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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">TbH9VwBDzssTWbtwNg9LPhG</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00025</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2010001200025</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(10)09500225</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2010001200025</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Atualiza&#231;&#227;o Cl&#237;nica</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Classifica&#231;&#227;o do diabete melito</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Maraschin</surname>
            <given-names>Jorge de Faria</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Murussi</surname>
            <given-names>N&#225;dia</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Witter</surname>
            <given-names>Vanessa</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Silveiro</surname>
            <given-names>Sandra Pinho</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="state">Rio Grande do Sul</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>08</month>
        <year>2010</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>95</volume>
      <issue>2</issue>
      <fpage>40</fpage>
      <lpage>46</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>13</day>
          <month>10</month>
          <year>2008</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>16</day>
          <month>02</month>
          <year>2009</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>06</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2009</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>A correta classifica&#231;&#227;o do diabete melito (DM) permite o tratamento mais adequado e compreende quatro categorias: DM tipo 1; DM tipo 2; Outros tipos e Diabete Gestacional. Em alguns casos, pode ocorrer sobreposi&#231;&#227;o de quadros, principalmente no DM que inicia no adulto jovem ou que se apresenta inicialmente com cetoacidose, intermedi&#225;rios ao DM 1 e DM 2. Assim, acr&#233;scimos ao sistema de classifica&#231;&#227;o cl&#225;ssico t&#234;m sido propostos, avaliando a presen&#231;a de autoimunidade (anticorpos) e a fun&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lula &#946; (pept&#237;deo-C) para definir mais precisamente os subtipos. O objetivo desta revis&#227;o foi de analisar o desempenho desses &#237;ndices diagn&#243;sticos para a classifica&#231;&#227;o do DM e descrever os subtipos em detalhe. Os anticorpos contra o p&#226;ncreas evidenciam a autoimunidade, sendo o anticorpo contra insulina o mais acurado antes dos 5 anos de idade e o anti-descarboxilase do &#225;cido glut&#226;mico para in&#237;cio da doen&#231;a acima dos 20 anos, &#233; esse o teste que permanece positivo por mais tempo. J&#225; a medida do pept&#237;deo-C avalia a reserva pancre&#225;tica de insulina, e os m&#233;todos de est&#237;mulo mais usados s&#227;o a medida ap&#243;s refei&#231;&#227;o ou ap&#243;s glucagon endovenoso. Valores de pept&#237;deo-C &lt; 1,5 ng/ml definem o paciente com fun&#231;&#227;o pancre&#225;tica ausente, e acima desse valor, com fun&#231;&#227;o preservada. Combinando-se a presen&#231;a de anticorpos (A+) dirigidos ao p&#226;ncreas e a sua capacidade secret&#243;ria de insulina (&#946;+), pode-se subdividir a classifica&#231;&#227;o do DM em tipo 1A (A+&#946;-) e 1B (A+ &#946;-); e o DM tipo 2 em subgrupos de DM 2A (A+&#946;+) e DM 2B (A-&#946;+), o que permite uma classifica&#231;&#227;o e tratamento mais precisos, al&#233;m de abrir os horizontes para o entendimento da patog&#234;nese do DM.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>Diabete melito</kwd>
        <kwd>&#225;cido glut&#226;mico</kwd>
        <kwd>carboxi-l&#237;ases</kwd>
        <kwd>pept&#237;deo C</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>10</day>
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2010</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>ATUALIZA&#199;&#195;O CL&#205;NICA</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Classifica&#231;&#227;o do diabete melito</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Jorge de Faria Maraschin; N&#225;dia Murussi; Vanessa Witter; Sandra Pinho Silveiro</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS -Brasil</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="nt">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESUMO</bold>
    </p>
    <p> A correta classifica&#231;&#227;o do diabete melito (DM) permite o tratamento mais adequado e compreende quatro categorias: DM tipo 1; DM tipo 2; Outros tipos e Diabete Gestacional. Em alguns casos, pode ocorrer sobreposi&#231;&#227;o de quadros, principalmente no DM que inicia no adulto jovem ou que se apresenta inicialmente com cetoacidose, intermedi&#225;rios ao DM 1 e DM 2. Assim, acr&#233;scimos ao sistema de classifica&#231;&#227;o cl&#225;ssico t&#234;m sido propostos, avaliando a presen&#231;a de autoimunidade (anticorpos) e a fun&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lula &#946; (pept&#237;deo-C) para definir mais precisamente os subtipos. O objetivo desta revis&#227;o foi de analisar o desempenho desses &#237;ndices diagn&#243;sticos para a classifica&#231;&#227;o do DM e descrever os subtipos em detalhe. Os anticorpos contra o p&#226;ncreas evidenciam a autoimunidade, sendo o anticorpo contra insulina o mais acurado antes dos 5 anos de idade e o anti-descarboxilase do &#225;cido glut&#226;mico para in&#237;cio da doen&#231;a acima dos 20 anos, &#233; esse o teste que permanece positivo por mais tempo. J&#225; a medida do pept&#237;deo-C avalia a reserva pancre&#225;tica de insulina, e os m&#233;todos de est&#237;mulo mais usados s&#227;o a medida ap&#243;s refei&#231;&#227;o ou ap&#243;s glucagon endovenoso. Valores de pept&#237;deo-C &lt; 1,5 ng/ml definem o paciente com fun&#231;&#227;o pancre&#225;tica ausente, e acima desse valor, com fun&#231;&#227;o preservada. Combinando-se a presen&#231;a de anticorpos (A+) dirigidos ao p&#226;ncreas e a sua capacidade secret&#243;ria de insulina (&#946;+), pode-se subdividir a classifica&#231;&#227;o do DM em tipo 1A (A+&#946;-) e 1B (A+ &#946;-); e o DM tipo 2 em subgrupos de DM 2A (A+&#946;+) e DM 2B (A-&#946;+), o que permite uma classifica&#231;&#227;o e tratamento mais precisos, al&#233;m de abrir os horizontes para o entendimento da patog&#234;nese do DM.</p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave: </bold>Diabete melito/classifica&#231;&#227;o, &#225;cido glut&#226;mico, carboxi-l&#237;ases, pept&#237;deo C.</p>
    <p> O diabete melito (DM) &#233; uma doen&#231;a prevalente, classificada como uma epidemia pela Organiza&#231;&#227;o Mundial de Sa&#250;de (OMS). A estimativa da preval&#234;ncia mundial est&#225; em torno de 4,0%<sup>1,2</sup> e, no Brasil, em 7,6% na &#250;ltima avalia&#231;&#227;o<sup>3</sup>. Sua incid&#234;ncia vem aumentando de modo alarmante nos pa&#237;ses em desenvolvimento, tanto em adultos quanto em adolescentes, e estima-se um aumento de 60% da preval&#234;ncia na popula&#231;&#227;o adulta acima de 30 anos em 2025<sup>1</sup>, sendo de maior magnitude na faixa dos 45 aos 64 anos<sup>1,2</sup>.</p>
    <p> A correta classifica&#231;&#227;o do tipo de DM leva mais precocemente ao tratamento adequado, com maior &#237;ndice de sucesso na obten&#231;&#227;o de um bom controle glic&#234;mico, o que por sua vez comprovadamente reduz as complica&#231;&#245;es microvasculares, tanto em pacientes com DM tipo 1, quanto no DM tipo 2<sup>4,5</sup>. Embora ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados n&#227;o tenham demonstrado redu&#231;&#227;o de desfechos cardiovasculares durante os estudos de intensifica&#231;&#227;o do controle glic&#234;mico, o seguimento a longo prazo dos pacientes tem mostrado redu&#231;&#227;o no risco de doen&#231;a macrovascular<sup>6</sup>. Atualmente, a <italic>American Diabetes Association</italic> (ADA) e a <italic>American Heart Association</italic> (AHA) recomendam que a HbA1c alvo seja &lt; 7% de uma forma geral (ADA: n&#237;vel B e AHA: n&#237;vel A). Alvos menos rigorosos t&#234;m sido sugeridos para indiv&#237;duos com hist&#243;ria de hipoglicemia grave, expectativa de vida limitada, doen&#231;a micro ou macrovascular avan&#231;ada ou comorbidades importantes (ADA: n&#237;vel C e AHA: n&#237;vel C).</p>
    <p> A nova classifica&#231;&#227;o do DM foi redefinida em publica&#231;&#227;o da ADA de 1997<sup>7 </sup>e da OMS de 2006<sup>8</sup>. As &#250;ltimas diretrizes nacionais e internacionais recomendam a classifica&#231;&#227;o do DM em quatro categorias: DM tipo 1 (DM 1), DM tipo 2 (DM 2), Outros tipos e Diabete Gestacional<sup>9</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="qdr01">Quadro 1</xref>).</p>
    <fig id="qdr01">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-95-02-0040-00025-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    <p> DM 1 &#233; respons&#225;vel por cerca de 5% a 10% de todos os casos de DM, sendo subdividido em tipo 1A, tipo 1 B e <italic>Latent Autoimmune Diabetes of the Adult</italic> (LADA). De modo geral, o DM tipo 1 inicia antes dos 30 anos de idade, mas pode acometer indiv&#237;duos em qualquer faixa et&#225;ria. Existe uma destrui&#231;&#227;o das c&#233;lulas &#946; pancre&#225;ticas e seu tratamento exige o uso de insulina para impedir a cetoacidose diab&#233;tica<sup>3</sup>. No DM tipo 1A, a destrui&#231;&#227;o das c&#233;lulas &#946; &#233; de etiologia autoimune (90% dos casos) e no 1B n&#227;o tem causa conhecida (idiop&#225;tico). O DM tipo LADA &#233; um DM do tipo 1 onde tamb&#233;m existe uma destrui&#231;&#227;o autoimune das c&#233;lulas &#946;, mas ela &#233; muito mais lenta e acontece em indiv&#237;duos mais velhos (acima de 30 anos). O fen&#243;tipo &#233; peculiar, pois os pacientes n&#227;o s&#227;o obesos, t&#234;m diagn&#243;stico de DM numa idade compat&#237;vel com diagn&#243;stico de DM tipo 2, t&#234;m sua doen&#231;a inicialmente controlada com agentes orais, mas apresentam sinais de progressiva perda de fun&#231;&#227;o da c&#233;lula &#946;<sup>9</sup> e eventualmente necessitam de insulina, por defini&#231;&#227;o, ap&#243;s pelo menos seis meses ap&#243;s o diagn&#243;stico do DM<sup>9</sup>. O DM tipo 1B foi descrito inicialmente em africanos e asi&#225;ticos<sup>7</sup>. No entanto, essa forma vem sendo mais detalhadamente avaliada e descrita em outras popula&#231;&#245;es, surgindo uma nomenclatura nova de "DM com tend&#234;ncia &#224; cetose", em ingl&#234;s, o "<italic>ketosis-prone DM</italic>"<sup>10</sup>. Seria um tipo de DM intermedi&#225;rio aos tipos 1 e 2. Esses casos seriam distintos do LADA por apresentarem-se j&#225; inicialmente na forma de cetoacidose, enquanto o LADA, por defini&#231;&#227;o, necessita de insulina ap&#243;s seis meses do diagn&#243;stico. Uma observa&#231;&#227;o adicional descreve a presen&#231;a de anticorpos em crian&#231;as e adolescentes inicialmente n&#227;o dependentes de insulina, com perfil de DM tipo 2. Nesses casos, seguindo a terminologia do LADA para adultos, seria classificado como "LADY" (<italic>Latent Autoimmune Diabetes in Youth</italic>), mas ainda &#233; necess&#225;rio um per&#237;odo maior de observa&#231;&#227;o para definir a evolu&#231;&#227;o desses casos e a nomenclatura n&#227;o &#233; oficial<sup>11</sup>.</p>
    <p> O DM tipo 2 &#233; respons&#225;vel por mais de 90% dos casos de DM, n&#227;o tem componente autoimune, acontece em geral ap&#243;s os 30 anos, em indiv&#237;duos com hist&#243;ria familiar positiva. O tratamento em geral envolve dieta e agentes hipoglicemiantes orais, sem necessidade do uso de insulina, que, se necess&#225;rio, deve ocorrer pelo menos cinco anos ap&#243;s o diagn&#243;stico para configurar que n&#227;o h&#225; depend&#234;ncia como no DM 1<sup>6,7</sup>. </p>
    <p> Na categoria "outros tipos de DM", destaca-se o <italic>Maturity Onset Diabetes of the Young</italic> (MODY), um subtipo que acomete indiv&#237;duos abaixo dos 25 anos, n&#227;o obesos, sendo caracterizado por defeito na secre&#231;&#227;o de insulina, mas sem provocar depend&#234;ncia da mesma. Apresenta heran&#231;a autoss&#244;mica dominante, envolvendo, portanto, v&#225;rias gera&#231;&#245;es de uma mesma fam&#237;lia<sup>7,12</sup>. Existem seis subtipos de MODY, classificados de acordo com a muta&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica identificada: MODY 1 (muta&#231;&#227;o no gene do fator de transcri&#231;&#227;o hep&#225;tico HNF-4&#945;); MODY 2 (muta&#231;&#227;o no gene da glicoquinase); MODY 3 (muta&#231;&#227;o do HNF-1&#945;); MODY 4 (muta&#231;&#227;o no <italic>insulin promoter factor -IPF</italic>); MODY 5 (HNF-1&#946;) e MODY 6 (muta&#231;&#227;o no Neuro D1). Os tipos mais comuns s&#227;o os MODYs 2 e 3, sendo os demais bastante raros<sup>12</sup>. </p>
    <p> Ao contr&#225;rio do MODY, que representa tipicamente um padr&#227;o de DM monog&#234;nico, o DM tipo 2 tem heran&#231;a polig&#234;nica, ainda n&#227;o completamente definida. A patog&#234;nese do DM tipo 2 &#233; complexa e envolve a intera&#231;&#227;o entre a gen&#233;tica e fatores ambientais, entre esses especialmente a obesidade proveniente do sedentarismo e ingest&#227;o alimentar excessiva. Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; gen&#233;tica do DM 2, alguns genes t&#234;m sido confirmados, como os genes da calpa&#237;na-10, PPAR&#947;2 e Kir6.2, especialmente se combinados, mas ainda &#233; necess&#225;rio avan&#231;ar-se mais na elucida&#231;&#227;o do papel desses e de outros genes<sup>13</sup>. O DM tipo 1, mesmo dentro do subtipo autoimune tipo 1A, &#233; tamb&#233;m uma doen&#231;a heterog&#234;nea e v&#225;rios padr&#245;es de heran&#231;a monog&#234;nica (associados &#224; poliendocrinopatia autoimune) j&#225; foram definidos. No entanto, a maioria dos genes que promovem a suscetibilidade gen&#233;tica no tipo 1 ainda t&#234;m de ser identificados.</p>
    <p> Apesar da classifica&#231;&#227;o do DM definir essas e outras categorias por meio de caracter&#237;sticas peculiares, pode existir uma sobreposi&#231;&#227;o de quadros cl&#237;nicos, principalmente no DM que inicia no adulto jovem. Muitas vezes &#233; dif&#237;cil distinguir um subtipo de outro com base em dados cl&#237;nicos apenas, principalmente o DM tipo 1 do MODY e do DM 2 de in&#237;cio precoce, sendo este cada vez mais frequente devido ao aumento da preval&#234;ncia de obesidade e s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica nas sociedades ocidentais. Al&#233;m disso, algumas formas de DM identificados nas &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas, intermedi&#225;rios aos tipos 1 e 2, n&#227;o se encaixam na classifica&#231;&#227;o da ADA e OMS, tendo particularidades em sua hist&#243;ria natural e necessidade de tratamento com insulina. Um exemplo &#233; o DM propenso &#224; cetose, descrito recentemente<sup>11</sup>.</p>
    <p> Assim, esquemas complementares de classifica&#231;&#227;o t&#234;m sido propostos, empregando a presen&#231;a da autoimunidade (anticorpos) e dos &#237;ndices de fun&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lula &#946; (pept&#237;deo-C) capazes de, n&#227;o s&#243; definir a patog&#234;nese e a nomenclatura mais espec&#237;ficas, mas sugerir formas de tratamento mais adequadas. A classifica&#231;&#227;o A&#946; (A=anticorpos e &#946;=fun&#231;&#227;o ilhota) tem sido proposta com o intuito de complementar a classifica&#231;&#227;o tradicional da ADA para os tipos propensos &#224; cetose, sem ser contradit&#243;ria a ela. A presen&#231;a de anticorpos &#233; definida como "A+" e a preserva&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o pancre&#225;tica por "&#946;+". Mant&#233;m-se o desdobramento dos casos de "DM tipo 1" da ADA em dois subgrupos (Tipo 1 A e 1 B, respectivamente com ou sem anticorpos e ambos sem produ&#231;&#227;o de insulina) e aplica-se essa subdivis&#227;o aos "DM tipo 2", que implicaria em ter reserva de insulina, com ou sem a presen&#231;a de anticorpos. Essa proposta baseia-se no reconhecimento de s&#237;ndromes heterog&#234;neas de DM que t&#234;m sido identificadas e acompanhadas em coortes. Atrav&#233;s de compara&#231;&#227;o com outras classifica&#231;&#245;es, ela tem-se mostrado mais acurada e preditiva de desfechos importantes, como controle glic&#234;mico e depend&#234;ncia de insulina, assim como em identificar novas causas de disfun&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lula beta, com perfil molecular e bioqu&#237;mico distintos dos j&#225; descritos<sup>11</sup>. </p>
    <p> O objetivo desta revis&#227;o &#233; analisar o desempenho dos &#237;ndices que avaliam autoimunidade e secre&#231;&#227;o de insulina para classificar o DM e descrever em detalhes os subtipos gerados pela classifica&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Papel dos anticorpos pancre&#225;ticos</bold>
    </p>
    <p> A autoimunidade contra as ilhotas pancre&#225;ticas foi descrita em 1965, mas a presen&#231;a de anticorpos (AC) contra as ilhotas &#8209; os AC anti-ilhotas, do ingl&#234;s <italic>islet-cell cytoplasm antibodies; ICAs &#8209;</italic>, foi demonstrada em 1974<sup>14</sup>. A seguir, identificou-se a exist&#234;ncia de v&#225;rios outros anticorpos: o de superf&#237;cie da ilhota pancre&#225;tica, em ingl&#234;s <italic>islet cell surface antibody</italic> (ISCA); o anticorpo antidescarboxilase do &#225;cido glut&#226;mico ou <italic>glutamic acid decarboxilase antibody </italic>(anti-GAD)<sup>15</sup>; o anti-insulina, ou <italic>insulin auto-antibodies </italic>(IAA); e por &#250;ltimo, o autoant&#237;geno insulinoma 2 ou<italic> insulinoma like antigen-2</italic> (IA-2). A seguir ser&#227;o descritos os diferentes tipos de anticorpos dirigidos ao p&#226;ncreas e seu desempenho no diagn&#243;stico de pacientes com DM 1 (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="qdr02">Quadro 2</xref>)<sup>16</sup>.</p>
    <fig id="qdr02">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-95-02-0040-00025-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
    <p> A presen&#231;a dos anticorpos denota um DM de etiologia auto-imune e, portanto, do tipo 1 cl&#225;ssico, denominado de tipo 1A. Diversos m&#233;todos foram criados para a medida dos diversos ACs em colabora&#231;&#245;es internacionais para sua padroniza&#231;&#227;o<sup>17,18</sup>. Como n&#227;o h&#225; padroniza&#231;&#227;o internacional do anticorpo contra o ant&#237;geno de superf&#237;cie das ilhotas, e praticamente n&#227;o existem estudos com resultados consistentes e reprodut&#237;veis, sua utiliza&#231;&#227;o &#233; limitada &#224; pesquisa<sup>14</sup>. Os AC anti-ilhotas, o antidescarboxilase do &#225;cido glut&#226;mico e o ant&#237;geno do Insulinoma-2 possuem ensaios baseados em prote&#237;nas recombinantes que podem ser marcadas com iodo radioativo, possibilitando assim o desenvolvimento de ensaios reprodut&#237;veis e precisos que j&#225; est&#227;o padronizados segundo normas da OMS<sup>17</sup>. Sua sensibilidade e especificidade para diagn&#243;stico de DM tipo 1 est&#227;o apresentados no <xref ref-type="fig" rid="qdr02">Quadro 2</xref>.</p>
    <p> Os AC anti-ilhota, inicialmente descritos em 1974<sup>13</sup>, foram os primeiros a serem utilizados, mas sua padroniza&#231;&#227;o laboratorial ocorreu apenas em 1986<sup>19</sup>. Sua rea&#231;&#227;o acontece contra todos os componentes da ilhota pancre&#225;tica<sup>14,15</sup>. Existem in&#250;meros outros anticorpos contra as ilhotas pancre&#225;ticas e muitos continuam a ser descobertos. No entanto, o antidescarboxilase, anti-insulina, anti-ilhotas, e AI-2 s&#227;o os que t&#234;m maior utilidade na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica<sup>20</sup>.</p>
    <p> Os AC anti-ilhota s&#227;o bons marcadores de DM tipo 1. Sua sensibilidade varia de 70% a 90%<sup>16,17</sup>. No entanto, a capacidade de predizer risco de DM tipo 1 cai marcadamente em indiv&#237;duos com in&#237;cio do DM em idades mais avan&#231;adas, principalmente acima dos 20 anos<sup>21,22</sup>. Esses AC est&#227;o presentes durante a fase de pr&#233;-diabete e no in&#237;cio do quadro cl&#237;nico, mas seus t&#237;tulos caem rapidamente logo ap&#243;s<sup>21,23</sup>. A presen&#231;a deles est&#225; associada &#224; perda mais r&#225;pida da fun&#231;&#227;o da c&#233;lula &#946;<sup>21</sup> e &#224; previs&#227;o de necessidade de insulina em pacientes inicialmente classificados como DM tipo 2<sup>21,23,24</sup>.</p>
    <p> Os ACs anti-insulina est&#227;o presentes em cerca de 50% dos pacientes com DM tipo 1 rec&#233;m-diagnosticados e sua medida &#233; feita por radioimunoensaio de fase simples l&#237;quida<sup>25</sup>. Sua sensibilidade no diagn&#243;stico do DM tipo 1 &#233; de 50% a 70%. De modo geral, quanto menor a idade do paciente no in&#237;cio da doen&#231;a, maior sua positividade<sup>26</sup>. Constitui um bom marcador para doen&#231;a pr&#233;-cl&#237;nica em crian&#231;as, especialmente as com menos de 5 anos de idade, predizendo melhor o risco de DM em crian&#231;as do que em adultos<sup>22,27</sup>.</p>
    <p> O AC antidescarboxilase do &#225;cido glut&#226;mico foi inicialmente descrito como uma prote&#237;na de 64 Kilodaltons<sup>14,28</sup>. Existem duas isoformas<sup>29</sup>, uma denominada de 65 (expressa em c&#233;lulas beta) e outra de 67 (no c&#233;rebro). A fun&#231;&#227;o da enzima descarboxilase do &#225;cido glut&#226;mico consiste em produzir o neurotransmissor inibit&#243;rio GABA e, na c&#233;lula beta pancre&#225;tica, a adenosina trifosfato (ATP)<sup>29</sup>. A sensibilidade do AC antidescarboxilase do &#225;cido glut&#226;mico para o diagn&#243;stico de DM tipo 1 est&#225; em 75% a 85%<sup>30</sup>. Existe grande diferen&#231;a em sua sensibilidade de acordo com g&#234;nero<sup>31</sup> e idade do diagn&#243;stico do DM<sup>30</sup>. No sexo feminino, sua sensibilidade fica em torno de 80%, sem varia&#231;&#227;o com idade. J&#225; no sexo masculino, &#233; de 50% a 60% abaixo dos 10 anos e 75% a 90% acima dessa faixa<sup>30,31</sup>. Sua especificidade chega a 99% e sua sensibilidade &#233; melhor que o anti-ilhotas e anti-insulina em adultos<sup>30,32</sup>. O antidescarboxilase do &#225;cido glut&#226;mico &#233; o AC mais duradouro, j&#225; que pode ainda estar positivo ap&#243;s 15 anos do in&#237;cio do DM<sup>33</sup>. Em familiares de primeiro grau, sua positividade varia de 6% a 8%, similar ao risco de desenvolvimento de DM tipo 1 ao longo da vida<sup>30</sup>. Ele &#233; mais positivo em filhos de pais <italic>versus</italic> filhos de m&#227;es com DM tipo 1<sup>34</sup>. No <italic>Diabetes Prevention Trial</italic> (DPT-1)<sup>35</sup>, foi o marcador mais sens&#237;vel de detec&#231;&#227;o de m&#250;ltiplos anticorpos. No entanto, sabe-se que nenhum anticorpo isoladamente prediz de forma satisfat&#243;ria o risco de desenvolvimento de DM tipo 1. O risco est&#225; ligado ao n&#250;mero de anticorpos presentes durante a evolu&#231;&#227;o do processo autoimune<sup>35-38</sup>. O risco de desenvolvimento de DM em familiares de primeiro grau de pacientes portadores de DM 1 foi de 39% e 68%, ap&#243;s tr&#234;s e cinco anos, respectivamente, quando presentes dois anticorpos. J&#225; a presen&#231;a de tr&#234;s anticorpos confere risco de 100% em cinco anos<sup>36</sup>. </p>
    <p> A AI-2, tamb&#233;m conhecido como ICA-512, &#233; uma prote&#237;na expressa no tecido neuroend&#243;crino e que se encontra nas c&#233;lulas a e b pancre&#225;ticas. Os melhores ensaios de medida s&#227;o os radioimunoensaios<sup>39</sup>. Sua sensibilidade no diagn&#243;stico de DM 1 varia de 60% a 70%. A positividade decai com a dura&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a, sendo maior em pacientes com diagn&#243;stico de DM antes dos 10 anos.</p>
    <p> Em resumo, os anticorpos s&#227;o marcadores de autoimunidade e sua presen&#231;a denota diabete do tipo 1A. Em crian&#231;as com DM 1, existe positividade para a presen&#231;a de anticorpos em 90% dos casos. O anticorpo anti-insulina est&#225; presente em indiv&#237;duos mais jovens, principalmente com in&#237;cio do DM antes dos 5 anos de idade, sendo o melhor marcador da doen&#231;a nessa faixa et&#225;ria. O antidescarboxilase do &#225;cido glut&#226;mico tem seu melhor desempenho nos indiv&#237;duos com in&#237;cio da doen&#231;a acima dos 20 anos de idade, e &#233; o que permanece positivo por mais tempo (at&#233; 10 a 15 anos de doen&#231;a), sendo o de escolha para o diagn&#243;stico do DM do tipo LADA. A positividade dos anticorpos prediz a necessidade de insulina e sua solicita&#231;&#227;o est&#225; indicada nos casos de d&#250;vida diagn&#243;stica, que ocorrem especialmente quando a instala&#231;&#227;o do quadro de DM &#233; ap&#243;s os 30 anos de idade (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="a25fig01">Figura 1</xref>).</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="a25fig01">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-95-02-0040-00025-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Papel do pept&#237;deo-C</bold>
    </p>
    <p> Os n&#237;veis de pept&#237;deo-C (PEPC) t&#234;m sido empregados como um &#237;ndice de fun&#231;&#227;o da c&#233;lula &#946;, sendo um exame auxiliar na classifica&#231;&#227;o do tipo de DM e na escolha inicial de tratamento<sup>40</sup>. A preserva&#231;&#227;o da secre&#231;&#227;o end&#243;gena de insulina est&#225; correlacionada com melhor controle glic&#234;mico<sup>41-45</sup>, redu&#231;&#227;o das complica&#231;&#245;es cr&#244;nicas do DM e redu&#231;&#227;o dos epis&#243;dios de hipoglicemia<sup>41,46</sup>. O PEPC apresenta a vantagem de, ao contr&#225;rio da insulina, n&#227;o ser degradado pelo f&#237;gado, ter sua elimina&#231;&#227;o exclusivamente renal e meia-vida de 30 minutos<sup>47</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, o uso de insulina ex&#243;gena interfere com a dosagem da insulina end&#243;gena, ao passo que o PEPC n&#227;o sofre essa interfer&#234;ncia.</p>
    <p> A estrutura de duas cadeias da insulina foi descrita em 1955<sup>48</sup> e, em 1967, foi documentada a exist&#234;ncia de um precursor biossint&#233;tico, a pr&#243;-insulina<sup>49</sup>. O PEPC &#233; um subproduto da degrada&#231;&#227;o da pr&#243;-insulina e &#233; cosecretado junto com a insulina pela c&#233;lula &#946; pancre&#225;tica. Dentro da ilhota pancre&#225;tica, a pr&#243;-insulina sofre clivagem, gerando como produtos finais insulina e PEPC, os quais s&#227;o liberados na circula&#231;&#227;o porta em concentra&#231;&#245;es equimolares (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig02">Figura 2</xref>)<sup>50</sup>. </p>
    <fig id="fig02">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-95-02-0040-00025-gf04.jpg"/></fig>
    <p> O PEPC consiste em uma mol&#233;cula pequena, podendo sofrer clivagem de enzimas proteol&#237;ticas e, portanto, o plasma deve ser logo separado (em menos de duas horas), e a medida deve ser realizada durante o primeiro m&#234;s de congelamento. Estrat&#233;gias mundiais para padroniza&#231;&#227;o da medida do PEPC est&#227;o intensivamente em andamento<sup>46,51</sup>.</p>
    <p> Um dos aspectos mais importantes, e ainda n&#227;o bem definidos, &#233; em que condi&#231;&#245;es de homeostase glic&#234;mica o PEPC deve ser medido<sup>52</sup>. A hiperglicemia pode tanto aumentar (por est&#237;mulo direto da glicemia) ou reduzir (por glicotoxicidade) a resposta da c&#233;lula &#946; ao teste, assim como a hipoglicemia pode inibir a resposta da c&#233;lula &#946;<sup>52,53</sup>. Por isso, a medida do PEPC deve ser realizada na aus&#234;ncia de hiper ou hipoglicemia, idealmente com glicemia entre 70 e 200 mg/dl. </p>
    <p> A medida do PEPC pode ser realizada no basal ou estimulada por glucagon endovenoso (EV), intramuscular ou subcut&#226;neo; amino&#225;cidos por via oral ou EV; por glicose oral ou EV; e por refei&#231;&#227;o mista<sup>54-57</sup>. Os dois est&#237;mulos que t&#234;m sido mais utilizados s&#227;o o glucagon EV e o teste da refei&#231;&#227;o mista, e a ADA favorece a utiliza&#231;&#227;o dessa &#250;ltima. </p>
    <p> O paciente &#233; classificado como DM tipo 1 quando apresenta valores de PEPC inferiores a 1,8 ng/ml ap&#243;s 1 mg EV de glucagon<sup>58</sup> e menores que 1,5 ng/ml ap&#243;s o teste da refei&#231;&#227;o mista<sup>45</sup>. Alguns autores sugerem que o valor basal sozinho j&#225; seria suficiente para classificar o paciente, e um estudo mostrou que o valor rand&#244;mico do PEPC (ponto de corte de 1,5 ng/ml), medido a qualquer hora, seria mais sens&#237;vel<sup>59</sup>. Um estudo cl&#225;ssico dinamarqu&#234;s indica que um valor basal abaixo de 0,9 ng/ml j&#225; seria capaz de indicar depend&#234;ncia de insulina<sup>47</sup>. Muitos autores n&#227;o levam em considera&#231;&#227;o o efeito do tempo de dura&#231;&#227;o do DM sobre os n&#237;veis de PEPC, uma vez que v&#225;rios estudos acompanhando pacientes diab&#233;ticos t&#234;m mostrado que a fun&#231;&#227;o da c&#233;lula &#946; cai com o tempo de dura&#231;&#227;o do DM, sendo mais r&#225;pida nos pacientes com pior controle glic&#234;mico<sup>41,45,60,61</sup>. Como a taxa de queda &#233; vari&#225;vel, uma medida &#250;nica serve para diagn&#243;stico nos casos novos, mas n&#227;o serve para avaliar seu decl&#237;nio, sendo recomendadas medidas repetidas<sup>46,60,62</sup>.</p>
    <p> Em resumo, a medida do PEPC mostra-se um bom marcador de fun&#231;&#227;o da c&#233;lula &#946; e deve ser realizada com glicemia entre 70 e 200 mg/dl. O est&#237;mulo com refei&#231;&#227;o mista &#233; o recomendado pela ADA, mas o teste com 1 mg de glucagon EV &#233; mais simples e igualmente eficaz. Valores estimulados menores que 1,5 ng/ml definem o paciente como DM tipo 1 e acima como DM tipo 2 (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="a25fig01">Figura 1</xref>). </p>
    <p>
      <bold>An&#225;lise cr&#237;tica dos esquemas de classifica&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p> O DM &#233; definido como um grupo heterog&#234;neo de doen&#231;as metab&#243;licas e sua correta classifica&#231;&#227;o deve partir de princ&#237;pios fisiopatol&#243;gicos e ajudar na escolha do tratamento<sup>7,8</sup>. No entanto, estudos atuais<sup>63,64</sup> mostram que o esquema de classifica&#231;&#227;o dispon&#237;vel n&#227;o reflete verdadeiramente todos os mecanismos relacionados. Alguns subtipos de DM t&#234;m sido descritos nas &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas. No ano de 2002, foi criada a nomenclatura de "DM propenso &#224; cetose", que seria um subtipo intermedi&#225;rio ao tipo 1 e tipo 2<sup>10</sup>. Inicialmente, o quadro foi descrito em africanos e afroamericanos, mas nos &#250;ltimos anos popula&#231;&#245;es americanas, europeias, japonesas e outras t&#234;m apresentado esse subtipo<sup>63-65</sup>. </p>
    <p> &#201; sabido que o DM 2, em situa&#231;&#245;es de estresse (infec&#231;&#245;es graves, quadros cardiovasculares) pode apresentar-se com cetoacidose. Por outro lado, o DM propenso &#224; cetose apresenta-se j&#225; inicialmente, como refere o nome, com quadro de cetoacidose sem causa justific&#225;vel. Finalmente, o DM n&#227;o propenso &#224; cetose &#233; o DM tipo 2 cl&#225;ssico, n&#227;o dependente de insulina.</p>
    <p> Existem quatro diferentes formas de classifica&#231;&#227;o do DM propenso &#224; cetose. O esquema da ADA<sup>7</sup>, outro modificado dessa classifica&#231;&#227;o<sup>65</sup>, o baseado no &#237;ndice de massa corporal (IMC)<sup>66</sup> e o que avalia a presen&#231;a de autoimunidade e fun&#231;&#227;o da c&#233;lula &#946; chamado A&#946;<sup>64</sup>. </p>
    <p> Segundo a classifica&#231;&#227;o da ADA, a presen&#231;a de cetoacidose classifica a pessoa com DM tipo 1, e ela &#233; subclassificada como tipo 1A se existirem marcadores imunol&#243;gicos positivos contra a c&#233;lula &#946;, e tipo 1B (idiop&#225;tico) se eles est&#227;o ausentes. </p>
    <p> A classifica&#231;&#227;o da ADA modificada<sup>65</sup> divide os pacientes em tr&#234;s grupos. O tipo 1 possui marcadores imunol&#243;gicos positivos contra a c&#233;lula &#946;. Aqueles que n&#227;o possuem anticorpos s&#227;o subclassificados em dois grupos, os que dependem de insulina e os que n&#227;o dependem, baseado na necessidade de uso de insulina em longo prazo. Em geral, os DM tipo 1A e os insulino-dependentes t&#234;m caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas de DM tipo 1 com baixa fun&#231;&#227;o da c&#233;lula &#946;, enquanto que os classificados como n&#227;o insulino-dependentes t&#234;m caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas de DM tipo 2, com fun&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lula &#946; preservada<sup>65</sup>. </p>
    <p> O esquema baseado no IMC<sup>66</sup> classifica os pacientes como sendo magros (IMC &lt; 28 kg/m<sup>2</sup>) ou obesos (IMC &gt; 28 kg/m<sup>2</sup>). Os primeiros apresentam caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas de DM tipo 1 com baixa fun&#231;&#227;o da c&#233;lula &#946;, e os obesos t&#234;m caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas de DM tipo 2 com fun&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lula &#946; preservada. </p>
    <p> A classifica&#231;&#227;o denominada A&#946;<sup>64</sup> est&#225; baseada na presen&#231;a de marcadores de autoimunidade contra o p&#226;ncreas (A+ ou A-), associada &#224; an&#225;lise de fun&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lula &#946; (&#946;+ ou &#946;-). Existem quatro grupos: o tipo DM 1A, que tem autoimunidade positiva e aus&#234;ncia de fun&#231;&#227;o c&#233;lula &#946; (A+&#946;-); o DM 1B, sem autoimunidade e com aus&#234;ncia de fun&#231;&#227;o da c&#233;lula &#946; (A-&#946;-). Esses primeiros subtipos j&#225; constam como tal na classifica&#231;&#227;o da ADA. Adicionalmente, mais dois subtipos s&#227;o descritos como desdobramento do DM 2: seriam o DM 2A, com autoimunidade e fun&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lula &#946; preservada (A+&#946;+) e DM 2B, que n&#227;o tem autoimunidade e tem a fun&#231;&#227;o da c&#233;lula &#946; mantida (A-&#946;+). O fluxograma indica a forma de identificar esses subtipos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="a25fig01">Figura 1</xref>).</p>
    <p> Os pacientes A+&#946;-e A-&#946;-s&#227;o imuno e geneticamente diferentes entre si, mas possuem caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas de DM tipo 1 com baixa fun&#231;&#227;o da c&#233;lula &#946;. J&#225; os A-&#946;+ e A+&#946;+ s&#227;o imuno e geneticamente diferentes entre si com caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas de DM tipo 2 e fun&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lula &#946; preservada<sup>64</sup>. Portanto, existem importantes diferen&#231;as nos fen&#243;tipos e na hist&#243;ria natural dos subtipos, que ficam obscurecidas na classifica&#231;&#227;o da ADA, onde os dois subtipos &#946;-seriam DM tipo 1 e os dois subtipos &#946;+ seriam DM tipo 2. De forma confirmat&#243;ria, avaliando-se o sistema de histocompatibilidade (HLA), identificou-se que alelos de suscetibilidade eram mais frequentes nos dois subgrupos A+ do que nos A-. Por sua vez, os alelos de resist&#234;ncia eram mais frequentes nos subgrupos &#946;+. A heran&#231;a de alelos espec&#237;ficos podem servir como marcadores da evolu&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o pancre&#225;tica, determinando a necessidade de insulina e identificando candidatos para terapia imunomodulat&#243;ria. </p>
    <p> Um recente trabalho<sup>63</sup> comparou a acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica das quatro formas de classifica&#231;&#227;o do DM propenso &#224; cetose. A classifica&#231;&#227;o A&#946;, com sensibilidade de 99,4%, especificidade de 95,9%, valor preditivo positivo de 97,1%, valor preditivo negativo de 99,2% e com uma &#225;rea sobre a curva ROC de 0,972, foi estatisticamente superior &#224;s outras tr&#234;s para classificar o tipo de DM. Embora esse dado n&#227;o seja definitivo e outros estudos sejam ainda necess&#225;rios nas diversas etnias para confirmar-se esse achado, a magnitude da diferen&#231;a em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224;s demais formas de classifica&#231;&#227;o atualmente em uso sugere que ela possa ser adotada como um m&#233;todo eficaz, relativamente simples e preciso de classifica&#231;&#227;o do DM, complementando a classifica&#231;&#227;o da ADA e OMS. </p>
    <p> Em resumo, a classifica&#231;&#227;o A&#946;, que leva em conta a presen&#231;a ou aus&#234;ncia de anticorpos (A+ ou A-) e a fun&#231;&#227;o da c&#233;lula beta (&#946;+ ou &#946;-) define a presen&#231;a do DM tipo 1A e 1B e do DM tipo 2A e tipo 2B. Essa classifica&#231;&#227;o mant&#233;m os subtipos de DM tipo 1 j&#225; reconhecidos, expandindo-os para outras etnias. Permite ainda identificar os pacientes tipo 2 inicialmente dependentes de insulina que podem prescindir de seu uso, o DM 2B (A-&#946;+) e tamb&#233;m alertar para pacientes que inicialmente t&#234;m fun&#231;&#227;o pancre&#225;tica preservada, mas que podem evoluir para a depend&#234;ncia de insulina (A+&#946; +), necessitando, portanto, de revis&#245;es peri&#243;dicas da fun&#231;&#227;o pancre&#225;tica.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O presente estudo foi financiado pelo FIPE.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de disserta&#231;&#227;o de Mestrado de Jorge de Faria Maraschin pela Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="nt" fn-type="corresp">
        <p>Correspond&#234;ncia:</p>
        <p> Jorge de Faria Maraschin </p>
        <p> Rua Santos Dummond, 83/205 - Centro </p>
        <p> 88701-610 - Tubar&#227;o, SC - Brasil </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="jorge.voy@terra.com.br">jorge.voy@terra.com.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Artigo recebido em 13/10/08; revisado recebido em 16/02/09; aceito em 06/05/09.</p>
  </body>
  <back>
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        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Immunogenetic analysis suggests different pathogenesis for obese and lean African-Americans with diabetic ketoacidosis</article-title>
          <source>Diabetes Care</source>
          <date>
            <year>1999</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1517</fpage>
          <lpage>23</lpage>
          <volume>22</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Umpierrez</surname>
              <given-names>GE</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Woo</surname>
              <given-names>W</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Hagopian</surname>
              <given-names>WA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Isaacs</surname>
              <given-names>SD</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Palmer</surname>
              <given-names>JP</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Gaur</surname>
              <given-names>LK</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
    </ref-list>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Clinical Update</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Diabetes mellitus classification</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>The right classification for diabetes mellitus (DM) allows a more adequate treatment and comprises four categories: type 1 DM, type 2 DM, other types, and gestational diabetes. In some cases, there might be a superposition of situations, especially with regard to the DM that initiates in the young adult or is initially presented with diabetic ketoacidosis intermediately to type 1 and 2 DM. Thus, additions to the classic classification system have been proposed as assessing the presence of autoimmunity (antibody) and b cell function (C-peptide) to precisely define the subtypes. The aim of this literature review was to analyze these diagnostic indexes&#8217; performance in the DM classification and to describe subtypes with details. The antibodies against pancreas confirm autoimmunity, and the antibody against insulin is more accurate before 5 years old, while the anti-glutamic acid decarboxylase is more accurate after 20 years old, a test which remains positive for a longer period. The measurement of C-peptide evaluates the pancreatic insulin reserve, and the most largely used methods of stimulation are the measurement after meals or after intravenous glucagon. C-peptide values &lt; 1.5 ng/ml define a patient with absent pancreatic function and, above this value, patients with preserved function. When the presence of antibodies (A+) directed to the pancreas is combined to its insulin secretion capability (&#946;+), it is possible to subdivide DM&#8217;s classification in type 1A (A+&#946;-) and 1B (A+&#946;-); and type 2A (A+&#946;+) and 2B (A-&#946;+), which allows a more precise classification and treatment besides opening horizons for the understanding of DM pathogenesis.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Diabetes mellitus</kwd>
        <kwd>glutamic acid</kwd>
        <kwd>carboxy-lyases</kwd>
        <kwd>C-peptide</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>CLINICAL UPDATE</bold>
      </p>
      <p><undefined id="tx-body2"/>Diabetes mellitus classification</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Jorge de Faria Maraschin; N&#225;dia Murussi; Vanessa Witter; Sandra Pinho Silveiro</bold>
      </p>
      <p> Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil</p>
      <p>Mailing address</p>
      <p>
        <bold>ABSTRACT</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The right classification for diabetes mellitus (DM) allows a more adequate treatment and comprises four categories: type 1 DM, type 2 DM, other types, and gestational diabetes. In some cases, there might be a superposition of situations, especially with regard to the DM that initiates in the young adult or is initially presented with diabetic ketoacidosis intermediately to type 1 and 2 DM. Thus, additions to the classic classification system have been proposed as assessing the presence of autoimmunity (antibody) and b cell function (C-peptide) to precisely define the subtypes. The aim of this literature review was to analyze these diagnostic indexes&#146; performance in the DM classification and to describe subtypes with details. The antibodies against pancreas confirm autoimmunity, and the antibody against insulin is more accurate before 5 years old, while the <italic>anti-glutamic acid</italic> decarboxylase is more accurate after 20 years old, a test which remains positive for a longer period. The measurement of C-peptide evaluates the pancreatic insulin reserve, and the most largely used methods of stimulation are the measurement after meals or after <italic>intravenous glucagon. C-peptide values</italic> &lt; 1.5 ng/ml define a patient with absent pancreatic function and, above this value, patients with preserved function. When the presence of antibodies (A+) directed to the pancreas is combined to its insulin secretion capability (&#946;+), it is possible to subdivide DM&#146;s classification in type 1A (A+&#946;-) and 1B (A+&#946;-); and type 2A (A+&#946;+) and 2B (A-&#946;+), which allows a more precise classification and treatment besides opening horizons for the understanding of DM pathogenesis. </p>
      <p><bold>Key words:</bold> Diabetes mellitus/classification; glutamic acid; carboxy-lyases; C-peptide.</p>
      <p>Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a common disease which is considered epidemic by World Health Organization (WHO). Estimative for world prevalence is around 4.0%<sup>1,2 </sup>and, in Brazil, around 7.6%, as shown in the last evaluation<sup>3</sup>. Its incidence in adults and adolescents have been alarmingly rising in developed countries with estimatives for an increase of 60% in the adult population with more than 30 years old in 2025<sup>1</sup>, as the higher prevalence would be present in 45 to 64 years-old adults<sup>1,2</sup>.</p>
      <p>The right classification for DM type allows a precocious adequate treatment, with higher rate of success concerning the obtainment of a safe glycemic control, which reduces microvascular complications in patients with type 1 or type 2 DM<sup>4,5</sup>. Although randomized clinical trials have not shown reduction in cardiovascular outcomes during intensified glycemic control studies, the long term follow-up of patients have shown a decrease in the risk of macrovascular disease<sup>6</sup>. Currently, the American Diabetes Association (ADA) and the American Heart Association (AHA) recommend that the target range for HbA1c be in general &lt; 7% (ADA: B level and AHA: A level). Less rigorous target ranges have been suggested for individuals with history of severe hypoglycemia, limited expectation of life, advance-staged micro or macrovascular disease and important comorbidities (ADA: C level and AHA: C level).</p>
      <p>New DM classification was redefined in an ADA&#146;s publication in 1997<sup>7</sup> and of WHO in 2006<sup>8</sup>. Updated national and international directions recommend DM&#146;s classification in four categories: type 1 DM (DM1), type 2 (DM2), other types and gestational diabetes<sup>9</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="cht01-body2">Chart 1</xref>).</p>
      <fig id="cht01-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-95-02-0040-00025-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>DM1 is responsible for approximately 5 to 10% of all DM cases, and is subdivided in type 1A, type 1B and Latent Autoimmune Diabetes of the Adult (LADA). In general, DM1 is disclosed before 30 years old, but may attain individuals of all age groups. There is a destruction of pancreatic b-cells, and its treatment requires insulin for hindering diabetic ketoacidosis<sup>3</sup>. In DM 1A, &#946;-cells destruction is of autoimmune cause (90% of cases) and in DM 1B there are no known causes (idiopathic). LADA is a type of DM1 in which autoimmune &#946;-cells destruction also happens, but it is much slower and comprises older individuals (older than 30 years old). its phenotype is peculiar, for patients are not obese, had DM diagnosed in age compatible with type 2 DM, are initially controlled by oral agents, but they present signs of progressive &#946;-cell&#146;s function loss<sup>9 </sup>and eventually need insulin after at least six months post-DM diagnosis<sup>9</sup>. DM 1B was initially described in Africans and Asians<sup>7</sup>. However, this type have been assessed and described with more details in other populations, which brought out a new nomenclature: ketosis-prone DM<sup>10</sup>, a type of DM that would be intermediate to type 1 and 2. These cases would differ from LADA for being initially manifested as ketoacidosis, while proper LADA requires insulin six months after diagnosis. An additional observation describes the presence of antibodies in children and adolescents that are not dependent on insulin initially, but present DM2 profile. In these cases, as following LADA terminology for adults, the right classification would be "LADY" (Latent Autoimmune Diabetes in Youth), but a longer period of follow-up is still necessary for defining such cases&#146; development, besides the fact that this nomenclature is not official<sup>11</sup>. </p>
      <p>DM2 is responsible for more than 90% of DM cases, has no autoimmune component, and is unleashed generally after 30 years old in individuals with positive family history. The initial treatment usually involves diet and oral hypoglycemic agents with no need for insulin. When necessary, insulin can be added to treatment, but this usually happens, at least, five years after the diagnosis configuring a initial state of non insulin requiring diabetes, the opposite of type 1 DM<sup>6,7</sup>. </p>
      <p>In the "other DM type" category, the Maturity Onset Diabetes of the Young (MODY) is highlighted, a subtype that attains individuals younger than 25 years old, non-obese, and which is characterized by a deficiency in insulin secretion but does not provoke dependence on it. It also presents dominant autossomic inheritance, thus involving many generation of one sole family<sup>7,12</sup>. There are six subtypes of MODY, which are qualified according to the identified genetic mutation: MODY 1 (mutation in the <italic>hepatic transcription factors gene, HNF-4</italic>&#945;); MODY 2 (mutation in the glycokinasis gene); MODY 3 (mutation in the HNF-1&#945; gene); MODY 4 (mutation in the insulin promoter factor, also known as IPF); MODY 5 (HNF-1&#946;) and MODY 6 (mutation in Neuro-D1 gene). The more common types are MODY 2 and 3, and the others are very rare<sup>12</sup>. </p>
      <p>Unlikely MODY, that typically represents a pattern of monogenic DM, DM2 brings a polygenic inheritance that has not been completely defined yet. DM2&#146;s pathogenesis is complex and comprises the interaction between genetics and environment factors, especially obesity due to sedentary life and to excessive food intake. With regard to DM2&#146;s genetic aspects, some genes, such as calpain-10, PPAR&#947;2 and Kir6.2, have been confirmed, but it is necessary to go forward in the elucidation of these and other genes&#146; roles<sup>13</sup>. Although DM1 participate in the autoimmune 1A subtype, it is a heterogeneous disease and many patterns of monogenic inheritance (associated with autoimmune polyendocrinopathy) have already been defined. Nonetheless, the majority of the genes that promote genetic susceptibility in type 1 are still to be identified.</p>
      <p>Despite the fact that this classification defines this and other categories through peculiar characteristics, there might be a superposition of clinical situations, mainly concerning DM that develops in the young adult. Sometimes it is difficult to distinguish a subtype from another based solely on clinical data, especially DM1 MODY and DM2 of precocious initiation, which is becoming more and more frequent due to an increase in obesity and metabolic syndrome prevalence among occidental societies. Besides, some types of DM identified in the last decades, which are intermediate to type 1 and 2, do not comply with ADA and WHO&#146;s classifications, for there are particularities in their natural history, as well as the necessity of insulin treatment. The aforementioned DM propense to ketosis is an example<sup>11</sup>.</p>
      <p>For that reason, complementary schemes for classification have been proposed with the involvement of autoimmunity (antibodies) and of &#946;-cells function indexes (C-peptide) capable of not only defining more specific pathogenesis and nomenclature, but also suggesting more adequate methods of treatment. The Ab classification (A=antibodies and &#946;=islet function) has been proposed with the purpose of complementing the traditional ADA classification for the types of diabetes which have propensity to ketosis, but without being contradictory to it. The presence of antibodies is defined as "A+" while the preservation of pancreatic function is defined as "&#946;+". ADA&#146;s classification or DM1 cases is maintained in two subgroups (type 1A and 1B, with and without antibodies, respectively, and both without insulin production), and this subdivision is applied to DM2, which implies having insulin reserve with or without antibodies. </p>
      <p>This proposal is based on the recognition of DM heterogeneous syndrome, which have been identified and followed in cohorts. Through the comparison between other classifications, it has shown to be more accurate and predictive of important outcomes, such as glycemic control and dependence on insulin, as well as a good indicator of new causes for &#946;-cell dysfunction, with molecular and biochemical profile already described<sup>11</sup>.</p>
      <p>The objective of this literature review is to assess the performance of the indexes that evaluate autoimmunity and insulin secretion with the purpose of putting DM into classification and describing in details the subtypes that were generated by such classification. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>The role of pancreatic antibodies</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Autoimmunity against pancreatic islets was described in 1965, but the presence of antibodies (AB) against islets (the islet-cell cytoplasm antibodies; ICA) was first demonstrated in 1974<sup>14</sup>. Following, the existence of many other antibodies was identified: islet cell surface antibody (ISCA); insulin auto-antibodies (IAA); and insulinoma like antigen-2 (IA-2). The different types of antibodies directed to the pancreas as well as their role in the diagnosis of patients with DM1 will be herein described (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="cht02-body2">Chart 2</xref>)<sup>16</sup>.</p>
      <fig id="cht02-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-95-02-0040-00025-gf02-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>The presence of antibodies indicates a DM of autoimmune etiology and, thus, type 1 classic, which is called type 1A. Many methods were created, in international collaborations, to measure the diverse antibodies and to standardize it<sup>17,18</sup>. As there is no international standard for the islet-cell antibody and also a lack of studies with consistent and reproducible results, its use is limited to research<sup>14</sup>. The islet-cell antibodies, the <italic>anti-glutamic acid</italic> decarboxylase and the insulinoma like antigen-2 were subject for trials based on recombinant proteins, which may be marked with radioactive iodine, allowing the development of reproducible and precise trials that are already standardized according to the criteria recommended by WHO<sup>17</sup>. The sensibility and specificity for the diagnosis of DM1 are presented in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="cht02-body2">Chart 2</xref>.</p>
      <p>The islet-cell antibodies, initially described in 1974<sup>13</sup>, were the first ones to be used, but their laboratorial standardizing happened only in 1986<sup>19</sup>. Their reaction occurs against all components of pancreatic islet<sup>14,15</sup>. There are several other pancreatic islet antibodies and many are still to be recognized. However, the <italic>anti-glutamic acid</italic> decarboxylase, anti-insulin, anti-islet and AI-2 have more utility in the clinical practice<sup>20</sup>.</p>
      <p>The islet-cell antibodies are efficient markers of DM1. Their sensibility varies from 70 to 90%<sup>16,17</sup>. However, the capability of predicting risk for DM1 decreases significantly in individuals with symptoms manifestation in advanced ages, mainly after 20 years old<sup>21,22</sup>. These antibodies are present during the pre-diabetes phase and in the beginning of the disease establishment, but their titles drop rapidly right away<sup>21,23</sup>. Their presence is associated with a rapid loss of &#946;-cell function<sup>21</sup> and with the prediction of insulin necessity in patients initially diagnosed with DM2<sup>21,23,24</sup>.</p>
      <p>Anti-insulin antibodies are present in approximately 50% of patients recently diagnosed with DM1, and they are reckoned by means of a radioimmune trial of simple liquid phase<sup>25</sup>. It shows 50 to 70% of sensibility in the DM1 diagnosis. In general, the younger is the patient in the beginning of the disease, the bigger is its positivity<sup>26</sup>. It consists of a efficient marker for pre-clinical disease in children especially those who are less than 5 years old, for it predicts DM risk in children better than in adults<sup>22,27</sup>. </p>
      <p>The <italic>anti-glutamic acid</italic> decarboxylase antibody was initially described as a protein of 64 kilodaltons<sup>14,28</sup>. There are two isoforms<sup>29</sup>: one denominated 65 (expressed in &#946;-cells) and other denominated 67 (in the brain). The function of <italic>glutamic acid</italic> decarboxylase enzyme consists of producing the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA and, in the pancreatic &#946;-cell, <italic>adenosine triphosphate (ATP)</italic><sup>29</sup>. Anti-g<italic>lutamic acid</italic> decarboxylase antibody&#146;s sensibility for DM1 diagnosis is between 75 and 85%<sup>30</sup>. There is a great difference in its sensibility concerning genre<sup>31</sup> and age of DM diagnosis<sup>30</sup>. For females, its sensibility is around 80% and does not vary with age. For males, the sensibility of approximately 50 to 60% before 10 years old and between 75 and 90% after this age<sup>30,31</sup>. Specificity reaches 99% and the sensibility is considered as better than anti-islets and anti-insulin in adults<sup>30,32</sup>. The <bold>anti-glutamic acid</bold> decarboxylase is the most durable antibody, for it may still be positive after 15 of the establishment of DM<sup>33</sup>. In first-grade relatives, its positivity varies from 6 to 8%, similarly to the risk of DM1 development during life<sup>30</sup>. It is more positive in sons of fathers than in sons of mothers that are carriers of DM1<sup>34</sup>. In Diabetes Prevention Trial (DPT-1)<sup>35</sup>, this antibody was the most sensitive marker for the detection of multiple antibodies. However, it is known that no antibody predicts solely and satisfactorily the risk of DM1 development, which is related to the number of antibodies present during the autoimmune evolution process<sup>35-38</sup>. The risk of DM development in first grade relatives carriers of DM1 was 39 to 68% after three and five years, respectively, when two antibodies were present. The presence of three antibodies shows a 100% risk within five years<sup>36</sup>.</p>
      <p>IA-2, also known as ICA-512, is a protein expressed in the neuroendocrine tissue and that is present in pancreatic a and b-cell. The most accurate measure trials are radioimmune trials<sup>39</sup>. Their sensibility for DM1 diagnosis varies from 60 to 70%. Positivity decreases according to the disease&#146;s duration, and is higher in patients diagnosed with DM before 10 years old.</p>
      <p>In short, antibodies are autoimmunity markers and their presence means type 1 diabetes. In children with DM1 there is positivity for the presence of antibodies in 90% of the cases. Anti-insulin antibody is present in younger individuals, especially those who were diagnosed with DM before 5 years old, and it is considered the best marker of the disease in this age group.</p>
      <p>The <italic>anti-glutamic acid</italic> decarboxylase shows a better performance in individuals that had manifestation of the disease after 20 years old. It is also the one that remains positive during longer periods (10 to 15 years of disease), and is often chosen for LADA diagnosis. Positivity of antibodies predicts the insulin necessity and their solicitation is indicated in cases of diagnostic doubt, that occur mainly when DM is established after 30 years old (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a25fig01-body2">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_a25fig01-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-95-02-0040-00025-gf03-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>The role of C-peptide</bold>
      </p>
      <p>C-peptide levels (CPEP) have been employed as b-cell function indexes, considered as an auxiliary exam in classification of DM type and for the initial choice of treatment<sup>40</sup>. Preservation of endogenous secretion is correlated to a precise glycemic control<sup>41-45</sup>, reduction of DM chronicle complications and of hypoglycemic episodes<sup>41,46</sup>. CPEP presents as advantage the fact that, unlikely insulin, it is not degraded by the liver, but is exclusively eliminated by the kidney and has a 30-minute half-life<sup>47</sup>. Besides that, exogenous insulin interferes with endogenous insulin dosage, while CPEP does not suffer this intervention. </p>
      <p>The two-chain insulin structure was first described in 1955<sup>48 </sup>and, in 1967, the existence of a biosynthetic precursor was documented: the proinsulin<sup>49</sup>. The CPEP is a subproduct of proinsulin degradation and is co-secreted with the insulin by the pancreatic &#946;-cell. Inside the pancreatic islet, proinsulin suffers cleavage, generating insulin and CPEP as final products, which are liberated in the portal circulation in equimole concentrations (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig02-body2">Figure 2</xref>)<sup>50</sup>.</p>
      <fig id="fig02-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-95-02-0040-00025-gf04-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>CPEP consists of a small molecule that may suffer cleavage from <italic>proteolytic enzymes</italic> and, therefore, the plasma must be soon separated (within less than two hours), which should be carried out during the first freeze month. World strategies for the standardization of CPEP measurement are being currently considered<sup>46,51</sup>.</p>
      <p>One of the most important aspects, which have not been well established yet, concerns the glycemic homeostasis conditions under which CPEP must be measured<sup>52</sup>. Hyperglycemia may increase (by direct stimulation of glycemia) or decrease (by glucotoxicity) the &#946;-cell response to the test, as well as hypoglycemia may inhibit the &#946;-cell response<sup>52,53</sup>. For that reason, CPEP measure must be made in the absence of hyper or hypoglycemia, as the ideal glycemia would be between 70 and 200 mg/dl.</p>
      <p>CPEP measure may be made in the basal or stimulated by endovenous, intramuscular or subcutaneous glucagon; oral or endovenous amino acids, oral or endovenous glucose; and by mix diet<sup>54-57</sup>. The two most used stimulations are endovenous glucagon and the mix diet test, as the latter is strongly recommended by ADA.</p>
      <p>The patient is characterized with DM1 when presents CPEP values inferior to 1.8 ng/dl after 1 mg of endogenous glucagon<sup>58</sup>, and inferior to 1.5 ng/dl after the mix diet test<sup>45</sup>. Some authors suggest that the basal value alone would be sufficient to characterize the patient, and a study have shown that the random CPEP value (1.5 ng/ml cut-point) measured at any time would be more sensitive<sup>59</sup>. A classical Denmarkian study indicated that a basal value inferior to 0.9 ng/ml could already be able to indicate insulin dependence<sup>47</sup>. Many authors do not take into account the duration time effect of DM in CPEP levels, once several other studies that followed diabetic patients have showed that the &#946;-cell function decreases together with the duration of DM, and is faster in patients with a bad glycemic control<sup>41,45,60,61</sup>. As the decreasing rate varies, one single measure is enough for the diagnosis in new cases, but not to evaluate its decrease and, thus, repeated measurements are recommended<sup>46,60,62</sup>. </p>
      <p>In summary, the CPEP measure appears to be a good marker for the &#946;-cell function and must be made with glycemia between 70 and 200 mg/dl. Stimulation with mix diet is recommended by ADA, but the test performed with endovenous glucagon 1 mg is simpler and equally effective. Stimulated values that are inferior to 1.5 ng/ml define the DM1 patients, while the superior values define the DM2 patients (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a25fig01-body2">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Critical analysis of classification schemes </bold>
      </p>
      <p>DM is defined as a heterogeneous group of metabolic diseases, and its correct classification must be based on physiopathological principles and be helpful in the choice of the treatment<sup>7,8</sup>. However, current sudies<sup>63,64 </sup>show that the available classification scheme does not truly reflect all the involved mechanisms. Some DM subtypes have been described in the last decades. In 2002, the name "Ketosis-prone diabetes" was created, which would correspond to a subtype that is intermediate to type 1 and 2<sup>10</sup>. Initially, the case was described in Africans and Afro-Americans, but in the past few years American, European, Japanese and other populations have presented this subtype<sup>63-65</sup>. </p>
      <p>It is known that DM2, in stress situations such as severe infections and cardiovascular diseases, may present with ketoacidosis. In contrast, the ketosis-prone diabetes manifests initially with ketoacidosis symptoms without apparent causes, as the name says. Finally, the non-ketosis-prone diabetes is the classic DM2, which does not cause dependence on insulin.</p>
      <p>There are four different classifications for ketosis-prone diabetes. The ADA&#146;s scheme<sup>7</sup>, other scheme modified from ADA&#146;s classification<sup>65</sup>, the scheme based on body mass index (BMI)<sup>66</sup> and the one that assesses the presence of autoimmunity and the &#946;-cell function, called A&#946;<sup>64</sup>. </p>
      <p>According to ADA&#146;s classification, the presence of ketoacidosis characterizes the person as a DM1 patient, and it is considered subtype 1A if there are any positive immunologic markers against &#946;-cell, and type 1B (idiopathic) if they are absent. </p>
      <p>The modified ADA&#146;s classification<sup>65 </sup>divides patients into three groups. Type 1 has positive immunologic markers against b-cells. Those that do not present antibodies are divided into two subgroups: dependent and independent on insulin, a classification based on the necessity of insulin at long term. In general, type 1A and insulin-dependent diabetes have clinical characteristics of DM1 with low b-cell function, while the insulin-dependent types have clinical characteristics of DM2 with preserved b-cell function<sup>65</sup>. </p>
      <p>The scheme based on BMI<sup>66 </sup>characterize the patients as thin (BMI &lt; 28 kg/m<sup>2</sup>) or obese (BMI &gt; 28 kg/m<sup>2</sup>). The thin patients present DM1 with low &#946;-cell function characteristics, and the obese patients present DM2 with preserved &#946;-cell function characteristics.</p>
      <p>The classification A&#946;<sup>64 </sup>is based on the presence of autoimmunity markers against p&#226;ncreas (A+ ou A-) and associated with the analysis of the &#946;-cell function (&#946;+ ou &#946;-). There are four groups: type 1&#170; DM, with positive autoimmunity and absence of &#946;-cell function (A+&#946;-); type 1B DM, without autoimmunity and absence of &#946;-cell function (A-&#946;-). These first subtypes are comprised in ADA&#146;s classification. Additionally, two more subtypes are described as branches of DM2: DM2 with autoimmunity and preserved &#946;-cell function (A+&#946;+), and DM2B, without autoimmunity and maintained &#946;-cell function (A-&#946;+). The fluxogram indicates how to identify these subtypes (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a25fig01-body2">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
      <p>A+&#946;- and A-&#946;- patients are immunologically and genetically different from one another, but they present DM1 clinical characteristics with low &#946;-cell function. A-&#946;+ and A+&#946;+ patients are immunologically and genetically different, but with DM2 clinical characteristics and preserved b-cell function<sup>64</sup>. Therefore, there are important differences in phenotypes and in natural history of subtypes that remain unexplained in ADA&#146;s classification, in which both &#946;- subtypes would be DM1 and both &#946;+ subtypes would be DM2. As confirming it, after assessing the histocompatibility system, susceptible alleles were acknowledged as more frequent in both A+ subgroups than in A- subgroups. Resistance alleles, on the other hand, were found to be more frequent in &#946;+ subgroups<sup>67</sup>. The inheritance of specific alleles may be considered as a marker of the pancreatic function evolution, determining the necessity of insulin and identifying candidates for immunomodulatory therapy.</p>
      <p>A recent study<sup>63</sup> compared the diagnostic accuracy of the four classification items of ketosis-prone diabetes. The Ab classification, with a 99.4% sensitivity, 95.9% specificity, 97.1% positive predictive value, 99.2% negative predictive value and a 0.972 area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC), was statistically superior to the other three classifications for DM. Although this data are not definitive and further studies on diverse races are necessary for the confirmation of such findings, the magnitude of the differences with regard to other means of classification in current use suggests that it may be adopted as an effective, relatively simple and precise method for DM classification, complementing ADA and WHO&#146;s classifications.</p>
      <p>To sum up, the A&#946; classification, which allows for the presence or absence of antibodies (A+ or A-) and the &#946;-cell function (&#946;+ or &#946;-), defines the presence of diabetes mellitus type 1A, 1B, 2A and 2B. These classifications maintain the already recognized DM1 subtypes, and extend them to other ethnicities. It also permits to identify type 2 patients that are initially insulin-dependent and later on may renounce its use, DM2B (A-&#946;+) and also make notice the patients who have initially preserved pancreatic function, but may evolve to insulin dependence (A+&#946;+), hence with periodic pancreatic function reviews needed.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
      </p>
      <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This study was funded by FIPE.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Study Association</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This article is part of the thesis of master submitted by Jorge de Faria Maraschin, from <italic>Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul</italic>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
</article>
