrop&#244;metro (Alturexata<sup>&#174;</sup>), com escala em cent&#237;metros e o peso em balan&#231;a digital (Kratos<sup>&#174;</sup> model "L&#237;nea") com escala de 0,05 kg.</p>
    <p>A press&#227;o arterial foi medida por uma m&#233;dica devidamente treinada usando esfignoman&#244;metro de merc&#250;rio (Tycos<sup>&#174;</sup>) com manguitos apropriados para o di&#226;metro do bra&#231;o. A press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica (Fase I de Korotkoff) e press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica (Fase V de Korotkoff) foram medidas tr&#234;s vezes, com intervalo de 5 minutos, no bra&#231;o direito, levando-se em considera&#231;&#227;o a m&#233;dia das medidas<sup>15,16</sup>. </p>
    <p>Pr&#233;-hipertens&#227;o foi definida quando os valores de press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica estavam entre os percentis 90 e 95 para idade, sexo e altura. Hipertens&#227;o foi definida quando tais valores eram maiores do que o percentil 95<sup>15</sup>. Os valores de pr&#233;-hipertens&#227;o e hipertens&#227;o arteriais foram agrupados em categoria de risco.</p>
    <p>As amostras de sangue foram coletadas por pun&#231;&#227;o venosa pela manh&#227;, depois de 12 horas de jejum para as an&#225;lises de colesterol total (CT) e fra&#231;&#245;es, triglic&#233;rides e insulina basal. Os n&#237;veis de LDL colesterol foram estimados segundo a equa&#231;&#227;o de Friedewald<sup>17</sup>, quando os n&#237;veis de triglic&#233;rides estavam abaixo de 400 mg/dl. As concentra&#231;&#245;es de CT &gt; 170 mg/dl, LDLc &gt; 110 mg/dl, HDLc &lt; 35 mg/dl, os n&#237;veis de triglic&#233;rides &gt; 150 mg/dl, de insulina basal maior do que 15 &#181;U/ml foram considerados como riscos para doen&#231;as cardiovasculares<sup>18,19</sup>.</p>
    <p>O estudo foi aprovado pelo Comit&#234; de &#201;tica em Pesquisa da Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo, ap&#243;s o consentimento escrito e informado obtido de todos os adolescentes e de seus pais.</p>
    <p>Foram conduzidas an&#225;lises estat&#237;sticas uni e bivariadas com c&#225;lculo das propor&#231;&#245;es de expostos por diferentes fatores de risco entre o grupo com excesso de peso e o grupo de eutr&#243;ficos, com as respectivas raz&#245;es de chances (OR) e intervalos de confian&#231;a (IC) de 95%. An&#225;lise de regress&#227;o log&#237;stica m&#250;ltipla foi utilizada para examinar as associa&#231;&#245;es entre o estado nutricional e os fatores de risco cardiovascular. As vari&#225;veis com associa&#231;&#245;es significantes (p &lt; 0,05) na an&#225;lise bivariada foram inclu&#237;das na an&#225;lise de regress&#227;o log&#237;stica m&#250;ltipla<sup>20</sup>. </p>
    <p>Por &#250;ltimo, um conjunto de fatores de risco cardiovascular foi definido como o n&#250;mero de condi&#231;&#245;es prevalentes (presen&#231;a de pr&#233;-hipertens&#227;o e hipertens&#227;o arterial, altera&#231;&#227;o do valor s&#233;rico de CT, LDLc, HDLc, triglic&#233;rides e de insulina basal) para cada indiv&#237;duo, variando de 0 (nenhuma dessas condi&#231;&#245;es presentes) at&#233; 6 (presen&#231;a de todas as condi&#231;&#245;es citadas).</p>
    <p>Todas as an&#225;lises estat&#237;sticas foram conduzidas utilizando-se <italic>software</italic> STATA, vers&#227;o 8.0<sup>21</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Resultados</bold>
    </p>
    <p>No total, 163 adolescentes com excesso de peso (m&#233;dia de idade 16,01 anos, sendo que 42,3% eram meninos) e 151 adolescentes eutr&#243;ficos (m&#233;dia de idade 16,2 anos, sendo que 45,0% eram meninos) participaram do estudo. As frequ&#234;ncias e os <italic>odds ratios</italic> (OR), com seus respectivos intervalos de confian&#231;a de 95,0%, para as vari&#225;veis relacionadas aos fatores de risco s&#227;o descritos na <xref ref-type="table" rid="aop08010a01tab01m">Tabela 1</xref>.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="aop08010a01tab01m">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-95-02-0200-00087-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>Evidenciou-se que os adolescentes com excesso de peso tiveram as maiores frequ&#234;ncias dos fatores de risco cardiovascular, quando comparados ao grupo de adolescentes eutr&#243;ficos. Aproximadamente 15,0% dos adolescentes com excesso de peso apresentaram baixos n&#237;veis de HDLc (OR bruto = 4,17). A frequ&#234;ncia para triglic&#233;rides alterada foi de 11,04% (OR bruto = 3,62). Quanto &#224; insulina basal, 38,65% tiveram valores alterados em compara&#231;&#227;o com 5,96% no grupo de adolescentes eutr&#243;ficos (OR bruto = 9,94). A presen&#231;a de pr&#233; ou hipertens&#227;o arterial foi observada em 26,99% dos adolescentes com excesso de peso (OR bruto = 4,15).</p>
    <p>N&#227;o houve diferen&#231;as entre os dois grupos com rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; hist&#243;ria familiar de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares.</p>
    <p>A <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab2">Tabela 2</xref> descreve os <italic>odds ratios</italic> ajustados para os fatores de risco cardiovascular entre os dois grupos. As vari&#225;veis de risco cardiovascular associadas ao excesso de peso foram HDLc (OR = 3,41; IC: 1,24-9,38), triglic&#233;rides (OR = 3,04; IC: 1,01-9,13), press&#227;o arterial alterada (OR = 3,69; IC: 1,76-7,72) e insulina basal (OR = 8,65; IC: 4,03-18,56).</p>
    <table-wrap id="tab2">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-95-02-0200-00087-gt02.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>As distribui&#231;&#245;es das frequ&#234;ncias de fatores de risco cardiovascular est&#227;o apresentadas na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="aop08010a01fig01m">Figura 1</xref>. Dos adolescentes com excesso de peso, 23,08% tiveram mais do que tr&#234;s fatores de risco em compara&#231;&#227;o com apenas 6,12% dos adolescentes eutr&#243;ficos.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="aop08010a01fig01m">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-95-02-0200-00087-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Discuss&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A estrat&#233;gia adotada neste estudo, de aumentar o n&#250;mero e a gravidade do quadro de obesidade ap&#243;s 4 anos da coleta original do estudo de caso-controle, mostrou-se efetiva ao aumentar o poder para identifica&#231;&#227;o de riscos com melhor precis&#227;o estat&#237;stica. Apesar da melhor precis&#227;o das estimativas de risco, permanecem as limita&#231;&#245;es inerentes a todos os estudos de caso-controle, no que concerne a limita&#231;&#245;es para determinar sequ&#234;ncia temporal da linha de causalidade investigada e os vieses recordat&#243;rios. </p>
    <p>Tal fato fica ainda mais evidente quando se avalia a pequena quantidade de publica&#231;&#245;es referentes a riscos cardiovasculares em adolescentes, o que torna os resultados do estudo especialmente relevantes, uma vez que s&#227;o considerados adolescentes que, mesmo ap&#243;s o estir&#227;o da adolesc&#234;ncia, continuaram obesos. </p>
    <p>A maioria dos estudos publicados com adolescentes compreende faixas et&#225;rias mais amplas e n&#227;o avalia o desenvolvimento puberal, crit&#233;rio indispens&#225;vel quando se avalia o estado nutricional de adolescentes. </p>
    <p>Os achados do presente estudo s&#227;o consistentes com outros estudos relacionando os riscos cardiovasculares e obesidade em crian&#231;as e adolescentes da Alemanha, Estados Unidos, Coreia e Fran&#231;a<sup>7,22-24</sup>. </p>
    <p>Neste estudo, 14,72% dos adolescentes com excesso de peso apresentaram n&#237;veis baixos de HDLc, comparado com apenas 3,97% dos eutr&#243;ficos. Considerando o mesmo ponto de corte, Reinehr e cols.<sup>22</sup> encontraram 18,0%, em 1.004 crian&#231;as e adolescentes alem&#227;s com excesso de peso, enquanto Kim e cols.<sup>24</sup> observaram n&#237;veis baixos de HDLc em 14,4% dos 76 adolescentes coreanos com excesso de peso. Apesar de ambos os estudos terem considerado grupos et&#225;rios amplos, as propor&#231;&#245;es de HDLc alterados foram similares aos encontrados no presente estudo, evidenciando que tal dist&#250;rbio metab&#243;lico &#233; concomitante ao aumento da massa gorda.</p>
    <p>Por outro lado, as frequ&#234;ncias dos valores de triglic&#233;rides aumentados encontradas nos dois estudos citados foram maiores do que os 11,04% encontrados no presente trabalho, 20,0% no estudo alem&#227;o e 35,1% no estudo coreano<sup>22,24</sup>. </p>
    <p>Observou-se que 26,99% dos adolescentes com excesso de peso apresentavam presen&#231;a de pr&#233; ou hipertens&#227;o arterial. Resultados similares foram tamb&#233;m encontrados em pa&#237;ses em desenvolvimento. Em estudo conduzido por Chiolero e cols.<sup>25</sup>, na Rep&#250;blica de Seychelles, das 15.612 crian&#231;as e adolescentes de 5 a 16 anos de idade, a preval&#234;ncia da hipertens&#227;o arterial no grupo de obesos foi de 25,0% e 33,2% para meninos e meninas, respectivamente.</p>
    <p>Quando os n&#237;veis de press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica foram analisados separadamente, as frequ&#234;ncias de presen&#231;a de pr&#233;-hipertens&#227;o ou hipertens&#227;o arterial foram 9,82% e 6,75% para o grupo de adolescentes com excesso de peso, comparados com 0,68% e 2,04% entre adolescentes eutr&#243;ficos. Rao e cols.<sup>26</sup>, estudando 2.223 adolescentes indianos de ambos os sexos, de 9 a 16 anos de idade, utilizando o IMC como crit&#233;rio diagn&#243;stico de obesidade, observaram 22,2% de press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica e 14,0% de press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica alteradas nos meninos. Nas meninas, encontraram 29,9% de press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica e 7,1% de diast&#243;lica alteradas. </p>
    <p>Na an&#225;lise de regress&#227;o m&#250;ltipla, observou-se que adolescentes com excesso de peso tinham aproximadamente 4 vezes mais chances de apresentar press&#227;o arterial alterada do que os adolescentes eutr&#243;ficos, mesmo depois de ajustar para colesterol total, triglic&#233;rides e insulina basal.</p>
    <p>Achados do <italic>Bogalusa Heart Study</italic> demonstraram que os n&#237;veis de press&#227;o sangu&#237;nea na inf&#226;ncia acima do percentil 80 estavam associados com aumento da preval&#234;ncia de press&#227;o sangu&#237;nea elevada durante a idade adulta<sup>10</sup>. Em estudo recente de crian&#231;as e adolescentes, que fizeram parte do <italic>National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey</italic> (NHANES), observou-se que o aumento da obesidade, especialmente a obesidade abdominal, explicaria parte da tend&#234;ncia ao aumento dos n&#237;veis press&#243;ricos sangu&#237;neos, pois h&#225; associa&#231;&#227;o entre a hipertens&#227;o arterial e o hiperinsulinismo<sup>11</sup>. </p>
    <p>Entre os adolescentes com excesso de peso, 38,65% apresentavam n&#237;veis alterados de insulina basal. Foi encontrada forte associa&#231;&#227;o de insulina basal alterada com excesso de peso (OR = 8,65) na an&#225;lise de regress&#227;o log&#237;stica m&#250;ltipla. Freedman e cols.<sup>27</sup>, em seu estudo com crian&#231;as e adolescentes do <italic>Bogalusa Heart Study</italic>, utilizando um ponto de corte mais rigoroso no diagn&#243;stico da obesidade (P95), encontraram associa&#231;&#227;o de OR = 12,6 para insulina basal. </p>
    <p>A hiperinsulinemia &#233; fortemente associada com o tecido adiposo intra-abdominal<sup>28</sup>. Como demonstrado por Reinehr e cols.<sup>29</sup>, em estudo longitudinal, a hiperinsulinemia pode ser a principal anormalidade em crian&#231;as e adolescentes obesos, o que contribui para a dislipidemia. O mecanismo fisiol&#243;gico sugerido neste processo &#233; que a gordura intra-abdominal apresenta elevada e intensa atividade metab&#243;lica, permitindo que os dep&#243;sitos de triglic&#233;rides concentrados nesta regi&#227;o sejam mais facilmente mobilizados para a corrente sangu&#237;nea, acarretando aumento da produ&#231;&#227;o de &#225;cidos graxos livres e LDLc no f&#237;gado<sup>30</sup>. </p>
    <p>O conjunto de fatores de risco cardiovascular no presente estudo mostrou que 22,09% dos adolescentes com excesso de peso tinham mais do que tr&#234;s fatores de risco ao mesmo tempo, quando comparados com 6,12% dos adolescentes eutr&#243;ficos.</p>
    <p>A presen&#231;a de fatores de risco cardiovascular, incluindo a dislipidemia, hipertens&#227;o arterial e os n&#237;veis alterados de insulina basal, comp&#245;em a s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica<sup>31-33</sup>, que, como demonstrado neste estudo, est&#227;o presentes nesse grupo de adolescentes de baixa renda com excesso de peso.</p>
    <p>Embora os sintomas cl&#237;nicos causados pelas doen&#231;as cardiovasculares ocorram na vida adulta, o processo ateroscler&#243;tico tem in&#237;cio na inf&#226;ncia, tendo o excesso de peso como um dos principais determinantes<sup>34,35</sup>. A avalia&#231;&#227;o do estado nutricional &#233;, portanto, essencial na rotina cl&#237;nica visando &#224; detec&#231;&#227;o e a preven&#231;&#227;o da obesidade e dos fatores de risco cardiovascular associados. </p>
    <p>Al&#233;m da obesidade, os fatores gen&#233;ticos podem contribuir no desenvolvimento do processo ateroscler&#243;tico, aliado a outros aspectos ambientais a que os adolescentes est&#227;o expostos, como o uso de drogas, fumo e contraceptivos orais. Mudan&#231;as no estilo de vida, como o incentivo &#224; atividade f&#237;sica e adequa&#231;&#227;o da dieta, s&#227;o estrat&#233;gias importantes para manuten&#231;&#227;o do peso saud&#225;vel<sup>36</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em conclus&#227;o, os fatores de risco para doen&#231;as cardiovasculares como baixos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de HDLc, triglic&#233;rides e insulina basal alterados e a presen&#231;a de pr&#233;-hipertens&#227;o ou hipertens&#227;o arterial s&#227;o fortemente associados ao excesso de peso. Ressalta-se a necessidade de sistemas de vigil&#226;ncia em pa&#237;ses em desenvolvimento, que poderiam identificar os adolescentes com excesso de peso para serem inclu&#237;dos em programas de controle da obesidade e preven&#231;&#227;o de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares, a fim de reduzir a morbimortalidade na idade adulta.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O presente estudo foi financiado pelo Fundo de apoio a docentes e alunos da UNIFESP.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de tese de doutorado de Fernanda Cobayashi pela Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="endb" fn-type="corresp">
        <label>
          <bold>Correspond&#234;ncia:</bold>
        </label>
        <p> Jos&#233; Augusto de Aguiar Carrazedo Taddei </p>
        <p> Rua Loefgreen -1647 - Vila Clementino </p>
        <p> 04040-032 - S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil </p>
        <p> E-mail:</p>
        <p><email xlink:href="taddei.dped@epm.br">taddei.dped@epm.br</email>; </p>
        <p><email xlink:href="nutsec@yahoo.com.br">nutsec@yahoo.com.br</email>; </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="fernandacoba@gmail.com">fernandacoba@gmail.com</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Artigo recebido em 29/07/09; revisado recebido em 02/02/10; aceito em 15/03/10.</p>
  </body>
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            </name>
          </person-group>
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        <mixed-citation>36. Balagopal P. Obesity-related cardiovascular risk in children and the role of lifestyle changes. J Cardiometab Syndr. 2006; 1 (4): 269-74.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Obesity-related cardiovascular risk in children and the role of lifestyle changes</article-title>
          <source>J Cardiometab Syndr</source>
          <date>
            <year>2006</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>269</fpage>
          <lpage>74</lpage>
          <issue>4</issue>
          <volume>1</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Balagopal</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
    </ref-list>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Articles</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Obesity and cardiovascular risk factors in adolescents attending public schools</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>BACKGROUND: Overweight in adolescence is a risk factor for the development of cardiovascular diseases in adulthood. OBJECTIVE: To study the association of cardiovascular risk factors (CRF) in overweight and normal-weight adolescents of both genders aged from 14 to 19 years, attending public schools. METHODS: Case-control study including 163 overweight and 151 normal-weight adolescents. Multiple logistic regression analysis was used to evaluate the associations between overweight and CRF (lipid profile, blood pressure and baseline insulin level). A set of CRF was defined for each individual, ranging from 0 (no risk factors) to 6 (all risk factors present). RESULTS: Overweight adolescents (body mass index &gt; 85th percentile) presented a higher frequency of CRF in comparison to the normal- weight group. The CRF associated with overweight were HDLc &lt; 35 mg/dl (OR = 3.41; CI: 1.24-9.38), triglycerides &gt; 150 mg/dl (OR = 3.04; CI: 1.01-9.13), abnormal baseline insulin levels &gt; 15 &#181;U/ml (OR = 8.65; CI: 4.03-18.56) and abnormal blood pressure (OR = 3.69; CI: 1.76-7.72). Among overweight adolescents, 22.09% had more than three risk factors, whereas this percentage dropped to 6.12% among normal-weight adolescents. CONCLUSION: Overweight adolescents presented risk factors for cardiovascular diseases. The need for programs and policies targeted at the diagnosis and treatment of this condition is pointed out in order to reduce the risks of morbidity and mortality in adulthood.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Obesity</kwd>
        <kwd>risk factors</kwd>
        <kwd>adolescents</kwd>
        <kwd>disease prevention</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <fn id="enda-body2">
          <label>
            <bold>Obesity and cardiovascular risk factors in adolescents attending public schools</bold>
          </label>
          <p>
            <bold>Fernanda Cobayashi; Fernanda Luisa Ceragioli Oliveira; Maria Arlete Meil Schimith Escriv&#227;o; Daniela Silveira; Jos&#233; Augusto de Aguiar Carrazedo Taddei</bold>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p> Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo - Unifesp, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil</p>
      <p>Mailing address</p>
      <p>
        <bold>ABSTRACT</bold>
      </p>
      <p><bold>BACKGROUND:</bold> Overweight in adolescence is a risk factor for the development of cardiovascular diseases in adulthood.</p>
      <p><bold>OBJECTIVE:</bold> To study the association of cardiovascular risk factors (CRF) in overweight and normal-weight adolescents of both genders aged from 14 to 19 years, attending public schools.</p>
      <p><bold>METHODS:</bold> Case-control study including 163 overweight and 151 normal-weight adolescents. Multiple logistic regression analysis was used to evaluate the associations between overweight and CRF (lipid profile, blood pressure and baseline insulin level). A set of CRF was defined for each individual, ranging from 0 (no risk factors) to 6 (all risk factors present).</p>
      <p><bold>RESULTS:</bold> Overweight adolescents (body mass index &gt; 85<sup>th</sup> percentile) presented a higher frequency of CRF in comparison to the normal- weight group. The CRF associated with overweight were HDLc <underline>&lt;</underline> 35 mg/dl (OR = 3.41; CI: 1.24-9.38), triglycerides <underline>&gt;</underline> 150 mg/dl (OR = 3.04; CI: 1.01-9.13), abnormal baseline insulin levels <underline>&gt;</underline> 15 &#181;U/ml (OR = 8.65; CI: 4.03-18.56) and abnormal blood pressure (OR = 3.69; CI: 1.76-7.72). Among overweight adolescents, 22.09% had more than three risk factors, whereas this percentage dropped to 6.12% among normal-weight adolescents.</p>
      <p><bold>CONCLUSION:</bold> Overweight adolescents presented risk factors for cardiovascular diseases. The need for programs and policies targeted at the diagnosis and treatment of this condition is pointed out in order to reduce the risks of morbidity and mortality in adulthood. (Arq Bras Cardiol. 2010; [online]. ahead print, PP.0-0)</p>
      <p><bold>Key words:</bold> Obesity; risk factors; adolescents; disease prevention.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The increase in the incidence of obesity among children and adolescents is considered a worldwide public health problem. In the United States, estimates of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES IV) showed that, in the age range between 12 and 19 years, overweight increased from 14.8% to 18.3% among boys, and from 14.8% to 16.4% among girls<sup>1</sup>. In Brazil, according to the last national survey conducted, in the age range between 10 and 19 years, the prevalence of overweight was 18.0% in boys and 15.4% in girls<sup>2</sup>. </p>
      <p>Although genetic factors predispose to the development of obesity, several studies have pointed out environmental and behavioral factors such as the lack of physical activity<sup>3</sup>, more time spent watching television<sup>4</sup>, and increased intake of fast food<sup>5</sup> as determinants of its increasing incidence.</p>
      <p>Overweight in childhood increases the chances of obesity in adulthood. Deshmukh-Taskar et al<sup>6</sup> first analyzed weight and height of participants in the Bogalusa Heart Study during their childhood, from 9 to 11 years of age, and then again from 19 to 35 years of age. They observed that of the 841 individuals in the last BMI quartile, 61.9% had remained in this position in adulthood. </p>
      <p>Overweight is an important risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. Although the clinical manifestations of these diseases occur in adulthood, studies have demonstrated that comorbidities such as dyslipidemias, hypertension and insulin resistance may be present in childhood and adolescence<sup>7,8</sup>, and are responsible for the increased risk of morbidity and mortality in adulthood<sup>9,10</sup>.</p>
      <p>Few studies correlating obesity with cardiovascular risk factors have been conducted among adolescents in developing countries, particularly in Brazil. However, according to the World Health Organization's report<sup>11</sup>, children and adolescents from low socioeconomic levels are as exposed to obesity and cardiovascular risk factors as their peers from high socioeconomic levels. For the development of more efficient clinical prevention and intervention programs, studies targeted at this population are necessary.</p>
      <p>The objective of the present study was to evaluate the association between obesity and cardiovascular risk factors in adolescents. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Materials and methods</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The study analyzed two databases in the city of S&#227;o Paulo, the first one collected in 2002, and the second in 2006. The first one resulted from a case-control study in which a trained team of nutritionists and pediatricians performed anthropometric measurements of 1,420 adolescents aged from 14-19 years, representing 98.68% of all students enrolled in a public school for the selection of cases (overweight adolescents) and controls (normal-weight adolescents). </p>
      <p>Sixteen adolescents (1.12%) refused to be evaluated and three (0.21%) could not be reached after three attempts. The groups were matched for age, gender, puberty stage (Tanner - breasts and genitals <underline>&gt;</underline> 4)<sup>12</sup> and socioeconomic level. The definition of overweight and normal weight was based on Must et al's criterion<sup>13</sup>. </p>
      <p>The adolescents were weighed and measured during the physical education classes. After being considered eligible to participate in the study, they were invited to come to school with their parents or guardians in order to receive information on the objectives of the research and give informed consent.</p>
      <p>Of the 340 adolescents eligible to the study, 77 refused to participate. Of the remaining 263, 4 were excluded due to the diagnosis of hypothyroidism, made after clinical examination and determination of thyroid hormone levels. Finally, of the 259 adolescents, 83 were defined as cases (overweight with body mass index (BMI) equal to or greater than the 85<sup>th</sup> percentile) and 176 as controls (normal weight with BMI higher than the 5<sup>th</sup> percentile and lower than the 85<sup>th</sup> percentile). </p>
      <p>Since the data analysis of the 2002 case-control study showed a low statistical power for the estimation of risk factors for obesity in adolescents<sup>4</sup>, we decided to increase the number of cases by including only overweight adolescents. The second database comprised only adolescents above the 95<sup>th</sup> percentile, according to the criterion proposed by Must et al<sup>13</sup>. For this purpose, in 2006 four public schools located in the same region as that of the 2002 study were chosen. Of the total of 2,663 students enrolled in those schools, 144 (5.04%) could not be reached after three attempts, and 189 (7.09%) refused to be evaluated. Of the 150 overweight adolescents, 124 were eligible for the study, since 26 of them did not meet the study inclusion criteria, because they were older than 19 years of age or were already undergoing weight loss therapy. Of the 124 individuals eligible for the study, 42 (33.87%) refused to participate and two (1.61%) dropped out of school after the first anthropometric assessment. </p>
      <p>The sample then comprised 80 overweight adolescents. In order to identify occasional selection biases, the BMI distribution by gender of the 80 adolescents included in the study was compared to that of adolescents who had dropped out of the study; no statistically significant difference was observed between them. </p>
      <p>The total sample of both databases comprised 339 adolescents, 163 of whom were overweight and 176 were normal weight. For the analyses, 25 adolescents had a z score for height-for-age <underline>&gt;</underline> -2.0 and were excluded; thus, the final sample included 314 adolescents (163 cases and 151 controls). </p>
      <p>All procedures described below (anthropometric measurements and biochemical tests) were exactly the same used in data collection in 2002 and in 2006. </p>
      <p>Information on family history for cardiovascular diseases, including first and second-degree ancestors, and use of medications was obtained by means of a questionnaire that had been validated and pre-tested in the pilot study; this questionnaire was administered by trained nutritionists and pediatricians. Variables regarding family history were codified as yes (presence of the disease) or no (absence of the disease).</p>
      <p>The anthropometric measurements (weight and height) were taken according to standardized procedures<sup>14</sup>. Height was measured in an anthropometer (Alturexata&#8482;) to the nearest centimeter, and weight was measured in a digital scale (Kratos&#8482;model L&#237;nea) to the nearest 0.05 kg.</p>
      <p>Blood pressure was measured by a duly trained physician using a mercury sphygmomanometer (Tycos&#8482;) with cuffs that fit the individual's arm circumference. Systolic blood pressure (Korotkoff phase I) and diastolic blood pressure (Korotkoff phase V) were measured three times at 5-minute intervals, in the right arm, considering the mean of the three measurements<sup>15,16</sup>. </p>
      <p>Prehypertension was defined as systolic and diastolic blood pressure values between the 90<sup>th</sup> and 95<sup>th</sup> percentiles for age, gender and height. Hypertension was defined as blood pressure levels above the 95<sup>th</sup> percentile<sup>15</sup>. Prehypertension and hypertension values were grouped into risk categories. </p>
      <p>Blood samples were collected by venipuncture in the morning, after a 12-hour fasting, for determination of total cholesterol (TC), LDLc, HDLc, triglycerides, and baseline insulin. LDL-cholesterol levels were estimated according to Friedewald's equation<sup>17</sup>, when triglyceride levels were below 400 mg/dl. Levels of TC &gt; 170 mg/dl, LDLc &gt; 110 mg/dl, HDLc &lt; 35 mg/dl, triglycerides &gt; 150 mg/dl, and baseline insulin &gt; 15 &#181;U/ml were considered as risks for cardiovascular diseases<sup>18,19</sup>. </p>
      <p>The study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of <italic>Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo</italic>, after all the adolescents and guardians had given informed consent. </p>
      <p>Univariate and bivariate statistical analyses were carried out with calculations of the proportions of individuals exposed to different risk factors in the overweight group and in the normal weight group, with the respective odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI). Multiple logistic regression analysis was used to examine the associations between the nutritional status and cardiovascular risk factors. Variables with significant associations (p &lt; 0.05) in the bivariate analysis were included in the multiple logistic regression analysis<sup>20</sup>. </p>
      <p>Finally, a set of cardiovascular risk factors was defined as the number of conditions (prehypertension and hypertension, abnormal TC, LDLc, HDLc, triglyceride and baseline insulin levels) present in each individual, ranging from 0 (absence of all conditions) to 6 (presence of all the conditions mentioned).</p>
      <p>All statistical analyses were carried out using the STATA software release 8.0<sup>21</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Results</bold>
      </p>
      <p>A total of 163 overweight adolescents (mean age of 16.01 years; 42.3% boys) and 151 normal-weight adolescents (mean age of 16.2 years; 45.0% boys) participated in the study. The frequencies and odds ratios (OR) with respective 95% confidence intervals for the variables related to the risk factors are shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop08010a01tab01m-body2">Table 1</xref>.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_aop08010a01tab01m-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-95-02-0200-00087-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>Overweight adolescents were proven to have higher frequencies of cardiovascular risk factors in comparison to the group of normal-weight adolescents. Approximately 15.0% of the overweight adolescents had low HDLc levels (crude OR = 4.17). The frequency of abnormal triglyceride levels was 11.04% (crude OR = 3.62). As regards baseline insulin, 38.65% had abnormal levels in comparison to 5.96% of the normal-weight adolescents (crude OR = 9.94). Prehypertension or hypertension were present in 26.99% of the overweight adolescents (crude OR = 4.15). </p>
      <p>No differences were observed between the groups in relation to family history of cardiovascular diseases. </p>
      <p>The odds ratios adjusted for cardiovascular risk factors between the two groups are shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab2-body2">Table 2</xref>. The cardiovascular risk variables associated with overweight were HDLc (OR = 3.41; CI: 1.24-9.38), triglycerides (OR = 3.04; CI: 1.01-9.13), abnormal blood pressure (OR = 3.69; CI: 1.76-7.72) and abnormal baseline insulin (OR = 8.65; CI: 4.03-18.56).</p>
      <table-wrap id="tab2-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-95-02-0200-00087-gt02-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>Frequency distribution of cardiovascular risk factors is shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_aop08010a01fig01m-body2">Figure 1</xref>. Of the overweight adolescents, 23.08% had more than three risk factors in comparison to only 6.12% of the normal-weight adolescents. </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_aop08010a01fig01m-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-95-02-0200-00087-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Discussion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The strategy adopted in this study - increasing the number of overweight individuals and the severity of obesity after four years of the original data collection from the case-control study - proved effective to increase the power for the identification of risks with a better statistical accuracy. Despite the better accuracy to estimate the risks, limitations inherent to all case-control studies remain, regarding the difficulties to determine the time sequence of the line of causality investigated and the recall biases. </p>
      <p>This is even more evident when the small number of publications addressing cardiovascular risks in adolescents is considered, which makes the results of the present study especially relevant, since it includes adolescents who remained obese even after their pubertal growth spurt. Most of the studies published on adolescents include broader age ranges and do not assess the pubertal development, a criteria that is mandatory when the nutritional status of adolescents is evaluated. </p>
      <p>The findings of the present study are consistent with those of other studies that correlated cardiovascular risks to obesity in children and adolescents from Germany, United States, Korea and France<sup>7,22-24</sup>. </p>
      <p>In this study, 14.72% of the overweight adolescents presented with low HDLc levels in comparison to only 3.97% of the normal-weight adolescents. Considering the same cut-off point, Reinehr et al<sup>22</sup> found an 18.0% rate among 1,004 German overweight adolescents, whereas Kim et al<sup>24</sup> observed low HDLc levels in 14.4% of the 76 Korean overweight adolescents. Although both studies considered broad age groups, the proportions of abnormal HDLc levels was similar to those found in the present study, showing that this metabolic disorder is concomitant to the increase in fat mass.</p>
      <p>On the other hand, the frequencies of increased triglyceride levels found in the two studies mentioned were higher than the 11.04% found in the present study, i.e., 20.0% in the German study, and 35.1% in the Korean study<sup>22,24</sup>.</p>
      <p>We observed that 26.99% of the overweight adolescents presented with prehypertension or hypertension. Similar results were also found in developing countries. In a study conducted by Chiolero et al<sup>25</sup> in the Republic of the Seychelles, of the 15,612 children and adolescents from 5 to 16 years of age analyzed, the prevalence of hypertension in the obese group was 25.0% and 33.2% for boys and girls, respectively. </p>
      <p>When the systolic and diastolic blood pressure levels were analyzed separately, the frequencies of prehypertension and hypertension were 9.82% and 6.75% for the group of overweight adolescents, in comparison to 0.68% and 2.04% among normal-weight adolescents. Rao et al<sup>26</sup> studied 2,223 Indian adolescents from 9 to 16 years of age of both genders using BMI as the diagnostic criterion for obesity and observed that 22.2% of the boys had abnormal systolic blood pressure and 14.0% had abnormal diastolic blood pressure. In girls, they found 29.9% of abnormal systolic blood pressure and 7.1% of abnormal diastolic blood pressure.</p>
      <p>In the multiple regression analysis, overweight adolescents were observed to have an approximately four-times higher chance of presenting abnormal blood pressure than normal-weight adolescents, even after adjustment for total cholesterol, triglycerides and baseline insulin. </p>
      <p>Findings from the Bogalusa Heart Study showed that blood pressure levels above the 80<sup>th</sup> percentile during childhood were associated with an increased prevalence of elevated blood pressure during adulthood<sup>10</sup>. In a recent study on children and adolescents who participated in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), increased obesity, especially abdominal obesity, was observed to explain part of the tendency to elevated blood pressure levels, because there is an association between hypertension and hyperinsulinism<sup>11</sup>. </p>
      <p>Among overweight adolescents, 38.65% presented abnormal baseline insulin levels. A strong association between abnormal baseline insulin levels and overweight (OR = 8.65) was found in the multiple logistic regression analysis. Freedman et al<sup>27</sup> studied children and adolescents of the Bogalusa Heart Study using a more strict cut-off point for the diagnosis of obesity (the 95<sup>th</sup> percentile) and found an association of OR = 12.6 for baseline insulin. </p>
      <p>Hyperinsulinemia is strongly associated with the intraabdominal adipose tissue<sup>28</sup>. As demonstrated by Reinehr et al<sup>29</sup> in a longitudinal study, hyperinsulinemia may be the central abnormality in obese children and adolescents, and this contributes to dyslipidemia. The physiological mechanism suggested for this process is that the intraabdominal fat has a high and intense metabolic activity, permitting the triglyceride depots concentrated in this region to be more easily mobilized to the blood stream, thus leading to an increased production of free-fatty acids and LDLc in the liver<sup>30</sup>. </p>
      <p>As regards the set of cardiovascular risk factors analyzed, the present study showed that 22.09% of the overweight adolescents had more than three risk factors at the same time in comparison to 6.12% of the normal-weight adolescents. </p>
      <p>The presence of cardiovascular risk factors including dyslipidemia, hypertension and abnormal baseline insulin levels characterizes the metabolic syndrome<sup>31-33</sup> which, as demonstrated in this study, is present in this group of overweight adolescents from low-income families.</p>
      <p>Although the clinical symptoms of cardiovascular diseases occur in adulthood, the atherosclerotic process starts in childhood, and overweight is one of its main determinants<sup>34,35</sup>. Evaluation of the nutritional status is, therefore, essential in the clinical practice, aiming at detecting and preventing obesity and the associated cardiovascular risk factors. </p>
      <p>In addition to obesity, genetic factors may contribute to the development of the atherosclerotic process, in conjunction with other environmental aspects which the adolescents are exposed to, such as the use of drugs, cigarettes and oral contraceptives. Changes in lifestyle such as by encouraging physical activities and an adequate diet are key strategies for maintaining healthy weight<sup>36</sup>.</p>
      <p>In conclusion, risk factors for cardiovascular diseases such as low serum HDLc levels and abnormal triglyceride and baseline insulin levels, and the presence of prehypertension or hypertension are strongly associated with overweight. We point out the need for surveillance systems in developing countries that could identify overweight adolescents who should be included in obesity control and cardiovascular disease prevention programs aimed at reducing morbidity and mortality in adulthood. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
      </p>
      <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This study was funded by <italic>Fundo de apoio a docentes e alunos da UNIFESP</italic>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Study Association</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This article is part of the thesis of doctoral submitted by Fernanda Cobayashi, from <italic>Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo</italic>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
</article>
