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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">FCGP8cKtFCjBF8gMMN7bkYH</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00006</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2010000600006</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(10)09400606</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2010005000055</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigos Originais</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Uma estrat&#233;gia para redu&#231;&#227;o de risco cardiovascular em pacientes transplantados renais</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Leite</surname>
            <given-names>Denise</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Campos</surname>
            <given-names>Alexandre Holthausen</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>06</month>
        <year>2010</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>94</volume>
      <issue>6</issue>
      <fpage>738</fpage>
      <lpage>746</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>27</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2009</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>16</day>
          <month>02</month>
          <year>2009</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>09</day>
          <month>08</month>
          <year>2009</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>FUNDAMENTO: A doen&#231;a cardiovascular representa a principal causa de morbidade, mortalidade e perda de fun&#231;&#227;o do enxerto em receptores de transplante renal (RTR). O tratamento agressivo dos fatores de risco &#233; fortemente recomendado. Entretanto, h&#225; um gap entre a terapia baseada em evid&#234;ncia recomendada e o manejo cardiovascular eficaz nesta popula&#231;&#227;o. OBJETIVO: Estabelecer uma estrat&#233;gia de controle de fatores de risco cardiovascular para RTR. M&#201;TODOS: O risco cardiovascular de 300 RTR de uma Unidade de Transplante Renal foi avaliado atrav&#233;s dos crit&#233;rios de Framingham. Interven&#231;&#245;es nos fatores de risco modific&#225;veis foram sugeridas aos m&#233;dicos assistentes atrav&#233;s de cartas anexadas aos prontu&#225;rios dos pacientes, incluindo modifica&#231;&#245;es no estilo de vida, controle de press&#227;o arterial e uso de tratamento anti-plaquet&#225;rio e hipolipemiante. Os perfis dos fatores de risco foram re-avaliados depois de 6 e 12 meses. RESULTADOS: A maioria dos pacientes apresentava alto risco cardiovascular (58%). Ap&#243;s 12 meses, a propor&#231;&#227;o de pacientes recebendo tratamento anti-plaquet&#225;rio, anti-hipertensivo ou hipolipemiante tinha aumentado de forma significante (29 para 51%, 83 para 92% e 3 para 46%, p &lt; 0,001, respectivamente). Os n&#237;veis de colesterol total e triglic&#233;rides diminu&#237;ram (de 237 para 215 mg/dl, p = 0,001 e 244 para 221 mg/dl, p = 0,03). Embora uma redu&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o-significante nos n&#237;veis de LDL-colesterol tenha sido observada (136 para 116 mg/dl, p = 0,12), os pacientes que iniciaram terapia com estatinas nos primeiros 6 meses do estudo apresentaram uma redu&#231;&#227;o significante de 25% no LDL-colesterol (159 para 119 mg/dl, p &lt; 0,001). A propor&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com avalia&#231;&#227;o completa de lip&#237;dios no plasma tamb&#233;m aumentou (27% para 49%, p &lt; 0,001). CONCLUS&#195;O: Nossos resultados sugerem que uma estrat&#233;gia simples e de baixo custo melhora de forma significante o perfil de risco cardiovascular de RTR, potencialmente traduzindo-se em benef&#237;cios definidos sobre a fun&#231;&#227;o do enxerto a longo prazo e expectativa de vida.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>Fatores de risco</kwd>
        <kwd>pacientes</kwd>
        <kwd>transplante de rim</kwd>
        <kwd>doen&#231;as cardiovasculares</kwd>
        <kwd>doen&#231;as cardiovasculares</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>28</day>
        <month>05</month>
        <year>2010</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>ARTIGO ORIGINAL</bold>
    </p>
    <p> CORONARIOPATIA CR&#212;NICA</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Uma estrat&#233;gia para redu&#231;&#227;o de risco cardiovascular em pacientes transplantados renais</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Denise Leite; Alexandre Holthausen Campos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo - S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="back">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESUMO</bold>
    </p>
    <p><bold>FUNDAMENTO: </bold> A doen&#231;a cardiovascular representa a principal causa de morbidade, mortalidade e perda de fun&#231;&#227;o do enxerto em receptores de transplante renal (RTR). O tratamento agressivo dos fatores de risco &#233; fortemente recomendado. Entretanto, h&#225; um gap entre a terapia baseada em evid&#234;ncia recomendada e o manejo cardiovascular eficaz nesta popula&#231;&#227;o. </p>
    <p><bold>OBJETIVO:</bold> Estabelecer uma estrat&#233;gia de controle de fatores de risco cardiovascular para RTR. </p>
    <p><bold>M&#201;TODOS:</bold> O risco cardiovascular de 300 RTR de uma Unidade de Transplante Renal foi avaliado atrav&#233;s dos crit&#233;rios de Framingham. Interven&#231;&#245;es nos fatores de risco modific&#225;veis foram sugeridas aos m&#233;dicos assistentes atrav&#233;s de cartas anexadas aos prontu&#225;rios dos pacientes, incluindo modifica&#231;&#245;es no estilo de vida, controle de press&#227;o arterial e uso de tratamento anti-plaquet&#225;rio e hipolipemiante. Os perfis dos fatores de risco foram re-avaliados depois de 6 e 12 meses. </p>
    <p><bold>RESULTADOS:</bold> A maioria dos pacientes apresentava alto risco cardiovascular (58%). Ap&#243;s 12 meses, a propor&#231;&#227;o de pacientes recebendo tratamento anti-plaquet&#225;rio, anti-hipertensivo ou hipolipemiante tinha aumentado de forma significante (29 para 51%, 83 para 92% e 3 para 46%, p &lt; 0,001, respectivamente). Os n&#237;veis de colesterol total e triglic&#233;rides diminu&#237;ram (de 237 para 215 mg/dl, p = 0,001 e 244 para 221 mg/dl, p = 0,03). Embora uma redu&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o-significante nos n&#237;veis de LDL-colesterol tenha sido observada (136 para 116 mg/dl, p = 0,12), os pacientes que iniciaram terapia com estatinas nos primeiros 6 meses do estudo apresentaram uma redu&#231;&#227;o significante de 25% no LDL-colesterol (159 para 119 mg/dl, p &lt; 0,001). A propor&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com avalia&#231;&#227;o completa de lip&#237;dios no plasma tamb&#233;m aumentou (27% para 49%, p &lt; 0,001). </p>
    <p><bold>CONCLUS&#195;O:</bold> Nossos resultados sugerem que uma estrat&#233;gia simples e de baixo custo melhora de forma significante o perfil de risco cardiovascular de RTR, potencialmente traduzindo-se em benef&#237;cios definidos sobre a fun&#231;&#227;o do enxerto a longo prazo e expectativa de vida.</p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave: </bold> Fatores de risco, pacientes, transplante de rim, doen&#231;as cardiovasculares/preven&#231;&#227;o e controle.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Receptores de transplante renal (RTR) t&#234;m maior tend&#234;ncia a apresentar doen&#231;a cardiovascular (DCV), em compara&#231;&#227;o com a popula&#231;&#227;o geral. A incid&#234;ncia de DCV entre RTR aparentemente &#233; 3 a 4 vezes maior do que a observada em popula&#231;&#245;es controle de mesma idade<sup>1</sup>. De fato, a DCV &#233; a maior causa de morbidade e mortalidade ap&#243;s o transplante renal e, como conseq&#252;&#234;ncia de morte com enxerto funcional, representa tamb&#233;m a maior causa de perda de fun&#231;&#227;o do enxerto em RTR a longo prazo<sup>1-5</sup>. Esta alta incid&#234;ncia de DCV &#233; parcialmente explicada pela igualmente alta preval&#234;ncia e ac&#250;mulo de fatores de risco antes e depois do transplante renal. Fatores de risco convencionais, principalmente hipertens&#227;o, diabete e hiperlipidemia, t&#234;m um papel pr&#243;-aterog&#234;nico bem reconhecido no desenvolvimento de eventos cardiovasculares ap&#243;s transplante renal e est&#227;o fortemente associados com a terapia imunossupressora. Al&#233;m disso, os fatores de risco relacionados &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o renal claramente contribuem para o desenvolvimento de DCV em RTR.</p>
    <p>Para prevenir a DCV p&#243;s-transplante &#233; necess&#225;rio identificar e tratar agressivamente os fatores de risco modific&#225;veis. Um princ&#237;pio b&#225;sico de interven&#231;&#227;o &#233; que a intensidade da terapia de redu&#231;&#227;o de risco deve ser ajustada de acordo com o risco absoluto de cada paciente<sup>6-7</sup>. Testes cl&#237;nicos prim&#225;rios e secund&#225;rios de preven&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular na popula&#231;&#227;o em geral mostraram benef&#237;cios substanciais com a administra&#231;&#227;o de estatinas e drogas antiplaquet&#225;rias. Algumas evid&#234;ncias deram suporte ao uso destes medicamentos em RTR. Contudo, o controle de riscos cardiovasculares n&#227;o tem sido abordado adequadamente em RTR<sup>8-12</sup>. Como descrito para a popula&#231;&#227;o geral<sup>13</sup>, &#233; bastante prov&#225;vel a exist&#234;ncia de um <italic>gap</italic> entre os cuidados cardiovasculares recomendados nas diretrizes de pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica e o manejo cardiovascular efetivo para RTR. Neste estudo n&#243;s estabelecemos uma estrat&#233;gia relativamente simples para otimizar a avalia&#231;&#227;o do perfil de risco cardiovascular e o tratamento para RTR em uma unidade de transplante renal em S&#227;o Paulo.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>M&#233;todos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Amostra do estudo</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O Hospital do Rim e Hipertens&#227;o, parceiro da Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo, realiza mais de 500 transplantes renais por ano (656 em 2004<sup>14</sup>). Aproximadamente 80% dos pacientes s&#227;o acompanhados em unidades ambulatoriais indefinidamente. Em dezembro de 2004, aproximadamente 3.000 pacientes foram registrados para acompanhamento ambulatorial, onde as amostras para este estudo foram obtidas. Todos os pacientes acima de 40 anos de idade com fun&#231;&#227;o renal est&#225;vel e que haviam recebido um rim nos &#250;ltimos 12 meses foram identificados. Por esse crit&#233;rio, 909 pacientes foram selecionados, e question&#225;rios, prontu&#225;rios m&#233;dicos e resultados de testes sangu&#237;neos foram usados em cada caso para avaliar os fatores de risco cardiovascular e calcular o escore de risco de Framingham (FRS). O HDL foi considerado como 50 mg/dl quando os resultados estavam indispon&#237;veis. Quinhentos e sessenta e tr&#234;s pacientes foram exclu&#237;dos devido &#224;s informa&#231;&#245;es incompletas a respeito dos elementos necess&#225;rios para o c&#225;lculo do FRS. Durante o acompanhamento, quarenta e seis pacientes foram exclu&#237;dos devido a diversas outras causas (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Fig. 1</xref>). O grupo de estudo consistiu nos 300 pacientes remanescentes, que completaram 12 meses de acompanhamento. Todos os pacientes deram seu consentimento para participar deste estudo, o que foi comunicado ao comit&#234; de &#201;tica local.</p>
    <fig id="f1">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-06-0738-00055-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>
      <bold>Vari&#225;veis da amostra</bold>
    </p>
    <p>As seguintes vari&#225;veis foram coletadas na avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial: idade, g&#234;nero, causa da doen&#231;a renal terminal (DRT), tempo passado desde o transplante, transplante anterior e presen&#231;a de diabete pr&#233;-transplante e DCV. A DCV foi definida como doen&#231;a card&#237;aca isqu&#234;mica (DCI), doen&#231;a vascular perif&#233;rica (DVP) ou doen&#231;a cerebrovascular. A DCI incluiu angina pectoris, infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria por angioplastia percut&#226;nea com bal&#227;o ou bypass coronariano, ou morte como conseq&#252;&#234;ncia da DCI (no acompanhamento). As mortes foram atribu&#237;das &#224; DCI no caso da aut&#243;psia ter sido consistente com o diagn&#243;stico ou se os eventos que precederam a morte tiveram a DCI como causa mais prov&#225;vel. A DVP foi definida como amputa&#231;&#227;o resultante de insufici&#234;ncia vascular ou hist&#243;rico de procedimentos de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o de membros (bypass ou endarterectomia). A doen&#231;a cerebrovascular incluiu registros de derrames ou eventos isqu&#234;micos transit&#243;rios.</p>
    <p>Vari&#225;veis que poderiam mudar durante o estudo foram registradas no inicio da avalia&#231;&#227;o e nos 6 e 12 meses subseq&#252;entes: peso, altura, &#237;ndice de massa corporal (IMC; kg/m&#178;), tabagismo, prescri&#231;&#227;o de agentes imunossupressores, creatinina s&#233;rica, colesterol total (CT), triglic&#233;rides (TG), lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade (HDL), lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade (LDL), press&#227;o sangu&#237;nea (m&#233;dia dos tr&#234;s &#250;ltimos registros) e uso de agentes anti-hipertensivos, hipolipemiantes e antiplaquet&#225;rios. Diabete e DCV tamb&#233;m foram reavaliados aos 6 e 12 meses do estudo.</p>
    <p>Concentra&#231;&#245;es em jejum de CT e TG foram determinadas por ensaios enzim&#225;ticos padr&#245;es automatizados, dispon&#237;veis comercialmente. O HDL foi avaliado pelo m&#233;todo de precipita&#231;&#227;o de sulfato de dextran e as concentra&#231;&#245;es de LDL foram calculadas utilizando-se a formula de Friedewald. O clearance de creatinina (CrCl) foi calculado atrav&#233;s da f&#243;rmula de Cockroft-Gault.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Risco cardiovascular</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O FRS foi calculado para cada indiv&#237;duo de acordo com as diretrizes do NCEP-ATPIII<sup>6</sup>. O Framingham Heart Study fornece um algoritmo para avalia&#231;&#227;o de 10 anos de risco absoluto para importantes ("hard") eventos coronarianos (mortes relacionadas a infarto do mioc&#225;rdio e doen&#231;as arteriais coronarianas). O risco foi ent&#227;o classificado como baixo (0-9%), moderado (10-20%) ou alto (&gt; 20%).</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Controle de fator de risco cardiovascular</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Ap&#243;s a classifica&#231;&#227;o de risco cardiovascular, foram recomendadas interven&#231;&#245;es objetivas nos fatores de risco modific&#225;veis individuais, todas elas baseadas em diretrizes de pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica, para m&#233;dicos assistentes atrav&#233;s de cartas formais anexadas aos prontu&#225;rios de cada paciente. As interven&#231;&#245;es inclu&#237;ram, quando apropriado: mudan&#231;a no estilo de vida (dieta e atividade f&#237;sica), controle agressivo da press&#227;o sangu&#237;nea (meta &lt; 130 x 80 mmHg), uso de agentes antiplaquet&#225;rios (aspirina) e hipolipemiantes. Al&#233;m disso, pacientes que reportaram um hist&#243;rico positivo de tabagismo durante a avalia&#231;&#227;o, foram encorajados a procurar um programa especializado antitabagismo localizado em nossa institui&#231;&#227;o. Os perfis de fatores de risco cardiovasculares foram ent&#227;o reavaliados 6 e 12 meses ap&#243;s a implementa&#231;&#227;o da estrat&#233;gia.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>An&#225;lise</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Os valores s&#227;o apresentados como m&#233;dias ou desvios padr&#245;es (DP), ou medianas. A an&#225;lise de vari&#226;ncia para medidas repetidas foi usada para comparar os dados num&#233;ricos. A an&#225;lise n&#227;o param&#233;trica para medidas ordinais foi utilizada para compara&#231;&#245;es de dados categ&#243;ricos. P &lt; 0,05 foi considerado significante.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Resultados</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Caracter&#237;sticas dos pacientes</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Trezentos pacientes foram acompanhados por 12 meses. A idade m&#233;dia era de 49,9 (6,9) anos (mediana 48), cinq&#252;enta e oito por cento eram homens e somente 2% havia se submetido a mais de um transplante renal. O tempo m&#233;dio a partir do transplante foi de 56,6 meses (mediana 49). A causa da DRT era indeterminada em 40%, hipertens&#227;o em 24%, glomerulonefrite cr&#244;nica em 12%, diabete em 11% e doen&#231;a renal polic&#237;stica autoss&#244;mica dominante em 8% dos pacientes. O tratamento imunossupressor no in&#237;cio do estudo incluiu, com ou sem azatioprina ou micofelonato, ciclosporina (CsA, 70%), corticosteroide (28%), CsA mais corticosteroide (66%), ou tacrolimus mais corticosteroide (59%). Ap&#243;s 12 meses houve uma discreta redu&#231;&#227;o na propor&#231;&#227;o de pacientes tomando CsA (para 66%, p &lt; 0,001) e a associa&#231;&#227;o CsA-corticosteroide (para 64%, p = 0,023). Nenhuma mudan&#231;a significativa foi verificada nos imunossupressores remanescentes prescritos.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Risco cardiovascular do FRS</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Na avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial, de acordo com o FRS, cento e quatorze pacientes foram classificados como de baixo risco, onze de risco moderado e 175 de alto risco cardiovascular. Ap&#243;s a implementa&#231;&#227;o da estrat&#233;gia, foi observada uma redu&#231;&#227;o significante e gradual do grupo de pacientes de baixo risco - para 101 pacientes em 6 meses e 90 pacientes em 12 meses (p &lt; 0,001). Inversamente, houve um aumento significante no grupo de pacientes de alto risco - para 187 pacientes em 6 meses e 197 pacientes em 12 meses (p &lt; 0,001). N&#227;o houve diferen&#231;as no grupo de risco moderado - 12 e 13 pacientes aos 6 meses e 12 meses, respectivamente (p = 0,48, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref>).</p>
    <fig id="f2">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-06-0738-00055-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>
      <bold>Diabete and DCV</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A diabete estava presente em 126 pacientes no in&#237;cio da avalia&#231;&#227;o. A DCI foi observada em 51 pacientes, a DVP ou doen&#231;a cerebrovascular em 29, a associa&#231;&#227;o de DCI e DVP ou doen&#231;a cerebrovascular em 6 pacientes. Durante os 12 meses de acompanhamento houve um aumento na preval&#234;ncia de diabete e doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica. A diabete estava presente em 133 e 145 pacientes aos 6 e 12 meses, respectivamente (p &lt; 0,001). A DCI foi observada em 61 e 69 pacientes, a DVP ou doen&#231;a cerebrovascular estavam presentes em 37 e 44 (p &lt; 0,001), e a DCI e a associa&#231;&#227;o DVP ou DCV estava presente em 10 e 17 pacientes no mesmo per&#237;odo (p = 0,003, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>).</p>
    <fig id="f3">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-06-0738-00055-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>
      <bold>Eventos cardiovasculares</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Vinte e dois eventos cardiovasculares ocorreram em 19 pacientes (6%) durante os 12 meses de acompanhamento. N&#227;o houve mortes cardiovasculares. Dez pacientes (3%) apresentaram novos eventos relacionados &#224; doen&#231;a arterial coronariana (5 pacientes apresentaram infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, tr&#234;s pacientes foram submetidos &#224; cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o coronariana por angioplastia percut&#226;nea com bal&#227;o e 2 pacientes apresentaram angina pectoris). Sete pacientes (2%) tiveram amputa&#231;&#227;o de membro como conseq&#252;&#234;ncia de DVP e 5 pacientes (1,6%) apresentaram eventos cerebrovasculares isqu&#234;micos confirmados.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Terapia anti-hipertensiva, hipolipemiante e antiplaquet&#225;ria</bold>
    </p>
    <p>No in&#237;cio da avalia&#231;&#227;o, duzentos e quarenta e nove pacientes tomavam medicamentos anti-hipertensivos, oitenta e sete recebiam terapias antiplaquet&#225;rias e somente 10 pacientes recebiam medicamentos hipolipemiantes. Durante o acompanhamento foi observado um aumento progressivo e significante no n&#250;mero de pacientes que recebiam estes medicamentos. Medicamentos anti-hipertensivos foram prescritos para 272 pacientes aos seis meses e 286 aos 12 meses (p &lt; 0,001); a terapia antiplaquet&#225;ria (aspirina) foi prescrita para 136 e 154 (p &lt; 0,001) pacientes e agentes hipolipemiantes (estatinas em todos os casos) para 110 e 137 pacientes, respectivamente (p &lt; 0,001, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 4</xref>).</p>
    <fig id="f4">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-06-0738-00055-gf04.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>
      <bold>Fun&#231;&#227;o renal, press&#227;o sangu&#237;nea, IMC e perfil lip&#237;dico</bold>
    </p>
    <p>N&#227;o havia diferen&#231;as no IMC ou CrCl entre os registros basais e ap&#243;s 6 e 12 meses. N&#227;o houve redu&#231;&#227;o significante nas press&#245;es arteriais sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica (PAS e PAD, respectivamente). Ap&#243;s 6 meses de acompanhamento, a implementa&#231;&#227;o da estrat&#233;gia resultou em diminui&#231;&#245;es significantes nos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de CT e TG. Ap&#243;s 12 meses, o CT diminuiu mais ainda, e n&#227;o houve uma redu&#231;&#227;o adicional significante nos n&#237;veis de TG. Embora apenas uma redu&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o significante nos n&#237;veis de LDL tenha sido observada ap&#243;s 6 e 12 meses, no subgrupo de 128 pacientes no qual a terapia hipolipemiante havia sido iniciada nos 6 primeiros meses do estudo, detectamos uma redu&#231;&#227;o significante de 25% nos n&#237;veis de LDL ap&#243;s 12 meses (de 159 para 119 mg/dl, p &lt; 0,001). Foi observada uma pequena redu&#231;&#227;o nos n&#237;veis de HDL (58,4 para 54,2 ap&#243;s 6 meses e 55,6 mg/dl ap&#243;s 12 meses, p = 0,035, <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref>).</p>
    <table-wrap id="t1">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-06-0738-00055-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>No in&#237;cio da an&#225;lise, a avalia&#231;&#227;o do perfil lip&#237;dico (CT, LDL, HDL ou TG) estava dispon&#237;vel nos registros m&#233;dicos de 240 (80%) pacientes. Contudo, a dislipidemia n&#227;o foi avaliada apropriadamente. Oitenta pacientes tinham um perfil lip&#237;dico completo, enquanto a maioria (160 pacientes) apresentava somente o CT e o TG nos prontu&#225;rios. Aos 6 e 12 meses de estudo, um perfil lip&#237;dico completo estava dispon&#237;vel para um n&#250;mero gradualmente maior de pacientes (138 e 145, respectivamente, p &lt; 0,001, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="pt_aop05310f05">Figura 5</xref>).</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="pt_aop05310f05">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-06-0738-00055-gf05.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Tabagismo</bold>
    </p>
    <p>No in&#237;cio do estudo, 22 (7%) pacientes eram fumantes. Tr&#234;s deles n&#227;o foram direcionados ao programa anti-fumo conforme recomendado. Dos 19 pacientes remanescentes direcionados ao programa, somente 1 atendeu &#224;s recomenda&#231;&#245;es e parou de fumar em 12 meses.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Discuss&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Apesar dos avan&#231;os na terapia imunossupressora e incrementos na sobrevida do enxerto, o RTR tem uma redu&#231;&#227;o significativa na expectativa de vida devido principalmente &#224; DCV<sup>1-5,15</sup>. Embora exista uma extensa base de dados na literatura a respeito da popula&#231;&#227;o geral, n&#227;o h&#225; diretrizes espec&#237;ficas para o controle da DCV em RTR, e testes intervencionais para demonstrar que modifica&#231;&#245;es nos fatores de risco tradicionais reduzem a DCV nesta popula&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o est&#227;o dispon&#237;veis. Contudo, recentemente foi demonstrado que pacientes com fun&#231;&#227;o renal prejudicada deveriam ser tratados da mesma maneira<sup>6</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, n&#227;o h&#225; nenhuma evid&#234;ncia que um paciente com fun&#231;&#227;o renal prejudicada deva ser tratado de forma diferente em rela&#231;&#227;o a um individuo da popula&#231;&#227;o geral<sup>6,13</sup>. Devido a esses fatos, a <italic>American Heart Association</italic>, <italic>American College of Cardiology</italic> e a <italic>National Kidney Foundation</italic> recomendam que pacientes com disfun&#231;&#245;es renais sejam considerados como pacientes de alto risco cardiovascular e tratados apropriadamente<sup>2,4,6,7,16-18</sup>.</p>
    <p>Embora largamente usado, existem algumas controv&#233;rsias sobre a relev&#226;ncia do c&#225;lculo do FRS em RTR. Contudo, utilizamos o FRS NCEP-ATP III-modificado porque ele pode ajudar a selecionar uma popula&#231;&#227;o de RTR de alto risco<sup>4,19</sup>. Selecionamos pacientes acima de 40 anos de idade com mais de 12 meses de transplante renal. Portanto, pacientes mais jovens e dessa forma menos expostos aos fatores de risco cardiovascular, n&#227;o foram inclu&#237;dos<sup>20</sup>. O tempo m&#237;nimo de 12 meses desde o transplante foi adotado como representativo da avalia&#231;&#227;o e tratamento dos fatores de risco cardiovascular pela equipe m&#233;dica. N&#243;s conclu&#237;mos que estes pacientes apresentavam uma situa&#231;&#227;o est&#225;vel em rela&#231;&#227;o ao controle dos fatores de risco.</p>
    <p>A amostra estudada apresentou um perfil extremamente desfavor&#225;vel de perfil de fator de risco, at&#233; mesmo na presen&#231;a de fun&#231;&#227;o renal satisfat&#243;ria e est&#225;vel. Considerando o perfil de risco cardiovascular obtido e o tempo passado desde o transplante, a popula&#231;&#227;o estudada estava recebendo uma assist&#234;ncia cardiovascular bastante prec&#225;ria. A maioria dos pacientes no in&#237;cio do estudo foi classificada no grupo de alto risco. Isto &#233; digno de nota, particularmente se considerarmos que a idade m&#233;dia da popula&#231;&#227;o era menor que 50 anos. Dois fatores determinaram a propor&#231;&#227;o relativamente baixa de pacientes inclu&#237;dos na classe de risco moderado (4%). Primeiro, a aus&#234;ncia de dados importantes nos prontu&#225;rios m&#233;dicos, o que confirma que, apesar da disponibilidade e f&#225;cil acesso a diretrizes e informa&#231;&#245;es m&#233;dicas baseadas em evid&#234;ncia, o risco cardiovascular ainda precisa se tornar um fator de preocupa&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria para os m&#233;dicos que atendem RTR. Segundo, a alta preval&#234;ncia de diabete e DVC levou uma grande parcela da popula&#231;&#227;o a ser automaticamente classificada como de alto risco.</p>
    <p>N&#227;o &#233; surpreendente que a propor&#231;&#227;o de pacientes de alto risco n&#227;o tenha melhorado durante o acompanhamento (de fato, ela aumentou de 58% para 66% em 12 meses). A grande maioria dos pacientes de alto risco foi classificada como tal porque eles j&#225; apresentavam em algum ponto de suas vidas manifesta&#231;&#245;es de doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica e/ou diabete. Mesmo com um controle perfeito da press&#227;o arterial, n&#237;veis de colesterol e outros fatores de risco, estes pacientes continuar&#227;o a ser classificados como de alto risco. Tamb&#233;m deve ser mencionado que o c&#225;lculo de FRS n&#227;o &#233; uma ferramenta adequada para detectar mudan&#231;as no risco cardiovascular ap&#243;s interven&#231;&#245;es, mas sim uma orienta&#231;&#227;o para decis&#245;es a respeito da natureza e intensidade da terapia<sup>6</sup>.</p>
    <p>O aumento na propor&#231;&#227;o de pacientes de alto risco tamb&#233;m &#233; esperado: ele reflete o <italic>status</italic> do risco cardiovascular nos anos anteriores e n&#227;o somente nos meses anteriores. A piora no perfil do fator de risco est&#225; fortemente associada &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o renal e &#224; terapia imunossupressora<sup>2,5,21-23</sup>. Como um aumento significante na preval&#234;ncia de DVC e diabete visto no nosso estudo foi observado em um per&#237;odo de tempo curto e a fun&#231;&#227;o renal permaneceu est&#225;vel durante todo o acompanhamento, a influ&#234;ncia delet&#233;ria dos imunossupressores foi provavelmente o fator predominante. De fato, a maior parte dos pacientes recebeu corticosteroides (98%) e CsA (70%), medicamentos claramente ligados ao desenvolvimento e agravamento da hipertens&#227;o, diabete e perfil lip&#237;dico desfavor&#225;vel. Al&#233;m disso, n&#243;s detectamos uma pequena, mas significante, redu&#231;&#227;o na propor&#231;&#227;o de pacientes recebendo CsA durante o acompanhamento. Isto foi motivado, em geral, pela rejei&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica do enxerto, expondo ainda mais estes pacientes a fatores de risco n&#227;o tradicionais.</p>
    <p>Nenhuma medida espec&#237;fica de controle de fator de risco foi demonstrada como capaz de "apagar" a exposi&#231;&#227;o passada ao risco. Com o objetivo de detectar quaisquer melhoras no controle de risco cardiovascular de RTR, n&#243;s avaliamos o perfil dos fatores de risco modific&#225;veis durante o acompanhamento. Dados extensos na literatura indicam que medidas preventivas, tais como a administra&#231;&#227;o de aspirina e controle do n&#237;vel lip&#237;dico, que resultam em benef&#237;cios a longo prazo para a popula&#231;&#227;o geral, reduzindo a morbidade e mortalidade.</p>
    <p>Embora no in&#237;cio do estudo 83% dos pacientes estivessem tomando anti-hipertensivos, as m&#233;dias de PAS e PAD estavam acima dos n&#237;veis recomendados. Ap&#243;s 12 meses, fomos capazes de detectar um aumento significante na propor&#231;&#227;o de pacientes recebendo medicamentos anti-hipertensivos (chegando a 92%). Contudo, os valores m&#233;dios de PAS e PAD n&#227;o foram reduzidos. Isto pode indicar que incrementos na press&#227;o sangu&#237;nea foram impedidos pelo aumento na prescri&#231;&#227;o de anti-hipertensivos. Contudo, o controle &#243;timo n&#227;o foi atingido e o aumento da dose e/ou n&#250;mero de drogas anti-hipertensivas era provavelmente indicado.</p>
    <p>Diferentes n&#250;meros foram obtidos quando analisada a propor&#231;&#227;o de pacientes recebendo drogas hipolipemiantes no in&#237;cio da avalia&#231;&#227;o. Apesar do fato de que a m&#233;dia dos n&#237;veis de CT e LDL eram altos e que a popula&#231;&#227;o estudada teve acompanhamento, em m&#233;dia, por mais de 4 anos ap&#243;s o transplante renal, somente 3% dos pacientes estavam recebendo estatinas naquele momento. Isto &#233; um motivo de preocupa&#231;&#227;o, particularmente se considerarmos os dados do estudo ALERT, que sugere que a preven&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular obtida com estatinas &#233; mais efetiva quando institu&#237;da precocemente [em at&#233; 2 anos do transplante renal]<sup>9</sup>. Ap&#243;s 12 meses, o n&#250;mero de pacientes recebendo terapia hipolipemiante era significativamente maior (cerca de 15 vezes). Como resultado, os n&#237;veis de CT e TG foram reduzidos de forma significante em 12 meses. Os n&#237;veis m&#233;dios de LDL apresentaram uma redu&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o significativa e a propor&#231;&#227;o relativamente pequena de pacientes com LDL nos registros m&#233;dicos, no in&#237;cio do estudo, provavelmente contribuiu para isto. Contudo, houve uma diminui&#231;&#227;o importante de 25% nos n&#237;veis de LDL no subgrupo de pacientes recebendo estatinas<sup>6-8</sup> ap&#243;s a implementa&#231;&#227;o de nossa estrat&#233;gia. A magnitude do efeito da terapia hipolipemiante &#233; compar&#225;vel &#224;quela vista tanto na popula&#231;&#227;o geral quando na popula&#231;&#227;o RTR recebendo estatinas. Se extrapolarmos os dados do acompanhamento a longo prazo obtidos na popula&#231;&#227;o geral, os decr&#233;scimos de LDL observados em nosso estudo promoveriam uma redu&#231;&#227;o de aproximadamente 25% no risco relativo para eventos coronarianos em 5 anos<sup>6</sup>. Contudo, apesar desses resultados encorajadores e, como comprovado previamente em outros estudos de RTR<sup>8,12</sup>, n&#243;s precisamos enfatizar que os n&#237;veis m&#233;dios de LDL permaneceram acima daqueles recomendados ao final de nosso estudo. A subestima&#231;&#227;o da import&#226;ncia do controle dos n&#237;veis lip&#237;dicos pode ser avaliada ao analisarmos a avalia&#231;&#227;o lip&#237;dica do plasma. Embora 80% dos pacientes tivessem sido avaliados para dislipidemia de alguma forma durante os anos anteriores &#224; coleta dos dados, somente uma pequena parcela dos pacientes apresentou o perfil completo de lip&#237;dios em seus prontu&#225;rios. Considerando-se que o perfil lip&#237;dico completo &#233; essencial para o controle do risco cardiovascular, conclu&#237;mos que a maior parte dos pacientes n&#227;o foi avaliada adequadamente e/ou tratada para a dislipidemia. Ap&#243;s 12 meses este padr&#227;o mudou significativamente. Apesar da redu&#231;&#227;o no total de pacientes sendo avaliados para a dislipidemia, a propor&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com o perfil lip&#237;dico completo aumentou de 27% para 48%. Este novo padr&#227;o, embora sub-&#243;timo, sugeriu uma preocupa&#231;&#227;o crescente dos m&#233;dicos assistentes em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; an&#225;lise do perfil lip&#237;dico e, por extens&#227;o, ao risco cardiovascular.</p>
    <p>No in&#237;cio da avalia&#231;&#227;o, apesar do fato de que 58% dos pacientes podiam ser classificados como de alto risco, somente 29% da amostra total (37% de pacientes de alto risco) estavam recebendo aspirina. Estes n&#250;meros s&#227;o bastante insatisfat&#243;rios, j&#225; que a preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria e secund&#225;ria de eventos cardiovasculares com a terapia antiplaquet&#225;ria s&#227;o comprovadas por diversos estudos na popula&#231;&#227;o geral e diretrizes cl&#237;nicas claramente recomendam agentes antiplaquet&#225;rios para pacientes com doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica estabelecida e/ou diabete, independente da situa&#231;&#227;o de sua fun&#231;&#227;o renal<sup>24-26</sup>. Ap&#243;s 12 meses deste estudo, a propor&#231;&#227;o de pacientes recebendo aspirina em toda a amostragem e no subgrupo de alto risco praticamente dobrou. Mais uma vez, concluindo que os dados para a popula&#231;&#227;o geral s&#227;o aplic&#225;veis &#224; RTR, o incremento na preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria vista em nosso estudo ir&#225; reduzir os infartos n&#227;o fatais do mioc&#225;rdio e mortes card&#237;acas em 16%, e o risco de derrame isqu&#234;mico n&#227;o-fatal em 25% para pacientes com eventos cardiovasculares anteriores<sup>26</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em oposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; melhoria significativa obtida em assuntos relacionados &#224; prescri&#231;&#227;o de medicamentos e ader&#234;ncia do m&#233;dico (por ex., avalia&#231;&#227;o do perfil lip&#237;dico), nossa estrat&#233;gia n&#227;o foi efetiva quando mudan&#231;as no estilo de vida foram analisados. A redu&#231;&#227;o do IMC e o controle da depend&#234;ncia do tabaco foram pouco efetivos. Enquanto fatores n&#227;o levados em conta, tais como os imunossupressores prescritos, podem ter contribu&#237;do para a manuten&#231;&#227;o do IMC acima dos n&#237;veis recomendados, &#233; bastante conhecido o fato de que o controle da obesidade no RTR &#233; extremamente dif&#237;cil e tem mais sucesso quando intensificado no per&#237;odo imediatamente p&#243;s-transplante<sup>27,28</sup>. N&#227;o h&#225; interven&#231;&#245;es para a depend&#234;ncia de tabaco especificamente criadas para o RTR<sup>29</sup>. Em nosso estudo, os pacientes foram direcionados a um programa local n&#227;o espec&#237;fico para RTR n&#227;o-ligado &#224; uma equipe de m&#233;dicos assistentes. Dificuldades na implementa&#231;&#227;o de mudan&#231;as no estilo de vida s&#227;o a regra na popula&#231;&#227;o geral, e isto est&#225;, talvez, aumentado no RTR devido a fatores que incluem pouca capacidade para exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos, prescri&#231;&#227;o de uma longa lista de medicamentos por paciente e a inevit&#225;vel imposi&#231;&#227;o de uma rotina ocupada. Portanto, programas espec&#237;ficos de longo prazo, conectados &#224;s visitas m&#233;dicas de rotina, podem gerar resultados mais efetivos.</p>
    <p>Todas as modifica&#231;&#245;es observadas ocorreram em um per&#237;odo de tempo relativamente curto ap&#243;s o in&#237;cio de nossas interven&#231;&#245;es, em magnitudes relevantes. Al&#233;m disso, a popula&#231;&#227;o estudada foi acompanhada por uma m&#233;dia de 4 anos e nenhuma mudan&#231;a abrupta relacionada ao controle de risco cardiovascular, com exce&#231;&#227;o de nosso protocolo, foi implementada na unidade de transplante. N&#243;s empregamos uma abordagem <italic>quasi-</italic>experimental, atrav&#233;s da qual observa&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o feitas antes e ap&#243;s as interven&#231;&#245;es<sup>30</sup>. Esta modalidade foi escolhida porque as quest&#245;es &#233;ticas e log&#237;sticas n&#227;o nos permitiram ter um grupo de controle adequado. Como as recomenda&#231;&#245;es sobre o controle apropriado do risco cardiovascular tiveram que ser feitas para toda a equipe de m&#233;dicos assistentes da unidade de transplante renal, n&#227;o foi vi&#225;vel selecionar um grupo de pacientes para o qual os cuidados baseados em evid&#234;ncia n&#227;o seriam oferecidos. Foi demonstrado que as melhorias mais pronunciadas observadas ap&#243;s uma interven&#231;&#227;o espec&#237;fica tais como as apresentadas neste trabalho, comprovam que modifica&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o atribu&#237;veis &#224;s interven&#231;&#245;es em si. Fatores concorrentes s&#227;o minimizados &#224; medida que o impacto dessas mudan&#231;as aumenta. Um exemplo de estudo pr&#233;-teste/p&#243;s-teste sem controle &#233; o projeto GAP realizado em Michigan<sup>13</sup>. Medidas de qualidade de cuidado para infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio foram avaliadas entre pacientes eleg&#237;veis na linha de base e ap&#243;s a introdu&#231;&#227;o de instrumentos cl&#237;nicos desenhadas para melhor&#225;-las. Melhorias significantes foram detectadas durante a hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o e no momento da alta hospitalar<sup>13,30</sup>. Portanto, embora as mudan&#231;as detectadas possam ser uma conseq&#252;&#234;ncia do acaso, &#233; razo&#225;vel concluir que elas foram um resultado direto de nossa estrat&#233;gia.</p>
    <p>&#201; sabido que as diretrizes cl&#237;nicas para o controle cardiovascular na popula&#231;&#227;o geral n&#227;o s&#227;o aplicadas apropriadamente a todos os pacientes eleg&#237;veis<sup>13</sup>, e um padr&#227;o similar foi verificado em nossa institui&#231;&#227;o a respeito do RTR. A estrat&#233;gia aqui descrita para a identifica&#231;&#227;o e controle do fatores de risco cardiovascular, que &#233; de baixo custo e f&#225;cil implementa&#231;&#227;o, demonstra que muito pode ser feito pelo RTR. Acreditamos que esses resultados, contudo, poderiam ser potencializados se a&#231;&#245;es coordenadas, envolvendo m&#233;dicos de diferentes especialidades, enfermeiras/os, nutricionistas, psic&#243;logos e assistentes sociais fossem estabelecidos. Maiores e mais duradouros benef&#237;cios, a um custo relativamente baixo, certamente seriam fornecidos ao RTR, conforme j&#225; foi demonstrado na popula&#231;&#227;o geral<sup>13</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em resumo, estabelecemos uma estrat&#233;gia relativamente simples e custo-efetiva para otimizar a avalia&#231;&#227;o do perfil dos fatores de risco cardiovascular e o tratamento de RTR em uma Unidade de Transplante Renal em S&#227;o Paulo, Brasil. Considerando o impacto das abordagens compar&#225;veis na popula&#231;&#227;o geral, antecipamos benef&#237;cios significantes para a fun&#231;&#227;o do enxerto a longo prazo e na expectativa de vida para o grupo espec&#237;fico de pacientes estudados aqui.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Agradecimentos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Gostar&#237;amos de agradecer &#224; equipe de m&#233;dicos (as) e enfermeiros (as) da Unidade Ambulatorial de Transplante da Funda&#231;&#227;o Oswaldo Ramos/Hospital do Rim e Hipertens&#227;o.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O presente estudo foi financiado pela FAPESP.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de disserta&#231;&#227;o de Mestrado de Denise Leite pela Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="back" fn-type="corresp">
        <p>Correspond&#234;ncia:</p>
        <p> Denise Leite </p>
        <p>Alameda dos Nhambiquaras, 596/141 - Moema </p>
        <p> 04090-001 - S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="leitedenise@hotmail.com">leitedenise@hotmail.com</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Artigo recebido em 16/02/09; revisado recebido em 27/07/09; aceito em 31/08/09.</p>
  </body>
  <back>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Articles</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">A strategy to improve the cardiovascular risk factor profile in renal transplant patients</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>BACKGROUND: Cardiovascular disease represents the leading cause of morbidity, mortality and graft function loss in renal transplant recipients (RTR). Aggressive treatment of risk factors is strongly advocated. However, there is a gap between recommended evidence-based therapy and effective cardiovascular management in that population. OBJECTIVE: To establish a cardiovascular risk factor control strategy for RTR. METHODS: The cardiovascular risk of 300 RTR of a renal transplant unit was assessed using the Framingham criteria. Interventions on modifiable risk factors were suggested to attending physicians by letters attached to patients' charts, including lifestyle modifications, blood pressure control and use of antiplatelet and lipid-lowering therapy. Risk factor profiles were re-evaluated after 6 and 12 months. RESULTS: Most patients were at high cardiovascular risk (58%). After 12 months, the proportion of patients on antiplatelet, antihypertensive and lipid-lowering therapy was significantly increased (29 to 51%, 83 to 92% and 3 to 46%, p &lt; 0.001, respectively). Total cholesterol and triglyceride levels decreased (237 to 215 mg/dl, p = 0.001 and 244 to 221 mg/dl, p = 0.03). Although a non-significant reduction in LDL levels was observed (136 to 116 mg/dl, p = 0.12), patients starting statins within the first 6 months of the study presented a significant 25% reduction in LDL (159 to 119 mg/dl, p &lt; 0.001). The proportion of patients with complete plasma lipid evaluation was also increased (27% to 49%, p &lt; 0.001). CONCLUSION: Our results suggest that a simple, inexpensive strategy significantly improves the cardiovascular risk profile of RTR, potentially translating into marked benefits for long-term graft function and life expectancy.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Risk factors</kwd>
        <kwd>patients</kwd>
        <kwd>kidney transplantation</kwd>
        <kwd>cardiovascular diseases</kwd>
        <kwd>cardiovascular diseases</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <fn id="top-body2">
          <label>
            <bold>A strategy to improve the cardiovascular risk factor profile in renal transplant patients</bold>
          </label>
          <p>
            <bold>Denise Leite; Alexandre Holthausen Campos</bold>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p>Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo - S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil</p>
      <p>Mailing address</p>
      <p>
        <bold>ABSTRACT</bold>
      </p>
      <p><bold>BACKGROUND: </bold> Cardiovascular disease represents the leading cause of morbidity, mortality and graft function loss in renal transplant recipients (RTR). Aggressive treatment of risk factors is strongly advocated. However, there is a gap between recommended evidence-based therapy and effective cardiovascular management in that population.</p>
      <p><bold>OBJECTIVE:</bold> To establish a cardiovascular risk factor control strategy for RTR.</p>
      <p><bold>METHODS:</bold> The cardiovascular risk of 300 RTR of a renal transplant unit was assessed using the Framingham criteria. Interventions on modifiable risk factors were suggested to attending physicians by letters attached to patients' charts, including lifestyle modifications, blood pressure control and use of antiplatelet and lipid-lowering therapy. Risk factor profiles were re-evaluated after 6 and 12 months.</p>
      <p><bold>RESULTS:</bold> Most patients were at high cardiovascular risk (58%). After 12 months, the proportion of patients on antiplatelet, antihypertensive and lipid-lowering therapy was significantly increased (29 to 51%, 83 to 92% and 3 to 46%, p &lt; 0.001, respectively). Total cholesterol and triglyceride levels decreased (237 to 215 mg/dl, p = 0.001 and 244 to 221 mg/dl, p = 0.03). Although a non-significant reduction in LDL levels was observed (136 to 116 mg/dl, p = 0.12), patients starting statins within the first 6 months of the study presented a significant 25% reduction in LDL (159 to 119 mg/dl, p &lt; 0.001). The proportion of patients with complete plasma lipid evaluation was also increased (27% to 49%, p &lt; 0.001).</p>
      <p><bold>CONCLUSION:</bold> Our results suggest that a simple, inexpensive strategy significantly improves the cardiovascular risk profile of RTR, potentially translating into marked benefits for long-term graft function and life expectancy.</p>
      <p><bold>Key words:</bold> Risk factors; patients; kidney transplantation; cardiovascular diseases/prevention and control.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Renal transplant recipients (RTR) are more prone to cardiovascular disease (CVD) compared with the general population. The incidence of CVD among RTR seems to be three to four-fold higher than that observed in age-matched control populations<sup>1</sup>. In fact, CVD is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality after renal transplantation and, as a consequence of death with functioning graft, represents also the major cause of graft function loss in long-term RTR<sup>1-5</sup>. This high CVD incidence is partially explained by equally high cardiovascular risk factor prevalence and accumulation before and after kidney transplantation. Conventional risk factors, mainly hypertension, diabetes and hyperlipidemia, play a well-recognized proatherogenic role in the development of cardiovascular events after renal transplantation and are strongly associated with the immunosuppressive therapy. In addition, renal dysfunction-related risk factors clearly contribute to the development of CVD in RTR.</p>
      <p>To prevent post-transplantation CVD it is necessary to identify and aggressively treat modifiable risk factors. A basic principle of intervention is that the intensity of risk-reduction therapy should be adjusted to the absolute individual risk of each patient<sup>6-7</sup>. Primary and secondary cardiovascular prevention trials in the general population have documented substantial benefits from the administration of statins and antiplatelet drugs. Some evidence has supported the use of those medications in RTR. However, cardiovascular risk management has not been addressed properly in RTR<sup>8-12</sup>. As described for the general population<sup>13</sup>, it is very likely that there is a gap between the cardiovascular care recommended in clinical practice guidelines and the effective cardiovascular management for RTR. In this study, we established a relatively simple strategy to optimize cardiovascular risk factor profile evaluation and treatment for RTR followed in a renal transplant unit of S&#227;o Paulo, Brazil.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Methods</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sample study</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The <italic>Hospital do Rim e Hipertens&#227;o</italic>, a partner of the Federal University of <italic>S&#227;o Paulo</italic>, performs more than five hundred renal transplants per year (656 in 2004<sup>14</sup>). Approximately 80% of the recipients are followed at the outpatient unit indefinitely. In December 2004, almost 3,000 patients were registered for follow-up in that outpatient unit, where sample selection for this study was performed. All patients older than 40 years with stable renal function and that had received a kidney at least 12 months before were identified. Using these criteria, 909 patients were selected and questionnaires, medical records and blood test results were used in each case to evaluate cardiovascular risk factors and calculate the Framingham Heart Study risk score (FRS). HDL was considered to be 50 mg/dl when results were not available. Five hundred, sixty-three patients were excluded due to incomplete information with respect to elements necessary for FRS calculation. During the follow-up, forty-six patients were excluded due to several other causes (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1-body2">Figure 1</xref>). The study group consisted of the remaining 300 patients who completed 12 months of follow-up. All patients gave informed consent to participate in this study, which was approved by the local Ethics Committee.</p>
      <fig id="f1-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-06-0738-00055-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>
        <bold>Sample variables</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The following variables were collected at the initial evaluation: age, gender, cause of end-stage renal disease (ESRD), time elapsed since transplantation, prior transplantation, and presence of pretransplant diabetes and CVD. CVD was defined as ischemic heart disease (IHD), peripheral vascular disease (PVD) or cerebrovascular disease. IHD included angina pectoris, myocardial infarction, coronary artery revascularization by percutaneous balloon-angioplasty or bypass grafting, or death as a result of IHD (in the follow-up). Deaths were considered attributable to IHD if the autopsy was consistent with the diagnosis or if the events preceding death made IHD the most likely cause. PVD was defined as amputation resulting from vascular insufficiency or history of a limb revascularization procedure (bypass or endarterectomy). Cerebrovascular disease included documented strokes or transient ischemic events.</p>
      <p>Variables that could present different values throughout the study were recorded at the initial evaluation and 6 and 12 months thereafter: weight, height, body mass index (BMI; kg/m<sup>2</sup>), cigarette smoking status, immunosuppressive agent prescription, serum creatinine, total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides (TG), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL), blood pressure (mean of the last three measurements) and use of antihypertensive, lipid-lowering and antiplatelet agents. Diabetes and CVD were also reassessed at 6 and 12 months of the study.</p>
      <p>Fasting TC and TG concentrations were determined by commercially available standard automated enzymatic assays. HDL was evaluated by dextran sulphate precipitation method and LDL concentrations were calculated using the Friedewald formula. Creatinine clearance (CrCl) was calculated through the Cockroft-Gault formula.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Cardiovascular risk</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The FRS was calculated for each subject according to NCEP-ATPIII guidelines<sup>6</sup>. The Framingham Heart Study provides an algorithm to assess the 10-year absolute risk for "hard" coronary events (myocardial infarction and coronary artery disease-related deaths). Risk was then classified as low (0-9%), moderate (10-20%) or high (&gt;20%).</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Cardiovascular risk factor control</bold>
      </p>
      <p>After cardiovascular risk classification, objective interventions on individual modifiable risk factors, all of them based on clinical practice guidelines, were recommended to attending physicians by means of formal letters attached to each patient's chart. The interventions included, when appropriate: lifestyle modifications (diet and physical activity), aggressive blood pressure control (target &lt; 130 x 80 mmHg), use of antiplatelet (aspirin) and lipid-lowering therapy. In addition, patients who had reported a positive smoking history during evaluation were recommended to seek a specialized program on smoking cessation located in our Institution. Cardiovascular risk factor profiles were then re-evaluated 6 and 12 months after strategy implementation.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Analysis</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Values are reported as means and standard deviations (SD), or medians. Analysis of variance for repeated measurements was used for comparisons of numerical data. Non-parametric analysis for ordinal measurements was used for comparisons of categorical data. P &lt; 0.05 was considered significant.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Results</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Patient characteristics</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Three-hundred patients were followed for 12 months. Mean age was 49.9 (6.9) years (median 48), fifty-eight percent were men and only 2% had been submitted to more than one renal transplant. The mean transplantation time was 56.6 months (median 49). The cause of ESRD was undetermined in 40%, hypertension in 24%, chronic glomerulonephritis in 12%, diabetes in 11% and autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease in 8% of patients. Immunosuppressive treatment at enrollment included, with or without azathioprine or mycophenolate, cyclosporine (CsA, 70%), corticosteroid (28%), CsA plus corticosteroid (66%), or tacrolimus plus corticosteroid (59%). After 12 months there was a slight decrease in the proportion of patients taking CsA (to 66%, p &lt; 0.001) and the CsA-corticosteroid association (to 64%, p = 0.023). No significant change was seen in the remaining immunosuppressants prescribed.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>FRS cardiovascular risk</bold>
      </p>
      <p>At the initial evaluation, according to FRS, one hundred and fourteen patients were classified as low, eleven as moderate and 175 as high cardiovascular risk. After the strategy implementation, a gradual and significant decrease in the low-risk group patients was observed - to 101 patients at 6 months and 90 patients at 12 months (p &lt; 0.001). Conversely, there was a significant increase in the high-risk patient group - to 187 patients at 6 months and 197 patients at 12 months (p &lt; 0.001). There were no differences in the moderate risk group - 12 and 13 patients at 6 and 12 months, respectively (p = 0.48, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2-body2">Figure 2</xref>).</p>
      <fig id="f2-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-06-0738-00055-gf02-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>
        <bold>Diabetes and CVD</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Diabetes was present in 126 patients at the initial evaluation. IHD was observed in 51 patients, PVD or cerebrovascular disease in 29, and IHD and PVD or cerebrovascular association was detected in 6 patients. During the 12 months of follow-up there was an increase in the prevalence of diabetes and atherosclerotic disease. Diabetes was present in 133 and 145 patients at 6 and 12 months, respectively (p &lt; 0.001). IHD was observed in 61 and 69 patients, PVD or cerebrovascular disease was present in 37 and 44 (p &lt; 0.001), and IHD and PVD or CVD association was present in 10 and 17 patients in the same period (p = 0.003, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3-body2">Figure 3</xref>).</p>
      <fig id="f3-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-06-0738-00055-gf03-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>
        <bold>Cardiovascular events</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Twenty-two cardiovascular events occurred in 19 patients (6%) during the 12 months of follow-up. There were no cardiovascular deaths. Ten patients (3%) presented new coronary artery disease-related events (5 patients had myocardial infarction, three patients had coronary artery revascularization by percutaneous balloon-angioplasty and 2 patients had angina pectoris). Seven patients (2%) had a limb amputation resulting from PVD and 5 patients (1.6%) had confirmed cerebrovascular ischemic events.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Antihypertensive, lipid-lowering and antiplatelet therapy</bold>
      </p>
      <p>At the initial evaluation, two-hundred and forty-nine patients were taking antihypertensive drugs, eighty-seven were on antiplatelet therapy and only 10 patients were receiving lipid-lowering drugs. During follow-up, a progressive and significant increase was observed in the number of patients receiving those medications. Antihypertensive drugs were prescribed to 272 patients at 6 months and to 286 at 12 months (p &lt; 0.001); antiplatelet therapy (aspirin) to 136 and 154 (p &lt; 0.001) and lipid-lowering drugs (statins in all cases) to 110 and 137 patients, respectively (p &lt; 0.001, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4-body2">Figure 4</xref>).</p>
      <fig id="f4-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-06-0738-00055-gf04-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>
        <bold>Renal function, blood pressure, BMI and lipid profile</bold>
      </p>
      <p>There were no differences in BMI or CrCl between baseline records and after 6 and 12 months. There was a non-significant reduction in systolic and diastolic blood pressure (SBP and DBP, respectively). At 6 months of follow-up, the strategy implementation resulted in significant decreases in serum TC and TG levels. At 12 months, TC decreased even more and there was no additional significant reduction in TG level. Although only a non-significant reduction in LDL levels was observed after 6 and 12 months, in the subgroup of 128 patients in whom the lipid-lowering therapy was started within the first 6 months of the study, we detected a significant 25% reduction in LDL levels at 12 months (from 159 to 119 mg/dl, p &lt; 0.001). A small decrease in HDL levels was observed (58.4 to 54.2 after 6 months and 55.6 mg/dl after 12 months, p = 0.035, <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1-body2">Table 1</xref>).</p>
      <table-wrap id="t1-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-06-0738-00055-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>At the initial analysis, lipid profile evaluation (TC, LDL, HDL or TG) was available in the medical records of 240 (80%) patients. However, dyslipidemia was not properly assessed. Eighty patients had a complete lipid profile, whereas the majority (160 patients) presented only TC and TG in the medical charts. At 6 and 12 months, complete lipid profiles were available for a gradually higher number of patients (138 and 145, respectively, p &lt; 0.001, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_aop05310f05-body2">Figure 5</xref>).</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_aop05310f05-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-06-0738-00055-gf05-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Smoking status</bold>
      </p>
      <p>At study enrollment, 22 (7%) patients were current smokers. Three of them were not directed to the program on smoking cessation as recommended. Of the 19 remaining patients directed to the program, only 1 sought the recommended therapy and successfully quit smoking within 12 months.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Discussion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Despite advances in immunosuppressive therapy and increments in graft survival, RTR have a significantly reduced life expectancy largely due to premature CVD<sup>1-5,15</sup>. Although there is extensive data in the literature concerning the general population, there are no specific guidelines for CVD control in RTR and interventional trials to demonstrate that modifications of traditional risk factors reduce CVD in this population are not available. However, it has been recently demonstrated that patients with renal function impairment should be similarly managed<sup>6</sup>. In addition there is no evidence at all that a patient with renal function impairment should be managed differently from an individual in the general population<sup>6,13</sup>. Due to these facts, the American Heart Association, the American College of Cardiology and the National Kidney Foundation recommend that patients with renal dysfunction be seen as high cardiovascular risk individuals and managed accordingly<sup>2,4,6,7,16-18</sup>.</p>
      <p>Although widely used, there are some controversies about the relevance of FRS calculation in RTR. Nevertheless, we used the NCEP-ATP III-modified FRS, as it may help to select a high-risk population of RTR<sup>4,19</sup>. We selected patients over the age of 40 years with more than 12 months of renal transplant. Hence, younger patients who were therefore less exposed to cardiovascular risk factors were not included<sup>20</sup>. The minimum time of 12 months since transplantation was adopted as representing enough evaluation and treatment time of cardiovascular risk factors by the attending physician team. We assumed that these patients were on an established, steady situation regarding risk factor control.</p>
      <p>The sample studied presented an extremely unfavorable risk factor profile, even in the presence of satisfactory and stable renal function. Considering the cardiovascular risk profile obtained and the time elapsed since transplantation, the population studied was receiving less than optimal cardiovascular assistance. The majority of patients at the beginning of the study were classified as high-risk group. This is noteworthy, particularly if we consider that the average age of the population was below 50 years. Two factors determined the relatively small proportion of patients included in the moderate risk group (4%). First, the absence of important data in the medical charts, which confirms that, despite the availability and easy access to guidelines and evidence-based medicine information, cardiovascular risk has yet to become a major concern for physicians that treat RTR. Secondly, the high prevalence of diabetes and CVD led to a great proportion of patients automatically classified as high risk.</p>
      <p>It is not surprising at all that the proportion of high-risk patients did not improve during follow-up (as a matter of fact it worsened from 58% to 66% in 12 months). The vast majority of high-risk patients were thus classified because they already presented, at some point of their lives, atherosclerotic disease manifestation and/or diabetes. Even with perfect control of blood pressure, cholesterol levels and other risk factors, those patients will continue to be classified as high risk. It should also be mentioned that FRS calculation is not an appropriate tool to detect changes in cardiovascular risk following interventions, but rather an aid to guide decisions regarding the nature and intensity of therapy<sup>6</sup>.</p>
      <p>The increase in proportion of high-risk patients is also expected: it reflects cardiovascular risk status in previous years and not only in previous months. Worsening in the risk factor profile is strongly associated to renal dysfunction and immunosuppressive therapy<sup>2,5,21-23</sup>. As a significant increase in CVD and diabetes prevalence seen in our study was observed within a short period of time and renal function remained stable throughout the follow-up, the deleterious influence of immunosuppressants was probably the predominant factor. In fact, most patients received corticosteroids (98%) and CsA (70%), drugs clearly linked to the development and aggravation of hypertension, diabetes and unfavorable lipid profile. In addition, we detected a small, but significant reduction in the proportion of patients receiving CsA during the follow-up. This was motivated, in general, by chronic graft rejection, further exposing those patients to non-traditional risk factors.</p>
      <p>No specific measure to control risk factors has been demonstrated so far as capable of "erasing" past exposure to risk. In order to detect any improvements in RTR cardiovascular risk control, we evaluated their modifiable risk factor profile during follow-up. Extensive data in the literature indicates that preventive measures, such as the administration of aspirin and lipid-level management, result in long-term benefits in the general population, reducing long-term mortality and morbidity.</p>
      <p>Although in the beginning of the study 83% of patients were taking antihypertensive drugs, average SBP and DBP were above recommended levels. After 12 months, we were able to detect a further significant increase in the proportion of patients taking antihypertensive drugs (reaching 92%). However, average SBP and DBP were not reduced as a consequence. This may indicate that increments in blood pressure were blunted by the increase in antihypertensive prescription. Nevertheless, optimal control was not achieved and increasing doses and/or number of antihypertensive drugs were probably indicated.</p>
      <p>Different figures were obtained when analyzing the proportion of patients receiving lipid-lowering drugs in the initial evaluation. Despite the fact that mean total and LDL cholesterol levels were high and the population studied had been followed, on average, for more than 4 years since the renal transplant, only 3% of the patients were on statins at that time. This is a matter of concern, particularly if we consider the data from the ALERT study, which suggest that cardiovascular prevention obtained with statins is more effective when instituted early [within 2 years of transplantation]. After 12 months, the number of patients on lipid-lowering therapy was markedly increased (about 15-fold). Consequently, TC and TG levels were significantly reduced in 12 months. Average LDL levels presented a non-significant decrease and the relatively small proportion of patients with available LDL levels in medical records at the initial evaluation probably contributed to that. However, there was a significant 25% decrease in LDL levels in the subgroup of patients starting statins<sup>6-8</sup> after the implementation of our strategy. The magnitude of the effect of lipid-lowering therapy is comparable to that seen in both general and RTR populations receiving statins. If we extrapolate the long-term follow-up data obtained to the general population, the LDL decrements seen in our study would promote a reduction of approximately 25% in the relative risk for coronary events in 5 years<sup>6</sup>. However, despite these encouraging results and, as previously observed in other RTR studies<sup>8,12</sup>, we must emphasize that average LDL levels remained above the recommended levels by the end of the study. The underestimation of the importance of controlling lipid levels can be appreciated if we analyze plasma lipid evaluation. Although 80% of patients were screened for dyslipidemia in some way during the year before the beginning of data collection, only a small proportion of patients presented a complete lipid profile in their charts. Since the complete lipid profile is essential for cardiovascular risk management, we assume that the majority of patients were not properly evaluated and/or treated for dyslipidemia. After 12 months this pattern changed significantly. In spite of a decrease in the total amount of patients being evaluated for dyslipidemia, the proportion of patients with a complete lipid profile was increased from 27% to 48%. This new pattern of evaluation, although sub-optimal, suggested a growing concern of attending physicians towards the analysis of lipid profile and, by extension, of cardiovascular risk.</p>
      <p>At the initial evaluation, in spite of the fact that 58% of patients could be classified as high risk, only 29% of the total sample (37% of high-risk patients) was receiving aspirin. These numbers are very unsatisfactory, since primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular events with antiplatelet therapy is supported by several studies in the general population and clinical guidelines clearly recommend antiplatelet drugs for patients with established atherosclerotic disease and/or diabetes, regardless of their renal function status<sup>24-26</sup>. After 12 months of this study, the proportions of patients receiving aspirin in the whole sample and in the high-risk subgroup almost doubled. Once again, assuming that data from the general population can be applied to RTR, the increment in secondary prevention seen in our study will reduce non-fatal myocardial infarction and cardiac death in 16% and non-fatal ischemic stroke risk in 25% for patients with previous cardiovascular events<sup>26</sup>.</p>
      <p>In opposition to the significant improvement obtained in matters related to drug prescription and physician compliance (e.g. lipid profile evaluation), our strategy was not effective when changes in lifestyle were analyzed. BMI reduction and tobacco dependence control were poorly achieved. While unaccounted factors, such as prescribed immunosuppressants, may have played a role on BMI stability above recommended levels, it is well known that obesity control in RTR is extremely difficult and more successful when intensified in the immediate post-transplant period<sup>27,28</sup>. There are no interventions on tobacco dependence specifically designed for RTR<sup>29</sup>. In our study, patients were directed to a local program that was not specific for RTR and not linked to the team of attending physicians. Difficulties in implementing lifestyle modifications are a rule in the general population and that is, perhaps, magnified in RTR due to factors that include poorer exercise capacity, prescription of a long list of drugs per patient and the inevitable imposition of a busy schedule. Thus, longer-term, more specific programs, connected to routine medical appointments, might generate more effective results.</p>
      <p>All modifications observed occurred in a relatively short period of time after the initiation of our intervention, at relevant magnitudes. Furthermore, the population studied was being followed for an average of 4 years and no abrupt changes related to cardiovascular risk factor control other than our protocol was implemented in the transplant unit. We employed a <italic>quasi</italic>-experimental approach, by which observations were made before and after interventions<sup>30</sup>. That modality was chosen as ethical and logistic issues did not allow us to obtain an adequate control group. As recommendations about proper cardiovascular risk management had to be made to the entire team of attending physicians of the renal transplant unit, it was not feasible to select a group of patients to whom the evidence-based care would not be offered. It has been demonstrated that more pronounced improvements observed after a specific intervention such as the one presented here confirm that changes are attributable to the intervention itself. Concurrent factors are minimized as the impact of these changes increases. An example of pretest/posttest study without controls is the GAP project carried out in Michigan<sup>13</sup>. Acute myocardial infarction quality-of-care measures were assessed among eligible patients at baseline and after the introduction of clinical tools designed to improve them. Significant improvements were detected during hospitalization and at the moment of hospital discharge<sup>13,30</sup>. Thus, although changes detected may be a consequence of chance, it is reasonable to conclude that they were a direct result of our strategy.</p>
      <p>It is known that clinical guidelines for cardiovascular management in the general population are not properly applied to all eligible patients<sup>13</sup> and a similar pattern was verified in our institution concerning RTR. The strategy here described for cardiovascular risk factor identification and control, which is inexpensive and easily implemented, demonstrates that much can still be done for RTR. We believe that results, however, would be potentiated if coordinated actions, involving physicians of different specialties, nurses, nutrition experts, psychologists and social workers, were set in place. Greater, long-lasting benefits, at a relatively low cost, would certainly be granted to RTR, as already demonstrated in the general population<sup>13</sup>.</p>
      <p>In summary, we established a cost-effective, relatively simple strategy to optimize cardiovascular risk factor profile evaluation and treatment for RTR in a renal transplant unit of S&#227;o Paulo, Brazil. Considering the impact of comparable approaches in the general population, we anticipate marked benefits for long-term graft function and life expectancy in the specific group of patients studied herein.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Acknowledgements</bold>
      </p>
      <p>We are indebted to the team of attending physicians and nurses of the outpatient transplant unit of the <italic>Funda&#231;&#227;o Oswaldo Ramos</italic>/<italic>Hospital do Rim e Hipertens&#227;o</italic>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
      </p>
      <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This study was funded by FAPESP.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Study Association</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This article is part of the thesis of master submitted by Denise Leite, from <italic>Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo</italic>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
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