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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">jDzKg9h5ZrjxDFcvKKpPBwq</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00019</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2010000600019</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(10)09400619</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2010000600019</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigos de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Os polimorfismos dos receptores adren&#233;rgicos na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca: o que a gen&#233;tica explica?</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pereira</surname>
            <given-names>Sabrina Bernardez</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Gava</surname>
            <given-names>Isabela Ambr&#243;sio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Giro</surname>
            <given-names>Camila</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mesquita</surname>
            <given-names>Evandro Tinoco</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>06</month>
        <year>2010</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>94</volume>
      <issue>6</issue>
      <fpage>841</fpage>
      <lpage>849</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>06</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2009</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>31</day>
          <month>12</month>
          <year>2008</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>19</day>
          <month>08</month>
          <year>2009</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>A insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC) &#233; uma doen&#231;a complexa, onde diversos mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos atuam e diferentes polimorfismos gen&#233;ticos est&#227;o envolvidos. O sistema adren&#233;rgico est&#225; diretamente relacionado a esta patologia participando da auto-regula&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular, tendo papel crucial na deterioriza&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca. Os beta-bloqueadores surgiram como um grande avan&#231;o da cardiologia no tratamento da IC, no entanto a resposta medicamentosa varia para cada paciente podendo estar relacionado a diversos fatores, entre eles o gen&#233;tico. A determina&#231;&#227;o pela gen&#233;tica do desenvolvimento da IC, da resposta medicamentosa e progn&#243;stico s&#227;o quest&#245;es que ser&#227;o abrangidas nesta revis&#227;o.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>Polimorfismo gen&#233;tico</kwd>
        <kwd>receptores adren&#233;rgicos</kwd>
        <kwd>insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>12</day>
        <month>07</month>
        <year>2010</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>ARTIGO DE REVIS&#195;O</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Os polimorfismos dos receptores adren&#233;rgicos na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca: o que a gen&#233;tica explica?</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Sabrina Bernardez Pereira; Isabela Ambr&#243;sio Gava; Camila Giro; Evandro Tinoco Mesquita</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Universidade Federal Fluminense, Rio de Janeiro, RJ - Brasil</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="back">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESUMO</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC) &#233; uma doen&#231;a complexa, onde diversos mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos atuam e diferentes polimorfismos gen&#233;ticos est&#227;o envolvidos. O sistema adren&#233;rgico est&#225; diretamente relacionado a esta patologia participando da auto-regula&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular, tendo papel crucial na deterioriza&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca. Os beta-bloqueadores surgiram como um grande avan&#231;o da cardiologia no tratamento da IC, no entanto a resposta medicamentosa varia para cada paciente podendo estar relacionado a diversos fatores, entre eles o gen&#233;tico. A determina&#231;&#227;o pela gen&#233;tica do desenvolvimento da IC, da resposta medicamentosa e progn&#243;stico s&#227;o quest&#245;es que ser&#227;o abrangidas nesta revis&#227;o.</p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave: </bold> Polimorfismo gen&#233;tico, receptores adren&#233;rgicos, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Atualmente, o tratamento cl&#237;nico para a insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC) conta com in&#250;meras medica&#231;&#245;es, sendo os beta-bloqueadores recomendados para todos os est&#225;gios da IC. No entanto, h&#225; grande variabilidade em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; resposta ao tratamento, com a taxa de sobrevida podendo variar de menos de um ano a mais de 10 anos.</p>
    <p>Apesar da redu&#231;&#227;o da mortalidade, uma parcela significativa dos pacientes nos ensaios cl&#237;nicos, n&#227;o se beneficia do tratamento com o beta-bloqueador. Por outro lado, 10 a 15% dos pacientes apresentam efeitos colaterais impedindo sua utiliza&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>A medicina personalizada se baseia na identifica&#231;&#227;o das varia&#231;&#245;es gen&#233;ticas que podem prever o desenvolvimento, a evolu&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a e a resposta aos medicamentos (efic&#225;cia/seguran&#231;a). Estas varia&#231;&#245;es gen&#233;ticas representam as primeiras bases gen&#233;ticas para determina&#231;&#227;o do diagn&#243;stico, progn&#243;stico e da estrat&#233;gia terap&#234;utica guiada pela farmacogen&#233;tica na IC.</p>
    <p>Os recentes avan&#231;os da biologia molecular t&#234;m facilitado a incorpora&#231;&#227;o na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica de testes que avaliam os polimorfismos na &#225;rea cardiovascular. Um dos exemplos &#233; o warfarin, com a aprova&#231;&#227;o do FDA na utiliza&#231;&#227;o de teste laboratorial r&#225;pido para a detec&#231;&#227;o dos polimorfismos CYP2C9 e VKORC1, no intuito de guiar a estrat&#233;gia de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o oral<sup>1</sup>. Recentemente, tamb&#233;m houve a aprova&#231;&#227;o do uso do bucindolol na IC em conjunto do teste gen&#233;tico para avalia&#231;&#227;o do polimorfismo Arg389Gly, o qual determinar&#225; os respondedores a este tipo de beta-bloqueador.</p>
    <p>O objetivo desta revis&#227;o &#233; apresentar as principais evid&#234;ncias cient&#237;ficas do papel dos polimorfismos dos receptores adren&#233;rgicos na patog&#234;nese, progress&#227;o e resposta aos beta-bloqueadores na IC.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Os polimorfismos dos receptores beta-adren&#233;rgicos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Estudos sobre o sistema adren&#233;rgico v&#234;m fortalecendo a hip&#243;tese de que variantes gen&#233;ticas dos adrenoreceptores centrais ou perif&#233;ricos t&#234;m um papel na fisiologia de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares como hipertens&#227;o arterial e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca<sup>2</sup>.</p>
    <p>A fam&#237;lia de receptores beta-adren&#233;rgicos (&#946;1, &#946;2 e &#946;3) &#233; altamente polim&#243;rfica. Recentemente v&#225;rios polimorfismos funcionalmente relevantes dos receptores &#945;2, &#946;1 e &#946;2 ADR, e os seus gen&#243;tipos espec&#237;ficos foram associados com incid&#234;ncia e severidade cl&#237;nica de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca.</p>
    <p>Sete comuns polimorfismos gen&#233;ticos existem para os receptores adren&#233;rgicos (dois para beta-1 e tr&#234;s para beta-2, um para beta 3 e um para alfa 2c), os quais ser&#227;o discutidos a seguir no envolvimento na patog&#234;nese, na resposta terap&#234;utica e no progn&#243;stico na IC (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>)<sup>3,4</sup>.</p>
    <fig id="f1">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-06-0841-00019-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>
      <bold>Polimorfismos dos receptores beta-1 adren&#233;rgicos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O gene do receptor beta-1 adren&#233;rgico est&#225; localizado no cromossomo10q 24-26. Esse gene possui uma sequ&#234;ncia de c&#243;dons que codifica uma prote&#237;na com 477 amino&#225;cidos intercalada por uma regi&#227;o n&#227;o traduzida contendo 86 pares de base na extremidade 5' e uma regi&#227;o n&#227;o traduzida contendo 900 pares de base na extremidade 3'.</p>
    <p>Foram descritos doze polimorfismos do tipo SNP (troca de um &#250;nico par de base) para o gene de beta-1, dentre os quais oito acarretam mudan&#231;a de amino&#225;cidos no receptor. Dois desses oito SNPs s&#227;o os mais comuns e at&#233; hoje os mais descritos na literatura.</p>
    <p>A posi&#231;&#227;o 1.165 do gene pode ser ocupada por uma citosina, mais frequentemente, ou por uma guanina; alternando o amino&#225;cido da posi&#231;&#227;o 389 da prote&#237;na, na extremidade carboxila terminal entre arginina (Arg) e glicina (Gly), respectivamente. J&#225; a posi&#231;&#227;o 145 do gene &#233; mais frequentemente ocupada por uma adenina ou em menor frequ&#234;ncia por uma guanina; alterando o amino&#225;cido da posi&#231;&#227;o 49 da prote&#237;na, na extremidade amino terminal, entre serina (Ser) e glicina (Gly), respectivamente (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref>)<sup>5,6</sup>.</p>
    <fig id="f2">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-06-0841-00019-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>Entre os outros SNPs descritos para o receptor beta-1 adren&#233;rgico podemos citar: Ala59Ser, Arg318Ser, Lys324Arg, Ala343Thr, Glu352Asp, Arg399Cys, Arg400Leu, His402Arg, Thr404Ala e Pro418Ala, contudo tais polimorfismos s&#227;o raros (frequ&#234;ncia de 1 a 2%) e n&#227;o h&#225; muitos estudos acerca dos mesmos<sup>7,8</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Arg389Gly</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O amino&#225;cido da posi&#231;&#227;o 389 do receptor beta-1 adren&#233;rgico est&#225; localizado pr&#243;ximo ao s&#233;timo dom&#237;nio transmembrana, na cauda intracitoplasm&#225;tica e &#233; um suposto dom&#237;nio de liga&#231;&#227;o da prote&#237;na G<sub>s.</sub><sup>6</sup></p>
    <p>Quando esse polimorfismo foi clonado pela primeira vez, o alelo presente era o Gly389 e por isso esse alelo foi durante muito tempo considerado o selvagem, apesar de ser menos frequente<sup>9</sup>. O alelo Arg389 &#233; altamente conservado entre as esp&#233;cies, o que sugere que ele &#233; o alelo ancestral<sup>7</sup>.</p>
    <p>A preval&#234;ncia al&#233;lica &#233; de aproximadamente 70% para beta 1 Arg389 e de 30% para beta 1 Gly389<sup>10</sup>. A frequ&#234;ncia do alelo Gly em caucasianos e asi&#225;ticos &#233; de 27% enquanto em afro-americanos &#233; de 42%<sup>11</sup>. O conhecimento da frequ&#234;ncia dos polimorfismos nas diferentes etnias &#233; relevante, pois gen&#243;tipos diferentes est&#227;o relacionados &#224; susceptibilidade, resposta &#224; terapia e progn&#243;stico distintos em doen&#231;as card&#237;acas, conforme demonstrado por diversos estudos.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Ser49Gly</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Na extremidade amino terminal do receptor beta 1 adren&#233;rgico, no dom&#237;nio extracitoplasm&#225;tico, encontra-se o amino&#225;cido da posi&#231;&#227;o 49. A mudan&#231;a do amino&#225;cido nessa posi&#231;&#227;o pode alterar a conforma&#231;&#227;o das por&#231;&#245;es transmembrana e intracitoplasm&#225;tica da prote&#237;na. Al&#233;m disso, tem fun&#231;&#227;o nos processos de sinaliza&#231;&#227;o por catecolaminas e <italic>down-regulation</italic> desse receptor<sup>2,12</sup>.</p>
    <p>O polimorfismo Ser49Gly est&#225; em desequil&#237;brio de linkage com o Arg389Gly em caucasianos e afro-americanos e todos os homozigotos para Gly389 s&#227;o tamb&#233;m homozigotos para Ser49 (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>)<sup>9</sup>. Esse desequil&#237;brio foi demonstrado em um estudo com 700 mulheres, em que apenas tr&#234;s das quatro possibilidades genot&#237;picas foram encontradas quando se analisaram 1.254 alelos. O gen&#243;tipo Gly49/Gly389 foi o &#250;nico n&#227;o encontrado<sup>5</sup>.</p>
    <fig id="f3">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-06-0841-00019-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>
      <bold>Frequ&#234;ncia al&#233;lica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>N&#227;o h&#225; diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significativa na preval&#234;ncia do alelo Gly49 entre caucasianos e asi&#225;ticos, sendo essa frequ&#234;ncia de 15% em ambos. J&#225; entre afro-americanos, dois grupos encontraram frequ&#234;ncias genot&#237;picas diferentes. Moore e cols.<sup>13</sup> encontraram uma frequ&#234;ncia de 13% do alelo Gly49, enquanto Johnson e Terra encontraram uma frequ&#234;ncia de 29% para o mesmo alelo<sup>11,13</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>O papel funcional dos polimorfismos dos receptores beta 1 adren&#233;rgicos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Experimentos <italic>in vitro</italic> demonstraram que o alelo Arg389 est&#225; relacionado a uma atividade simp&#225;tica basal ligeiramente maior que aquela apresentada pelo alelo Gly389. Al&#233;m disso, &#946;1-Arg389 apresenta uma dessensibiliza&#231;&#227;o mais r&#225;pida, tem maior afinidade pela prote&#237;na G<sub>s</sub> e produz uma ativa&#231;&#227;o da enzima efetora adenil ciclase tr&#234;s vezes maior que aquela induzida pelo alelo Gly389<sup>4,14</sup>.</p>
    <p>Experimentos realizados em ratos revelaram que a variante Arg se relaciona a uma maior e melhor sinaliza&#231;&#227;o em est&#225;gios agudos, mas que cronicamente torna-se reduzida, com menor capacidade de liga&#231;&#227;o do receptor. Esses mesmos estudos demonstraram que essa variante est&#225; relacionada a uma melhora da atividade hemodin&#226;mica e da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular em resposta ao beta-bloqueio, o que evidencia a import&#226;ncia de tais estudos para o desenvolvimento de terapias mais eficazes e personalizadas<sup>15</sup>.</p>
    <p>O significado funcional dessa troca de amino&#225;cidos est&#225; principalmente no controle da dessensibiliza&#231;&#227;o do receptor beta 1 adren&#233;rgico. A variante Ser 49 &#233; relativamente mais resistente a <italic>down-regulation</italic> que a Gly49, pois &#233; mais glicosilada, apresentando maiores n&#237;veis de express&#227;o, particularmente nas doen&#231;as em que h&#225; ativa&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica aumentada. Conforme demonstrado por estudos anteriores de receptores acoplados &#224; prote&#237;na G, o n&#237;vel de N-glicosila&#231;&#227;o da prote&#237;na influencia a dessensibiliza&#231;&#227;o, tanto em exposi&#231;&#227;o duradoura ao agonista quanto na curta exposi&#231;&#227;o<sup>11</sup>.</p>
    <p>No entanto, verificou-se que o polimorfismo na posi&#231;&#227;o 49 n&#227;o parece ter efeito na sinaliza&#231;&#227;o pelo ligante, no acoplamento &#224; prote&#237;na G ou na internaliza&#231;&#227;o promovida pela exposi&#231;&#227;o ao agonista. Na verdade, apesar da taxa de internaliza&#231;&#227;o de ambos os receptores ser igual, h&#225; 25% mais degrada&#231;&#227;o do receptor Gly49, favorecendo a <italic>down-regulation</italic><sup>11</sup>.</p>
    <p>Enquanto para o polimorfismo da posi&#231;&#227;o 389 h&#225; um consenso quanto &#224; influ&#234;ncia que tal polimorfismo exerce na ativa&#231;&#227;o da adenil ciclase, o mesmo n&#227;o se pode dizer do polimorfismo Ser49Gly. Rathz e cols.<sup>12</sup> n&#227;o encontraram em seus experimentos diferen&#231;as nos n&#237;veis de ativa&#231;&#227;o da enzima adenil ciclase entre as variantes. No entanto, Levin e cols.<sup>16</sup> demonstraram que, quando a densidade de receptores estava dez vezes aumentada, as c&#233;lulas que expressavam Gly49 tinham uma atividade basal e agonista-dependente aumentada para a adenil ciclase. Al&#233;m disso, Gly49 era mais sens&#237;vel aos antagonistas como o metoprolol e apresentavam afinidade aumentada para os agonistas<sup>16,17</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Suscetibilidade para IC</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Tendo em vista as altera&#231;&#245;es que as varia&#231;&#245;es gen&#233;ticas dos receptores beta podem causar na fun&#231;&#227;o do sistema adren&#233;rgico e seu impacto na predisposi&#231;&#227;o a enfermidades e na resposta terap&#234;utica, esses polimorfismos tem sido relacionados &#224; propens&#227;o, evolu&#231;&#227;o e desfecho de diversas doen&#231;as card&#237;acas, entre elas a insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca.</p>
    <p>Conforme descrito anteriormente, o alelo Arg389 tem uma maior atividade estimulat&#243;ria sobre o sistema simp&#225;tico enquanto o alelo Gly389 apresenta aumento do <italic>down-regulation</italic> como um efeito protetor &#224; atividade simp&#225;tica aumentada na IC. Portanto, diversos estudos foram desenvolvidos para verificar se h&#225; uma correla&#231;&#227;o entre os polimorfismos de beta 1 e a suscetibilidade &#224; IC. Na maioria desses estudos n&#227;o se conseguiu encontrar diferen&#231;as estatisticamente significativas nas frequ&#234;ncias isoladas dos alelos Arg389 e Gly 389 em pacientes com IC quando comparado com controles.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Capacidade de exerc&#237;cio na IC</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Quando comparados os alelos Gly e Arg na posi&#231;&#227;o 389 com a capacidade de realiza&#231;&#227;o de exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico na IC, os portadores do alelo Gly obtiveram uma menor performance, apesar do mesmo aumento de frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e press&#227;o arterial ao esfor&#231;o m&#225;ximo<sup>2</sup>. Wagoner e cols.<sup>18</sup>, avaliaram 263 pacientes com cardiopatia dilatada e demonstraram que homozigotos Arg389 tinham pico de VO<sub>2</sub> significativamente maior. Isto sugere que a detec&#231;&#227;o precoce dos polimorfismos pode determinar aqueles com menor capacidade f&#237;sica e, portanto direcionar programas de exerc&#237;cio individualizados<sup>18</sup>.</p>
    <p>J&#225; para o polimorfismo Ser49Gly, a popula&#231;&#227;o da amostra n&#227;o foi controlada para este c&#243;don isoladamente. Entretanto, percebeu-se que tal polimorfismo pode modular a responsividade funcional do c&#243;don 389. Dessa forma, verifica-se que a an&#225;lise do hapl&#243;tipo tamb&#233;m deve ser realizada e talvez seja mais importante que o estudo dos SNP isoladamente<sup>17</sup>. Em pacientes com IC, o hapl&#243;tipo Ser49/Gly389 apresentou menores picos de VO<sub>2</sub>, enquanto os pacientes Gly49/Arg389 possu&#237;am melhor pico de VO<sub>2</sub><sup>2</sup><sub>.</sub></p>
    <p>
      <bold>Resposta ao beta-bloqueador e progn&#243;stico na IC</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Nos &#250;ltimos 10 anos, os beta-bloqueadores (metoprolol, bisoprolol e carvedilol) t&#234;m sido associados &#224; significativa redu&#231;&#227;o em todas as causas de mortalidade e hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o em pacientes com IC, sendo recomendado nas diretrizes como terapia padr&#227;o. No entanto, como demonstrado no MERIT-HF houve redu&#231;&#227;o de mortalidade de apenas 34% dos pacientes em uso de metoprolol quando comparados com placebo<sup>19</sup>. Tal fato foi determinante para justificar os estudos com os polimorfismos no intuito de identificar pacientes respondedores a esta terap&#234;utica, levando em conta as varia&#231;&#245;es inter-individuais.</p>
    <p>Terra e cols., avaliaram 61 pacientes com disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica e fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o (FE) &lt; 40%, titulando a dose de metoprolol at&#233; 200 mg/d ou dose m&#225;xima tolerada e no seguimento ecocardiogr&#225;fico ap&#243;s tr&#234;s meses do uso da medica&#231;&#227;o, observaram que os pacientes homozigotos Arg389Arg obtiveram melhora da FE, com redu&#231;&#227;o dos di&#226;metros cavit&#225;rios em s&#237;stole e em di&#225;stole, em compara&#231;&#227;o com os portadores do alelo Gly<sup>20,21</sup>.</p>
    <p>O estudo BEST avaliou o uso do beta bloqueador n&#227;o-seletivo (buncidolol) para tratamento da IC classe III/IV. Um sub-estudo BEST-Genetic analisou o impacto do polimorfismo do beta 1 adren&#233;rgico no tratamento com o beta-bloqueador e foi notado uma melhora consider&#225;vel na sobrevida e redu&#231;&#227;o da hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o em pacientes homozigotos Arg389Arg, em contraste com os portadores do alelo Gly<sup>3</sup>.</p>
    <p>No entanto, em um subestudo do MERIT-HF com 600 pacientes os resultados n&#227;o confirmaram que as diferentes respostas ao uso de beta-bloqueador estavam relacionadas a estes polimorfismos<sup>22</sup>.</p>
    <p>Terra e cols.<sup>20,21</sup> observaram que os portadores de Gly49 obtiveram melhora significativa do grau de remodelamento ventricular esquerdo ap&#243;s tratamento com metoprolol quando comparados com homozigotos Ser49Ser. Al&#233;m disso, revelou que o gen&#243;tipo Arg389Arg n&#227;o afeta a toler&#226;ncia do metoprolol na fase inicial de titula&#231;&#227;o, enquanto que pacientes portadores do alelo Gly389 assim como homozigotos Ser49 apresentaram maiores taxas de descompensa&#231;&#227;o indicadas pela necessidade de aumento concomitante de outras medica&#231;&#245;es para IC<sup>20,21</sup>.</p>
    <p>B&#246;rjesson e cols.<sup>23</sup>, avaliaram 184 pacientes tratados por longa data com beta-bloqueadores e encontraram que os portadores de 1 ou 2 alelos Gly49 tinham melhora mais acentuada na sobrevida em 5 anos do que pacientes homozigotos Ser49Ser, os quais possu&#237;am maior probabilidade de apresentarem desfechos: hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o, transplante card&#237;aco e morte.</p>
    <p>Em estudo prospectivo com 375 pacientes com IC, Magnusson e cols.<sup>24</sup> demonstraram que a influ&#234;ncia do c&#243;don 49 no progn&#243;stico e tratamento com beta-bloqueadores &#233; mais pronunciada do que no c&#243;don 389. Ent&#227;o, pacientes portadores de 1 ou 2 alelos Gly49 tratados com baixas doses de beta-bloqueador tiveram menor taxa de mortalidade do que pacientes homozigotos Ser49.</p>
    <p>Estudos com o polimorfismo Arg389Gly n&#227;o evidenciaram associa&#231;&#227;o com a taxa de sobrevida<sup>15</sup>. Entretanto, isto acontece quando h&#225; o desequil&#237;brio de linkage entre os c&#243;dons 49 e 389. Pacientes portadores da variante Gly49 quase sempre carregam Arg no c&#243;don 389, enquanto os portadores Ser49 podem ter Arg ou Gly no c&#243;don 389.</p>
    <p>A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref> resume os principais efeitos dos polimorfismos dos receptores beta 1 adren&#233;rgicos no progn&#243;stico e resposta ao beta-bloqueador na IC.</p>
    <table-wrap id="t1">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-06-0841-00019-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>
      <bold>Polimorfismos dos receptores beta-2 adren&#233;rgicos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O receptor beta-2 adren&#233;rgico &#233; codificado por um gene destitu&#237;do de &#237;ntrons e localizado no cromossomo 5q31-32. At&#233; o momento, foram descritos 12 polimorfismos SNPs para o gene do receptor beta-2. Destes, 5 (Arg16Gly, Gln27Glu, Trh164Ile, Val34Met e Ser220Cys) ocasionam altera&#231;&#245;es em amino&#225;cidos do receptor e apresentam import&#226;ncia funcional (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 4</xref>). As consequ&#234;ncias do polimorfismo Ser220Cys ainda n&#227;o s&#227;o bem compreendidas e estima-se que o polimorfismo Val34Met, que &#233; bastante raro, n&#227;o provoque mudan&#231;as na fun&#231;&#227;o do receptor beta-2. Os demais, por outro lado, demonstram estar relacionados a altera&#231;&#245;es funcionais do receptor.</p>
    <fig id="f4">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-06-0841-00019-gf04.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>
      <bold>Arg16Gly</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A substitui&#231;&#227;o do nucleot&#237;deo adenina pelo nucleot&#237;deo guanina, na posi&#231;&#227;o 46 do gene de beta 2, determina a substitui&#231;&#227;o do amino&#225;cido arginina (Arg) pelo amino&#225;cido glicina (Gly) no c&#243;don 16. No in&#237;cio das investiga&#231;&#245;es sobre o polimorfismo Arg16Gly, atribu&#237;a-se a arginina ser o alelo mais frequente na popula&#231;&#227;o (alelo selvagem). Entretanto, estudos posteriores demonstraram que o amino&#225;cido glicina era, na verdade, o alelo mais frequente (Arg/Gly, frequ&#234;ncia al&#233;lica 0,40/0,60). Contudo, por ter sido descrito inicialmente dessa forma, o alelo arginina permaneceu com a denomina&#231;&#227;o selvagem e o alelo glicina continuou sendo denominado alelo mutante<sup>2</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Gln27Glu</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Na posi&#231;&#227;o 79 do gene do receptor beta 2 adren&#233;rgico, a altera&#231;&#227;o do nucleot&#237;deo citosina pelo nucleot&#237;deo guanina resulta em substitui&#231;&#227;o do amino&#225;cido glutamina pelo &#225;cido glut&#226;mico no c&#243;don 27. O alelo glutamina, por ser encontrado de forma mais frequente na popula&#231;&#227;o, &#233; designado alelo selvagem. O &#225;cido glut&#226;mico, por ser o menos frequente, &#233; denominado mutante (Gln/Glu, frequ&#234;ncia al&#233;lica 0,55/0,45)<sup>2</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Trh164Ile</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A presen&#231;a de diferente nucleot&#237;deo na posi&#231;&#227;o 491 do gene ir&#225; determinar a presen&#231;a de diferente amino&#225;cido no c&#243;don 164 (Trh164Ile)<sup>17</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Arg16Gly/Gln27Glu</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Sabe-se hoje que h&#225; um not&#225;vel desequil&#237;brio de linkage entre os c&#243;dons 16 e 27, de modo que os indiv&#237;duos homozigotos Glu27Glu quase sempre apresentam o amino&#225;cido glicina em homozigose no c&#243;don 16 (Gly16Gly). Os indiv&#237;duos homozigotos Gln27Gln podem ser homozigotos (Arg16Arg ou Gly16Gly) ou heterozigotos (Arg16Gly) para o c&#243;don 16. O hapl&#243;tipo Arg16Glu27 &#233; encontrado em menos de 1% da popula&#231;&#227;o sendo, portanto, muito raro<sup>11</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Frequ&#234;ncia al&#233;lica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A frequ&#234;ncia dos alelos envolvidos nos polimorfismos dos receptores beta 2 varia entre os diferentes grupos &#233;tnicos. Em afro-americanos, a frequ&#234;ncia do alelo Arg16 &#233; 49%, enquanto que em brancos e asi&#225;ticos a frequ&#234;ncia desse mesmo alelo &#233; 46% e 59%, respectivamente. No que diz respeito ao alelo Glu27, sua frequ&#234;ncia al&#233;lica &#233; de 20% entre indiv&#237;duos afro-americanos. Em brancos e asi&#225;ticos, a frequ&#234;ncia do Glu27 &#233; de 35% e 7%, respectivamente.</p>
    <p>A frequ&#234;ncia do Ile164 em caucasianos e negros &#233; 2 a 4%, em asi&#225;ticos 0 a 1% e em latinos 3%<sup>25,26</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>O papel funcional dos polimorfismos dos receptores beta 2 adren&#233;rgicos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Est&#225; bem estabelecido que os polimorfismos nos c&#243;dons 16 e 27 n&#227;o alteram a capacidade de liga&#231;&#227;o das catecolaminas ao receptor beta 2 e nem a atividade da adenil ciclase. Por&#233;m, estudos demonstram que estes polimorfismos est&#227;o fortemente relacionados &#224; susceptibilidade desses receptores ao fen&#244;meno de <italic>down-regulation</italic><sup>17</sup>.</p>
    <p>Estudos <italic>in vitro</italic> revelaram uma maior dessensibiliza&#231;&#227;o na variante Gly16 em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; Arg16, ap&#243;s administra&#231;&#227;o de isoprenalina. O mesmo experimento indicou ainda que a variante Glu27, por ocasionar uma altera&#231;&#227;o na conforma&#231;&#227;o do receptor beta 2, possui maior resist&#234;ncia ao fen&#244;meno de <italic>down-regulation</italic> do que a variante Gln27<sup>27</sup>. Assim sendo, presume-se que o polimorfismo Glu27 produza um receptor beta 2 com maior responsividade aos agonistas adren&#233;rgicos<sup>2</sup>. O hapl&#243;tipo Gly16Glu27 demonstrou ser mais suscept&#237;vel ao <italic>down-regulation</italic> quando comparado com o hapl&#243;tipo Gly16Gln27. Uma hip&#243;tese para tal fato seria a preponder&#226;ncia do efeito do Gly16 sobre o efeito da variante Glu27. O hapl&#243;tipo Arg16Glu27 &#233; o que apresenta maior resist&#234;ncia &#224; dessensibiliza&#231;&#227;o<sup>28</sup>.</p>
    <p>In vivo, tr&#234;s hapl&#243;tipos foram estudados (Arg16Gln27Thr164, Gly16Glu27Thr164 e Gly16Gln27Thr164). Ap&#243;s duas semanas de tratamento com isoprenalina via oral, o hapl&#243;tipo Gly16Glu27Thr164 foi o que apresentou menor dessensibiliza&#231;&#227;o<sup>29,30</sup>. Em outros estudos, um tratamento intravenoso com isoprenalina resultou em maior dessensibiliza&#231;&#227;o do hapl&#243;tipo Arg16Gln27Thr164<sup>31,32</sup>.</p>
    <p>Esses resultados, que apontam menor resist&#234;ncia do Arg16 ao <italic>down regulation</italic>, divergem dos resultados obtidos <italic>in vitro</italic>. Uma poss&#237;vel hip&#243;tese para isso seria a exposi&#231;&#227;o dos receptores beta 2 adren&#233;rgicos a um n&#237;vel basal de catecolaminas end&#243;genas em modelo humano, o que iria proporcionar uma maior dessensibiliza&#231;&#227;o end&#243;gena do Gly16. Assim, quando expostos a um agonista ex&#243;geno, o polimorfismo Gly16, j&#225; dessensibilizado, apresentaria menor susceptibilidade ao <italic>down-regulation</italic><sup>33</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Suscetibilidade para IC</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Muitos estudos investigaram uma poss&#237;vel associa&#231;&#227;o entre insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e os polimorfismos dos receptores beta 2 adren&#233;rgicos, e diferentes resultados foram descritos na literatura. Sabe-se que a propor&#231;&#227;o entre receptores beta 1 e beta 2 &#233; de 80 para 20 em cora&#231;&#245;es sadios. No entanto, na IC, essa propor&#231;&#227;o &#233; de 60 para 40, o que indica que o polimorfismo de beta 2 pode modificar a progress&#227;o da doen&#231;a<sup>11</sup>.</p>
    <p>Heckbert e cols.<sup>34</sup> realizaram estudos em uma amostra com mais de 5.000 idosos em busca de uma poss&#237;vel rela&#231;&#227;o entre os polimorfismos Arg16Gly e Gln27Glu e o risco de desenvolvimento de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares. Seus resultados sugerem que os portadores do alelo Glu27 t&#234;m um menor risco de desenvolver eventos coronarianos que os pacientes portadores do alelo Gln27 em homozigose.</p>
    <p>Forleo e cols.<sup>35</sup>, em seus estudos, conclu&#237;ram que pacientes Gly16Glu27 com miocardiopatia dilatada apresentavam maior risco de desenvolver insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca do que pacientes Gly16Gln27<sup>17,35</sup>.Entretanto, assim como para o polimorfismo de beta 1, parece n&#227;o haver diferen&#231;a significativa entre a frequ&#234;ncia dos alelos do receptor beta 2 em pacientes com e sem IC, o que indica que esse polimorfismo n&#227;o deve estar associado &#224; susceptibilidade para essa doen&#231;a.</p>
    <p>Covolo e cols.<sup>36</sup> n&#227;o encontraram diferen&#231;as significativas na distribui&#231;&#227;o dos diferentes alelos entre pacientes com IC e o grupo controle<sup>17,36</sup>.</p>
    <p>Dois estudos demonstram que a frequ&#234;ncia do polimorfismo Ile164 &#233; semelhante em pacientes saud&#225;veis e pacientes com IC, assim conclu&#237;ram que esse polimorfismo tamb&#233;m n&#227;o &#233; um fator de risco para IC<sup>37,38</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Capacidade de exerc&#237;cio na IC</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Alguns estudos verificaram a rela&#231;&#227;o dos diferentes polimorfismos do receptor beta 2 com a capacidade de realizar exerc&#237;cio.</p>
    <p>Wagoner e cols.<sup>18</sup>, ap&#243;s determinarem o gen&#243;tipo de 230 pacientes ambulatoriais com IC, submeteram estes pacientes a testes de capacidade cardiopulmonar. Os resultados demonstraram que os homozigotos Gly16 apresentaram piores picos de VO<sub>2,</sub> quando comparados aos homozigotos Arg16. Al&#233;m disso, ao avaliar os gen&#243;tipos das posi&#231;&#245;es 16 e 27 de forma simult&#226;nea, os homozigotos Gly16Gln27 foram os que apresentaram piores performances, sendo as melhores relacionadas aos homozigotos para Arg16Glu27<sup>9</sup>.</p>
    <p>J&#225; os pacientes com IC e Thr164Ile apresentavam menor pico de VO<sub>2</sub> (15,0 &#177; 0,9 ml&#183;kg<sup>-1</sup>&#183;min<sup>-1</sup>) que os pacientes Thr164Thr (17,9 &#177; 0,9 ml&#183;kg<sup>-1</sup>&#183;min<sup>-1</sup>, p &lt; 0,0001) O percentual do pico de O<sub>2</sub> atingido tamb&#233;m foi menor em pacientes Ile164Thr (62,3 &#177; 4,5% <italic>versus</italic> 71,5 &#177; 5,1%, p = 0,045)<sup>18</sup>.</p>
    <p>Os testes de exerc&#237;cio com medi&#231;&#245;es por cateter de Swan Ganz demonstraram menor varia&#231;&#227;o no &#237;ndice card&#237;aco, resist&#234;ncia vascular sist&#234;mica, volume sist&#243;lico e O<sub>2</sub> em pacientes Ile164.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Resposta ao beta-bloqueador e progn&#243;stico na IC</bold>
    </p>
    <p>No que diz respeito &#224; resposta a medicamentos, estudos mostraram que o Arg16 e o Glu27, quando em homozigose, promovem maior vasodilata&#231;&#227;o em resposta a agonistas adren&#233;rgicos. Por outro lado, estudos in vivo demonstraram que as combina&#231;&#245;es dos alelos Arg16 e Gln27 exibiram maior dessensibiliza&#231;&#227;o mediada pelo agonista durante a resposta vasodilatadora<sup>11</sup>.</p>
    <p>Estudos realizados por Kayne e cols.<sup>39</sup>, envolvendo pacientes com IC tratados com beta-bloqueadores, indicaram que o risco de morte ou transplante card&#237;aco era significativamente maior naqueles que possu&#237;am hapl&#243;tipo Arg16Gln27. Ao se analisar o polimorfismo Gln27 de forma isolada, pacientes homozigotos para este alelo manifestaram pouca melhora da fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca mediante administra&#231;&#227;o de carvedilol, quando comparados com pacientes portadores do alelo Glu27. Esses resultados foram confirmados por Metra e cols., na ocasi&#227;o, os pacientes com IC cr&#244;nica foram tratados por mais de um ano com carvedilol, e foi constatado que a fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo em homozigotos Glu27 foi muito maior do que em homozigotos Gln27. N&#227;o foi obtida signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica para estudos que tentaram correlacionar a resposta ao carvedilol e o polimorfismo Arg16Gly de forma isolada. Entretanto, devido ao desequil&#237;brio de linkage, pacientes homozigotos para Glu27, que apresentam melhor resposta ao carvedilol, quase sempre s&#227;o portadores do alelo Gly16 em homozigose<sup>17,39,40</sup>.</p>
    <p>De Groote e cols.<sup>41</sup> em seus experimentos observaram para pacientes com o hapl&#243;tipo Gly16Gln27 uma tend&#234;ncia &#224; menor sobrevida quando comparada com pacientes com os dois outros hapl&#243;tipos, demonstrando, mais uma vez, que a an&#225;lise dos SNPs isoladamente pode n&#227;o ser suficiente para caracterizar a evolu&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a e que talvez mais estudos sejam necess&#225;rios antes que se possa estabelecer uma rela&#231;&#227;o entre o polimorfismo do beta 2 e o progn&#243;stico na IC<sup>41</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em estudo recente, pacientes homozigotos para o hapl&#243;tipo Arg16Gln27 tiveram alto risco de mortalidade, enquanto aqueles homozigotos para o hapl&#243;tipo Gly16Glu27 tinham este risco reduzido. Dados similares foram recentemente publicados por Shin e cols.<sup>42</sup> que encontraram em 227 pacientes portadores de IC cr&#244;nica tratados com beta-bloqueadores que os homozigotos para o hapl&#243;tipo Arg16Gln27 tinham <italic>hazard ratio</italic> para eventos adversos (definido por morte ou transplante card&#237;aco) de 1.91<sup>17,42</sup>.</p>
    <p>Apesar dos v&#225;rios estudos feitos sobre o polimorfismo Thr164Ile, ainda n&#227;o se sabe seu papel no progn&#243;stico da IC. Liggett e cols. fizeram um estudo com 256 pacientes analisando a sobrevida dos pacientes em um ano. Os pacientes Thr164Ile tiveram sobrevida de 42% enquanto os pacientes Thr164Thr tiveram sobrevida de 76%. No entanto tr&#234;s estudos subsequentes n&#227;o foram capazes de demonstrar tal associa&#231;&#227;o<sup>35,41,43</sup>.</p>
    <p>Forleo e cols.<sup>35</sup> analisaram 171 pacientes com miocardiopatia dilatada e n&#227;o encontraram diferen&#231;a no risco de evolu&#231;&#227;o da IC (definida como necessidade de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o, transplante card&#237;aco ou morte) e este polimorfismo<sup>35</sup>.</p>
    <p>De Groote e cols.<sup>44</sup> analisaram 444 pacientes com IC e Barbato e cols.<sup>43</sup> analisaram 31 pacientes com IC e n&#227;o encontraram rela&#231;&#227;o entre o polimorfismo Thr164Ile e a sobrevida dos pacientes em 3,5 anos e 2 anos respectivamente. No entanto, o estudo de Barbato e cols. demonstrou uma piora mais r&#225;pida da IC (aumento do uso de diur&#233;ticos ou necessidade de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o) nos pacientes Ile164 do que nos Thr164<sup>41,44</sup>.</p>
    <p>A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref> resume os principais efeitos dos polimorfismos dos receptores beta 2 adren&#233;rgicos no progn&#243;stico e resposta ao beta-bloqueador na IC.</p>
    <table-wrap id="t2">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-06-0841-00019-gt02.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>
      <bold>Polimorfismos dos receptores beta-3 adren&#233;rgicos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O gene do receptor beta 3 adren&#233;rgico est&#225; localizado no cromossomo 8p11.1-8p12 e &#233; primariamente expresso em tecido adiposo branco e marrom<sup>2</sup>.</p>
    <p>O polimorfismo mais comum deste receptor est&#225; localizado no c&#243;don 64, onde h&#225; uma substitui&#231;&#227;o do triptofano pela arginina (Trp64Arg), no in&#237;cio da primeira al&#231;a intracelular<sup>28</sup>.</p>
    <p>A presen&#231;a e fun&#231;&#227;o do beta-3 adren&#233;rgico no cora&#231;&#227;o humano ainda &#233; motivo de debates. Alguns estudos tentaram, sem sucesso, estabelecer uma rela&#231;&#227;o entre a hipertens&#227;o arterial, a doen&#231;a coronariana e o polimorfismo deste receptor. No entanto, os estudos atuais est&#227;o mais direcionados na confirma&#231;&#227;o da associa&#231;&#227;o do polimorfismo Trp64Arg com a obesidade, resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica e diabete melito em est&#225;gio inicial.</p>
    <p>Polimorfismo do Receptor alfa 2c adren&#233;rgico e beta1 adren&#233;rgico</p>
    <p>O receptor alfa 2c adren&#233;rgico &#233; um receptor p&#243;s-sin&#225;ptico que previne a libera&#231;&#227;o de noradrenalina na termina&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica e a dele&#231;&#227;o de quatro amino&#225;cidos consecutivos (Del322-325) ocasiona uma variante neste receptor que &#233; hipofuncionante e est&#225; associada a altos n&#237;veis de noradrenalina.</p>
    <p>Small e cols.<sup>45</sup> demonstraram em uma amostra de 84 pacientes negros, que aqueles homozigotos para dele&#231;&#227;o (322-325) no gene do receptor alfa 2c tinham cinco vezes mais risco de desenvolver IC quando comparado ao grupo que n&#227;o tinha este gen&#243;tipo.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Perspectivas futuras</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Assim como a gen&#244;mica, transcript&#244;mica e prote&#244;mica, a metabol&#244;mica est&#225; abrindo novos horizontes na an&#225;lise mais completa do indiv&#237;duo. A metabol&#244;mica &#233; considerada a liga&#231;&#227;o entre o gen&#243;tipo e o fen&#243;tipo.</p>
    <p>Com a an&#225;lise global dos metab&#243;litos &#233; poss&#237;vel ter uma vis&#227;o detalhada do fen&#243;tipo, levando &#224; rapidez de diagn&#243;sticos, do desenvolvimento de novos produtos farmacol&#243;gicos e da identifica&#231;&#227;o de efeito colaterais de novas drogas e entre outros fatores.</p>
    <p>De modo geral, acredita-se que o uso de t&#233;cnicas de biologia molecular, associado aos crit&#233;rios morfol&#243;gicos e cl&#237;nico-laboratoriais convencionais, dever&#227;o permitir o diagn&#243;stico mais preciso e, consequentemente, o entendimento mais aprofundado da fisiopatologia das doen&#231;as card&#237;acas.</p>
    <p>&#201; o profundo conhecimento do processo de desenvolvimento de uma doen&#231;a e da influ&#234;ncia de fatores individuais que dever&#227;o pavimentar os caminhos para uma medicina personalizada e individual e a aplica&#231;&#227;o de regimes terap&#234;uticos diferenciados.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Agradecimentos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Agradecemos a toda equipe do projeto GENETIC/UFF, em especial &#224; Professora Georgina Severo Ribeiro pelo incentivo e incans&#225;vel trabalho, assim como ao apoio financeiro da FAPERJ/DECIT-MS a este projeto de gen&#233;tica molecular aplicada ao SUS.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O presente estudo foi parcialmente financiado por FAPERJ/DECIT.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de disserta&#231;&#227;o de Mestrado de Sabrina Bernadez Pereira pela Universidade Federal Fluminense.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="back" fn-type="corresp">
        <label>
          <bold> Correspond&#234;ncia:</bold>
        </label>
        <p> Sabrina Bernardez Pereira </p>
        <p> Rua Professor Otac&#237;lio, 94/601 - Santa Rosa </p>
        <p> 24240-670 - Niter&#243;i, RJ - Brasil </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p><email xlink:href="sbernardez@cardiol.br">sbernardez@cardiol.br</email>, </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="s.bernardez@globo.com">s.bernardez@globo.com</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Artigo recebido em 31/12/2008; revisado recebido em 06/05/2009; aceito em 19/08/09.</p>
  </body>
  <back>
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  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Update</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Adrenergic receptor polymorphisms in heart failure: what can genetics explain?</article-title>
      </title-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>REVIEW ARTICLE</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fn id="top-body2">
          <label>
            <bold>Adrenergic receptor polymorphisms in heart failure: what can genetics explain?</bold>
          </label>
          <p>
            <bold>Sabrina Bernardez Pereira; Isabela Ambr&#243;sio Gava; Camila Giro; Evandro Tinoco Mesquita</bold>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p>Universidade Federal Fluminense, Rio de Janeiro, RJ - Brazil</p>
      <p>Mailing address</p>
      <p>
        <bold>SUMMARY</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Heart failure (HF) is a complex disease, which involves several physiopathological mechanisms and different genetic polymorphisms. The adrenergic system is directly related to this pathology, as it participates in cardiovascular autoregulation and has a crucial role in the deterioration of cardiac function. The beta-blockers appeared as a great advance in cardiology for the treatment of HF; however, the drug response varies according to each patient, as several factors are associated, such as the genetic one. This review aims at assessing the genetic involvement in the development of HF, the drug response and the prognosis.</p>
      <p><bold>Key words:</bold> Polymorphism, genetic; receptors, adrenergic; heart failure.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Currently, the clinical treatment for heart failure (HF) has a wide range of available drugs and beta-blockers are recommended for all stages of HF. However, there is great variability regarding response to treatment, with a survival rate that can vary from less than a year to more than 10 years.</p>
      <p>In spite of the decrease in mortality, a significant number of patients from clinical trials do not benefit from the treatment with beta-blocker and 10% to 15% of the patients present adverse effects, which prevents their use.</p>
      <p>The customized medicine is based on the identification of genetic variations that can predict the disease development and evolution and drug response (efficacy/safety). These variations represent the first genetic bases to determine the diagnosis, prognosis and therapeutic strategy guided by pharmacogenetics in HF.</p>
      <p>The recent advances in molecular biology have facilitated the inclusion into clinical practice of tests that evaluate the polymorphisms in the cardiovascular area. One example is warfarin, with the approval by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) of the rapid laboratory test to detect the CYP2C9 and VKORC1 polymorphisms, with the objective of guiding the strategy of oral anticoagulation<sup>1</sup>. Recently, the use of bucindolol in HF was approved in genetic testing to evaluate the Arg389Gly polymorphism, which will identify the individuals who will respond to this type of beta-blocker.</p>
      <p>The objective of this review is to present the main scientific evidence of the role of polymorphisms of adrenergic receptors in the pathogenesis and progression of beta-blockers in HF and in their response to them.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Beta-adrenergic receptor polymorphisms</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Studies on the adrenergic system have supported the hypothesis that genetic variants of the central or peripheral adrenoreceptors have a role in the physiology of cardiovascular diseases, such as arterial hypertension and heart failure<sup>2</sup>.</p>
      <p>The family of beta-adrenergic receptors (&#946;1, &#946;2 and &#946;3) is highly polymorphic. Recently, several functionally relevant polymorphisms of &#945;2, &#946;1 and &#946;2 ADR receptors, and their specific genotypes were associated with the incidence and clinical severity of heart failure.</p>
      <p>There are seven common polymorphisms for the adrenergic receptors (two for beta-1 and three for beta-2, one for beta-3 and one for alpha-2c), which will be analyzed regarding their involvement in the pathogenesis, therapeutic response and prognosis of HF (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1-body2">Figure 1</xref>)<sup>3,4</sup>.</p>
      <fig id="f1-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-06-0841-00019-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>
        <bold>Beta-1 adrenergic receptor polymorphisms</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The beta-1 adrenergic receptor gene is located at chromosome 10q 24-26. This gene has a codon sequence that codifies a protein with 477 amino acids intercalated by an untranslated region containing 86 base pairs in the extremity 5' and an untranslated region containing 900 base pairs in extremity 3'.</p>
      <p>Eleven single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) have been described for the beta-1 gene, of which 8 result in amino acid change in the receptor. Two of these SNPs are the most common ones and are to date the most often described SNPs in literature.</p>
      <p>The position 1165 of the gene can be occupied, more frequently, by a cytosine or by a guanine, alternating the amino acid at position 389 of the protein, in the carboxy-terminal extremity between Arginine (Arg) and Glycine (Gly), respectively. As for the position 145 of the gene, it is more frequently occupied by an adenine, or, less frequently, by a guanine, altering the amino acid at position 49 of the protein, in the amino-terminal extremity, between serine (Ser) and Glycine (Gly), respectively (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2-body2">Figure 2</xref>)<sup>5,6</sup>.</p>
      <fig id="f2-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-06-0841-00019-gf02-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>Among the other SNPs described for the beta-1 adrenergic receptor, are: Ala59Ser, Arg318Ser, Lys324Arg, Ala343Thr, Glu352Asp, Arg399Cys, Arg400Leu, His402Arg, Thr404Ala and Pro418Ala. However, these polymorphisms are rare (frequency of 1% to 2%), and there are not many studies about them<sup>7,8</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Arg389Gly</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The amino acid at position 389 of the beta-1 adrenergic receptor is located close to the seventh transmembrane domain, in the intracytoplasmic tail and it is supposed to be a G<sub>s</sub>-protein binding domain<sup>6</sup>.</p>
      <p>When this polymorphism was cloned for the first time, the allele present was Gly389, and, therefore, this allele was considered to be the wild-type allele for a long time, although it was less frequent<sup>9</sup>. The Arg389 allele is highly conserved among species, which suggests that it is the ancestral allele<sup>7</sup>.</p>
      <p>The allelic prevalence is of approximately 70% for beta-1 Arg389 and 30% for beta-1 Gly389<sup>10</sup>. The frequency of the Gly allele in Caucasians and Asians is 27%, whereas the frequency in African-Americans is of 42%<sup>11</sup>. The knowledge of the frequency of polymorphisms in different ethnic groups is relevant, as different genotypes are related to susceptibility, response to therapy and distinct prognosis in cardiac diseases, as demonstrated by several studies.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Ser49Gly</bold>
      </p>
      <p>At the amino terminal extremity of the beta-1 adrenergic receptor, in the extra-cytoplasmic domain, is the amino acid at position 49. The change in the amino acid at this position can alter the conformation of the transmembrane and intracytoplasmic portions of the protein. Moreover, it has a role in the catecholamine signaling and down-regulation of this receptor<sup>2,12</sup>.</p>
      <p>The Ser49Gly polymorphism is in linkage disequilibrium with Arg389Gly in Caucasians and African-Americans and all homozygotes for Gly389 are also homozygotes for Ser49 (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3-body2">Figure 3</xref>)<sup>9</sup>. This disequilibrium was demonstrated in a study with 700 women, in which only three of the four genotypic possibilities were found when 1,254 alleles were analyzed. The Gly49/Gly389 genotype was the only one that was not found<sup>5</sup>.</p>
      <fig id="f3-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-06-0841-00019-gf03-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>
        <bold>Allelic frequency</bold>
      </p>
      <p>There is no statistically significant difference regarding the prevalence of the Gly49 allele in Caucasians and Asians and this frequency is 15% in both populations. Among African-Americans, different genotypic frequencies were identified by two groups. Johnson and Terra found a frequency of 29% for the Gly49 allele, whereas Moore et al<sup>13</sup> observed a frequency of 13% of the same allele<sup>11,13</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>The functional role of polymorphisms in the beta-1 adrenergic receptors</bold>
      </p>
      <p><italic>In vitro</italic> experiments have demonstrated that the Arg389 allele is related to a slightly higher basal sympathetic activity then the one presented by the Gly389 allele. Additionally, &#946;1-Arg389 presents a faster desensitization, has higher affinity for the G<sub>s</sub> protein and produces an activation of the effector enzyme adenylyl cyclase that is three-fold higher than the one induced by the Gly389 allele<sup>4,14</sup>.</p>
      <p>Experiments carried out in rats have shown that the Arg variant is related to a higher and better signaling in acute stages, but it becomes decreased chronically, with lower receptor-binding capacity. These same studies demonstrated that this variant is related to an improvement in the hemodynamic activity and ventricular function in response to beta-blocking, which demonstrates the importance of such studies for the development of more effective and personalized therapies<sup>15</sup>.</p>
      <p>The functional meaning of this amino acid change is mainly in the control of the beta-1 adrenergic receptor desensitization. The Ser49 variant is relatively more resistant to down-regulation than the Gly49, as it is more glycosylated, presenting higher levels of expression, particularly in diseases where the sympathetic activation is increased. As demonstrated by prior studies of G-protein binding receptors, the level of the protein N-glycosylation influences the desensitization, at the prolonged exposure to agonist as well as at the short exposure<sup>11</sup>.</p>
      <p>It was verified, however, that the polymorphism at position 49 does not seem to have an effect on ligand binding, G-protein binding or internalization promoted by the exposure to agonist. Actually, although the rate of internalization of both receptors is the same, there is 25% more degradation of the Gly49 receptor, favoring the down-regulation<sup>11</sup>.</p>
      <p>Although there is a consensus regarding the polymorphism at position 389 regarding its influence in the adenylyl cyclase activation, the same cannot be said of polymorphism Ser49Gly. Rathz et al<sup>12</sup> did not find, in their experiments, differences in the levels of activation of the adenylyl cyclase enzyme among the variants. However, Levin et al<sup>16</sup> demonstrated that, when the density of the receptors was increased 10-fold, the cells that expressed Gly49 had an increased basal and agonist-dependent activity for the adenylyl cyclase. Additionally, Gly49 was more sensitive to the antagonists such as metoprolol and presented increased affinity for the agonists<sup>16,17</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Susceptibility to heart failure</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Considering the alterations that genetic variations of beta receptors can cause in the adrenergic system function and their impact on the predisposition to diseases and the therapeutic response, these polymorphisms have been related to the propensity to, evolution and outcome of several cardiac diseases and among them, heart failure (HF).</p>
      <p>As described before, the Arg389 allele has a higher stimulating effect on the sympathetic system, whereas the Gly389 allele presents an increase of the down-regulation as a protective effect to the increased sympathetic activity in HF. Therefore, several studies have been developed to verify whether there is a correlation between the beta-1 polymorphisms and susceptibility to HF. In most studies, no statistically significant differences were found regarding the isolated frequencies of the Arg389 and Gly389 alleles in patients with HF, when compared to controls.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Exercise capacity in HF</bold>
      </p>
      <p>When the Gly and Arg alleles are compared at position 389 with the capacity to perform physical exercises in HF, those carrying the Gly allele presented a better performance, although there was a similar increase in heart rate and blood pressure at maximum exertion<sup>2</sup>. Wagoner et al<sup>18</sup> evaluated 263 patients with dilated cardiomyopathy and demonstrated that individuals homozygous for Arg389 had a significantly higher VO<sub>2</sub> peak. That suggests that the early detection of polymorphisms can identify those with lower physical capacity, and thus, direct individualized exercise programs<sup>18</sup>.</p>
      <p>As for the Ser49Gly polymorphism, the sample population was not controlled for this codon alone. However, it was observed that this polymorphism can modulate the functional responsiveness of codon 389. Therefore, it is verified that the analysis of the haplotype must also be carried out and perhaps, it might be more important than the study of the SNPs alone<sup>17</sup>. In patients with HF, the Ser49/Gly389 haplotype presented lower VO<sub>2</sub> peaks, whereas patients carrying Gly49/Arg389 presented better VO<sub>2</sub><sup>2</sup> peaks.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Response to beta-blocker and prognosis in HF</bold>
      </p>
      <p>In the last ten years, beta-blockers (metoprolol, bisoprolol and carvedilol) have been associated with a significant decrease in all causes of mortality and hospitalization of patients with HF, being recommended by the guidelines as the standard therapy. However, as demonstrated in the Merit-HF, there was a decrease in mortality of only 34% of the patients using metoprolol, when compared to placebo<sup>19</sup>. Such fact was determinant to justify the studies with the polymorphisms with the objective of identifying patients that respond to such therapy, taking into account the interindividual variations.</p>
      <p>Terra et al evaluated 61 patients with systolic dysfunction and ejection fraction (EF) &lt; 40%, titrating the dose of metoprolol up to 200 mg/d or the maximum tolerated dose. At the echocardiographic follow-up, after three months of medication use, these authors observed that patients homozygous for Arg389Arg presented a better EF response, with decreased systolic and diastolic cavitary diameters, in comparison to those carrying the Gly allele<sup>20,21</sup>.</p>
      <p>The BEST study evaluated the use of non-selective beta-blocker (bucindolol) for the treatment of HF-functional class III-IV. The BEST-Genetic sub-study analyzed the impact of the beta-1 adrenergic polymorphism on the treatment with beta-blocker and verified a considerable improvement in survival and decrease hospitalization rate in patients homozygous for Arg389Arg, in contrast to those carrying the Gly allele<sup>3</sup>.</p>
      <p>However, the results of the sub-study of the Merit-HF study with 600 patients did not confirm that the different responses to the beta-blocker use were associated with these polymorphisms<sup>22</sup>.</p>
      <p>Terra et al<sup>20,21</sup> observed that those carrying Gly49 presented a significant improvement in the degree of left ventricular remodeling after treatment with metoprolol, when compared to individuals homozygous for Ser49Ser. Moreover, these authors verified that the Arg389Arg genotype does not affect the tolerance to metoprolol at the initial phase of the titration, whereas patients carrying the Gly389 allele and homozygous for Ser49 presented higher levels of decompensation, indicated by the concomitant increase of other medications for HF<sup>20,21</sup>.</p>
      <p>B&#246;rjesson et al<sup>23</sup>, evaluated 184 patients treated for long periods with beta-blockers and verified that those carrying 1 or 2 Gly49 alleles presented better improvement in 5-survival than those homozygous for Ser49Ser, who had a higher probability of presenting the following outcomes: hospitalization, heart transplant and death.</p>
      <p>In a prospective study with 375 patients with HF, Magnusson et al<sup>24</sup> demonstrated that the influence of codon 49 on the prognosis and treatment with beta-blockers is more pronounced than that of codon 389. Thus, patients carrying 1 or 2 Gly49 alleles treated with low-dose beta-blocker presented a lower rate of mortality than patients homozygous for Ser49.</p>
      <p>Studies with the Arg389Gly polymorphism did not show an association with the survival rate<sup>15</sup>. However, that occurs when there is linkage disequilibrium between codons 49 and 389. Patients carrying the Gly49 variant almost always carry Arg in codon 389, whereas those carrying Ser49 might carry Arg or Gly in codon 389.</p>
      <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t1-body2">Table 1</xref> summarizes the main effects of the beta-1 adrenergic receptor polymorphisms on prognosis and the response to beta-blockers in HF.</p>
      <table-wrap id="t1-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-06-0841-00019-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>
        <bold>Adrenergic beta-2 receptor polymorphisms</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The adrenergic beta-2 receptor is codified by a gene without introns and located in chromosome 5q31-32. To date, 12 SNPs (single-nucleotide polymorphisms) have been described for the beta-2 receptor gene. Of these, 5 (Arg16Gly, Gln27Glu, Trh164Ile, Val34Met and Ser220Cys) cause alterations in the receptor amino acids and have functional significance (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4-body2">Figure 4</xref>). The consequences of the Ser220Cys polymorphism are yet to be understood and it is estimated that the Val34Met polymorphism, which is quite rare, does not cause changes in the beta-2 receptor function. The others have shown to be associated with functional alterations of the receptor.</p>
      <fig id="f4-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-06-0841-00019-gf04-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>
        <bold>Arg16Gly</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The substitution of cytosine by guanine in position 46 of the beta-2 gene determines the substitution of Arginine (Arg) by Glycine (Gly) in codon 16.</p>
      <p>At the start of the investigations on the Arg16Gly polymorphism, it was believed that Arginine was the most frequent allele in the population (wild-type allele). However, subsequent studies demonstrated that Glycine was actually the most frequent allele (Arg/Gly, allelic frequency 0.40/0.60). However, as it was originally described that way, the Arginine allele maintained the "wild-type" denomination and the Glycine allele maintained the "mutant" allele denomination<sup>2</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Gln27Glu</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The substitution of the adenine nucleotide by the guanine nucleotide at position 79 of the beta-2 adrenergic receptor gene results in the substitution of the glutamine amino acid by glutamic acid in codon 27. The glutamine allele, as it is more frequently found in the population, is called the "wild-type" allele. The glutamic acid, as it is less frequently found in the population, is called the "mutant" allele (Gln/Glu, allelic frequency 0.55/0.45)<sup>2</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Trh164Ile</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The presence of a different nucleotide at position 491 of the gene will determine the presence of a different amino acid in codon 164 (Trh164Ile)<sup>17</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Arg16Gly/Gln27Glu</bold>
      </p>
      <p>It is currently known that there is a remarkable linkage disequilibrium between codons 16 and 27, so that individuals who are homozygous for Glu27Glu almost always present the Glycine amino acid in homozygosis in codon 16 (Gly16Gly). The homozygote Gln27Gln individuals can be homozygous (Arg16Arg or Gly16Gly) or heterozygous (Arg16Gly) for codon 16. The Arg16Glu27 haplotype is found in less than 1% of the population and, therefore, it is very rare<sup>11</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Allelic frequency</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The frequency of the alleles involved in the beta-2 receptor polymorphisms varies among different ethnic groups. In African-Americans, the frequency of the Arg16 allele is 49%, whereas, in Caucasians and Asians, it is 46% and 59%, respectively. Regarding the Glu27 allele, the allelic frequency is 20% among African-American individuals. In Caucasians and Asians, the allelic frequency of Glu27 is 35% and 7%, respectively.</p>
      <p>The frequency of Ile164 in Caucasians and African-Americans is 2% to 4%; in Asians, it is 0% to 1% and in Latin-Americans, 3%<sup>25,26</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>The functional role of beta-2 adrenergic receptor polymorphisms</bold>
      </p>
      <p>It is well established that polymorphisms in codons 16 and 27 do not alter the binding capacity of catecholamines to beta-2 receptor and adenylyl cyclase activity. However, studies have demonstrated that these polymorphisms are strongly associated with the susceptibility of these receptors to the down-regulation phenomenon<sup>17</sup>.</p>
      <p><italic>In vitro</italic> studies have shown a higher degree of desensitization in the Gly16 variant in relation to the Arg16 variant, after the administration of isoprenaline. The same experiment also indicated that the Glu27 variant, as it causes an alteration in the conformation of beta-2 receptor, presents a higher degree of resistance to the down-regulation phenomenon than the Gln27 variant<sup>27</sup>. Therefore, it is presumed that the Glu27 polymorphism produces a beta-2 receptor with a higher degree of responsiveness to adrenergic agonists<sup>2</sup>. The Gly16Glu27 haplotype demonstrated to be more susceptible to the down-regulation phenomenon when compared to the Gly16Gln27 haplotype. One hypothesis for this fact would be the prevalence of the effect of Gly16 on the effect of the Glu27 variant. The Arg16Glu27 haplotype is the one that presents higher resistance to desensitization<sup>28</sup>.</p>
      <p><italic>In vivo</italic>, three haplotypes have been studied: Arg16Gln27Thr164, Gly16Glu27Thr164 and Gly16Gln27Thr164. After two weeks of oral treatment with isoprenaline the Gly16Glu27Thr164 haplotype was the one that presented lower desensitization<sup>29,30</sup>. In other studies, the intravenous treatment with isoprenaline resulted in higher desensitization of the Arg16Gln27Thr164 haplotype<sup>31,32</sup>.</p>
      <p>These results, which indicate a lower resistance of Arg16 to the down-regulation phenomenon, are different from the <italic>in vitro</italic> results. A possible hypothesis for that would be the exposure of the beta-2 adrenergic receptors to a basal level of endogenous catecholamines in a human model, which would allow a higher endogenous desensitization of Gly16. Thus, when exposed to an exogenous agonist, the Gly16 polymorphism, already desensitized, would present lower susceptibility to the down-regulation phenomenon<sup>33</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Susceptibility to HF</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Many studies have investigated a possible association between heart failure and the beta-2 adrenergic receptor polymorphisms and different results have been described in the literature. It is known that the proportion between beta-1 and beta-2 receptors is 80:20 in healthy hearts. However, in HF, this proportion is 60:40, which indicates that the beta-2 polymorphism can modify the disease progression<sup>11</sup>.</p>
      <p>Heckbert et al<sup>34</sup> carried out studies in a sample with more than 5,000 elderly individuals aiming at finding a possible association between the Arg16Gly and Gln27Glu polymorphisms and the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases. The results suggest that the individuals carrying the Glu27 allele present a lower risk of developing coronary events than the patients carrying the Gln27 allele in homozygosis.</p>
      <p>Forleo et al<sup>35</sup>, in their studies, concluded that Gly16Glu27 patients with dilated cardiomyopathy presented a higher risk of developing heart failure than Gly16Gln27 patients<sup>17,35</sup>.However, as for the beta-1 polymorphism, there does not seem to be a significant difference between the allelic frequency of beta-2 receptors in patients with and without HF, which indicates that this polymorphism must not be associated with susceptibility to this disease. Covolo et al<sup>36</sup> did not find significant differences in the distribution of different alleles between patients with HF and controls<sup>17,36</sup>.</p>
      <p>Two studies have demonstrated that the frequency of the Ile164 polymorphism is similar between healthy patients and those with HF and concluded that this polymorphism is not a risk factor for HF, either<sup>37,38</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Exercise capacity in HF</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Some studies have verified the association between the different polymorphisms of beta-2 receptor and the capacity to perform physical exercises.</p>
      <p>Wagoner et al<sup>18</sup>, after determining the genotype of 230 outpatients with HF, submitted them to cardiopulmonary exercise tests. The results showed that the individuals homozygous for Gly16 presented worse VO<sub>2</sub> peaks, when compared to individuals homozygous for Arg16. Moreover, when the genotypes of positions 16 and 27 were simultaneously evaluated, the Gly16Gln27 homozygotes were the ones that presented worse performance, with the best performance being associated with the individuals homozygous for Arg16Glu27<sup>9</sup>.</p>
      <p>As for the patients with HF and Thr164Ile, they had a lower VO<sub>2</sub> peak (15.0 &#177; 0.9 ml&#183;kg<sup>-1</sup>&#183;min<sup>-1</sup>) than the ones presenting Thr164Thr (17.9 &#177; 0.9 ml&#183;kg<sup>-1</sup>&#183;min<sup>-1</sup>, p &lt; 0.0001). The percentage of the reached O<sub>2</sub> peak was also lower in patients with Ile164Thr (62.3 &#177; 4.5% <italic>vs</italic> 71.5 &#177; 5.1%, p = 0.045)<sup>18</sup>.</p>
      <p>The exercise tests with Swan Ganz catheter measurements demonstrated lower variations in cardiac index, systemic vascular resistance, systolic volume and O<sub>2</sub> in Ile164 patients.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Response to beta-blockers and prognosis in HF</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Regarding the response to medications, studies have shown that Arg16 and Glu27, when in homozygosis, promote a higher degree of vasodilation in response to adrenergic agonists. In turn, <italic>in vivo</italic> studies have demonstrated that the combinations of the Arg16 and Gln27 alleles showed the highest degree of desensitization measured by the agonist during the vasodilation response<sup>11</sup>.</p>
      <p>Studies carried out by Kayne et al<sup>39</sup> that assessed patients with HF treated with beta-blockers indicated that the risk of death of heart transplant was significantly higher in individuals that carried the Arg16Gln27 haplotype. When the Gln27 polymorphism was analyzed alone, patients that were homozygous for this allele showed little improvement in cardiac function when they received carvedilol, when compared to those carrying the Glu27 allele. These results were confirmed by Metra et al. At the time, the patients with chronic HF were treated for more than one year with carvedilol and it was verified that the left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) in individuals that were homozygous for Glu27 was much higher than in individuals homozygous for Gln27. No statistical significance was observed in studies that tried to correlate the response to carvedilol and the Arg16Gly polymorphism alone. However, due to the linkage disequilibrium, patients homozygous for Glu27 that presented better response to carvedilol are almost always carriers of the Gly16 allele in homozygosis<sup>17,39,40</sup>.</p>
      <p>De Groote et al<sup>41</sup>, in their experiments, observed in patients with the Gly16Gln27 haplotype a tendency to lower survival, when compared to patients with the two other haplotypes, demonstrating, once more, that the analysis of the SNPs alone might not be enough to characterize the disease evolution and that perhaps more studies are necessary before one can establish an association between beta-2 polymorphism and HF prognosis<sup>41</sup>.</p>
      <p>In a recent study, patients homozygous for the Arg16Gln27 haplotype presented a high risk of mortality, whereas those homozygous for the Gly16Glu27 haplotype presented a decrease in this risk. Similar data have been recently published by Shin et al<sup>42</sup> who verified, in 227 patients with chronic HF treated with beta-blockers, that the individuals homozygous for the Arg16Gln27 haplotype presented a hazard ratio for adverse events (defined by death or heart transplant) of 1.91<sup>17,42</sup>.</p>
      <p>Despite the several studies carried out on the Thr164Ile polymorphism, its role in HF prognosis remains unknown. In a study with 256 patients, Liggett et al analyzed their survival over a one-year period. The Thr164Ile patients had a 42% survival, whereas the Thr164Thr patients presented a survival rate of 76%. However, three subsequent studies could not demonstrate such association<sup>35,41,43</sup>.</p>
      <p>Forleo et al<sup>35</sup> analyzed 171 patients with dilated myocardiopathy and did not find any difference regarding the risk of HF evolution (defined as the need for hospitalization, heart transplant or death) and this polymorphism<sup>35</sup>.</p>
      <p>De Groote et al<sup>44</sup> analyzed 444 patients with HF and Barbato et al<sup>43</sup>, 31 patients with HF. These authors did not find an association between the Thr164Ile polymorphism and patients' survival in 3.5 and 2 years, respectively. However, the by Barbato et al demonstrated a faster worsening in HF (increase in diuretics use or the need for hospitalization) in Ile164 patients than in Thr164 ones<sup>41,44</sup>.</p>
      <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t2-body2">Table 2</xref> summarizes the main effects of the polymorphisms of adrenergic beta-2 receptors on prognosis and response to beta-blockers in HF.</p>
      <table-wrap id="t2-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-06-0841-00019-gt02-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>
        <bold>Adrenergic beta-3 receptor polymorphisms</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The adrenergic beta-3 receptor gene is located in chromosome 8p11.1-8p12 and it is primarily expressed in white and brown adipose tissue<sup>2</sup> .</p>
      <p>The most common polymorphism of this receptor is located in codon 64, where is a substitution of tryptophan by Arginine (Trp64Arg), in the beginning of the first intracellular loop<sup>28</sup>.</p>
      <p>The presence and function of the adrenergic beta-3 in the human heart are still debatable. Some studies have tried, without success, to establish an association between arterial hypertension, coronary disease and this receptor polymorphism. However, the current studies are more directed at the confirmation of the association between the Trp64Arg polymorphism with obesity, insulin resistance and early-stage diabetes mellitus.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Adrenergic alpha-2c receptor and adrenergic beta-1 polymorphisms</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The adrenergic alpha-2c receptor is a post-synaptic receptor that prevents the release of noradrenaline at the sympathetic terminal and the deletion of four consecutive amino acids (Del322-325) results in a variant of this receptor that is hypofunctional and is associated to high levels of noradrenaline.</p>
      <p>Small et al<sup>45</sup> demonstrated, in a sample of 84 Black patients, that individuals homozygous for the deletion (322-325) in the alpha-2c receptor gene had a 5-fold higher risk of developing HF when compared to the group that did not have this genotype.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Perspectives</bold>
      </p>
      <p>As in genomics, transcriptomics and proteomics, metabolomics is opening new horizons for the more complete analysis of the individual. Metabolomics is considered the link between the genotype and the phenotype. With the global analysis of metabolites, one can have a detailed view of the phenotype, which expedites diagnoses, the development of new pharmacological products and the identification of side effects of new drugs.</p>
      <p>In general, it is believed that the use of molecular biology techniques, associated to the conventional morphological and clinical-laboratory criteria will allow a more precise diagnosis and, consequently, a deeper understanding of the physiopathology of cardiac diseases.</p>
      <p>The deep knowledge of the process of disease development and the influence of individual factors shall pave the way for a personalized and individual Medicine and for the use of differentiated therapeutic regimens.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Acknowledgements</bold>
      </p>
      <p>We would like to thank the GENETIC/UFF project team, especially Professor Georgina Severo Ribeiro for their incentive and untiring work, as well as for the financial support of FAPERJ/DECIT-MS to this molecular genetics project applied to SUS.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
      </p>
      <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This study was partially funded by FAPERJ/DECIT.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Study Association</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This article is part of the thesis of master submitted by Sabrina Bernardez Pereira, from <italic>Universidade Federal Fluminense</italic>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
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