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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">KW7G6Pjqt9VMHWvFSrDp9Hr</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00024</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2010000600024</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(10)09400624</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2010000600024</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Atualiza&#231;&#227;o Cl&#237;nica</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>S&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica na doen&#231;a arterial coronariana e vascular oclusiva: uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Farias</surname>
            <given-names>Daniela Reis Elbert</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pereira</surname>
            <given-names>Avany Fernandes</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rosa</surname>
            <given-names>Glorimar</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Instituto de Nutri&#231;&#227;o Josu&#233; de Castro </institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>06</month>
        <year>2010</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>94</volume>
      <issue>6</issue>
      <fpage>150</fpage>
      <lpage>178</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>30</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2009</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>18</day>
          <month>02</month>
          <year>2009</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>09</day>
          <month>10</month>
          <year>2008</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>Atualmente, a s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica (SM) se mostra altamente prevalente, sendo associada a fatores de risco para doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas n&#227;o transmiss&#237;veis, tais como diabetes mellitus tipo 2, doen&#231;as ateroscler&#243;ticas e coronarianas. O objetivo desta revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica foi descrever os resultados de estudos que investigaram a associa&#231;&#227;o da SM com a doen&#231;a arterial coronariana e doen&#231;as vasculares oclusivas. Foi realizada a revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica com dados de estudos originais publicados entre 1999 e 2008, escritos em ingl&#234;s ou portugu&#234;s, utilizando-se as bases de dados Medline, Pubmed, Highwire Press e Science Direct. Foram inclu&#237;dos artigos que fizeram o diagn&#243;stico da SM atrav&#233;s do crit&#233;rio do National Cholesterol Education Program - Adult Treatment Panel III (NCEP ATP III, 2001). Foram exclu&#237;dos estudos realizados com animais, de suplementa&#231;&#227;o e que realizaram administra&#231;&#227;o oral ou endovenosa de qualquer subst&#226;ncia, assim como aqueles de baixa qualidade metodol&#243;gica e com amostra inicialmente heterog&#234;nea. Apesar da heterogeneidade entre os estudos, observou-se que indiv&#237;duos com SM apresentam maior probabilidade (risco = 2,13) de desenvolverem as doen&#231;as vasculares oclusivas, doen&#231;a coronariana, diabetes mellitus e acidente vascular encef&#225;lico. Mudan&#231;as no estilo de vida, como pr&#225;ticas alimentares saud&#225;veis, atividade f&#237;sica regular e a cessa&#231;&#227;o do tabagismo devem ser incentivadas pelos profissionais da sa&#250;de a fim de minimizar as complica&#231;&#245;es e a morbimortalidade associada &#224; SM.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>S&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica</kwd>
        <kwd>doen&#231;a da art&#233;ria coronariana</kwd>
        <kwd>doen&#231;as vasculares</kwd>
        <kwd>metan&#225;lise</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>12</day>
        <month>07</month>
        <year>2010</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>ATUALIZA&#199;&#195;O CL&#205;NICA</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>S&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica na doen&#231;a arterial coronariana e vascular oclusiva: uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Daniela Reis Elbert Farias; Avany Fernandes Pereira; Glorimar Rosa</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Instituto de Nutri&#231;&#227;o Josu&#233; de Castro - Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="back">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESUMO</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Atualmente, a s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica (SM) se mostra altamente prevalente, sendo associada a fatores de risco para doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas n&#227;o transmiss&#237;veis, tais como diabetes mellitus tipo 2, doen&#231;as ateroscler&#243;ticas e coronarianas. O objetivo desta revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica foi descrever os resultados de estudos que investigaram a associa&#231;&#227;o da SM com a doen&#231;a arterial coronariana e doen&#231;as vasculares oclusivas. Foi realizada a revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica com dados de estudos originais publicados entre 1999 e 2008, escritos em ingl&#234;s ou portugu&#234;s, utilizando-se as bases de dados <italic>Medline, Pubmed, Highwire Press</italic> e <italic>Science Direct</italic>. Foram inclu&#237;dos artigos que fizeram o diagn&#243;stico da SM atrav&#233;s do crit&#233;rio do <italic>National Cholesterol Education Program - Adult Treatment Panel III</italic> (NCEP ATP III, 2001). Foram exclu&#237;dos estudos realizados com animais, de suplementa&#231;&#227;o e que realizaram administra&#231;&#227;o oral ou endovenosa de qualquer subst&#226;ncia, assim como aqueles de baixa qualidade metodol&#243;gica e com amostra inicialmente heterog&#234;nea. Apesar da heterogeneidade entre os estudos, observou-se que indiv&#237;duos com SM apresentam maior probabilidade (risco = 2,13) de desenvolverem as doen&#231;as vasculares oclusivas, doen&#231;a coronariana, diabetes mellitus e acidente vascular encef&#225;lico. Mudan&#231;as no estilo de vida, como pr&#225;ticas alimentares saud&#225;veis, atividade f&#237;sica regular e a cessa&#231;&#227;o do tabagismo devem ser incentivadas pelos profissionais da sa&#250;de a fim de minimizar as complica&#231;&#245;es e a morbimortalidade associada &#224; SM.</p>
    <p><bold>Palavras chave:</bold> S&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica, doen&#231;a da art&#233;ria coronariana, doen&#231;as vasculares, metan&#225;lise.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica (SM) &#233; caracterizada por altera&#231;&#245;es metab&#243;licas relacionadas &#224; obesidade abdominal e resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina. De acordo com o NCEP ATP III<sup>1</sup>, seu diagn&#243;stico &#233; realizado pela ocorr&#234;ncia de tr&#234;s ou mais das seguintes condi&#231;&#245;es: obesidade abdominal (circunfer&#234;ncia da cintura acima de 102 cm no sexo masculino e 88 cm no sexo feminino); hipertrigliceridemia (superior ou igual a 150mg/dl); baixas concentra&#231;&#245;es de HDL-colesterol (menor que 40mg/dl no sexo masculino e menor que 50mg/dl no sexo feminino); press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica acima ou igual a 130 mmHg e press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica acima de 85 mmHg; e hiperglicemia de jejum (superior ou igual a 110mg/dl).</p>
    <p>Existem outros crit&#233;rios propostos para seu diagn&#243;stico: o <italic>World Health Organization</italic><sup>2</sup> (WHO), que utiliza valores de microalbumin&#250;ria e resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina, o <italic>European Group for the Study of Insulin Resistance</italic><sup>3</sup> (EGIR), que utiliza a resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina como fator de risco obrigat&#243;rio associado a dois ou mais fatores de risco; o <italic>American Heart Association/National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute</italic><sup>4</sup> (AHA/NHLBI), que tem como crit&#233;rio a presen&#231;a de tr&#234;s ou mais fatores de risco associados &#224; doen&#231;a arterial coronariana (DAC), e o crit&#233;rio da <italic>International Diabetes Federation</italic><sup>5</sup> (IDF), que utiliza valores diferenciados para a circunfer&#234;ncia da cintura de acordo com a etnia. Apesar de muitas semelhan&#231;as entre os crit&#233;rios, observa-se que o crit&#233;rio do NCEP ATP III<sup>1</sup> &#233; o mais utilizado na literatura cient&#237;fica<sup>4</sup>.</p>
    <p>A preval&#234;ncia mundial da SM &#233; elevada, entre 20% e 25%, e bastante vari&#225;vel de acordo com o crit&#233;rio diagn&#243;stico utilizado<sup>6-9</sup>. Independente do diagn&#243;stico utilizado, sua preval&#234;ncia &#233; elevada em indiv&#237;duos com doen&#231;as cardiovasculares (DCVs)<sup>10</sup>. N&#227;o existem estudos epidemiol&#243;gicos brasileiros que definam sua preval&#234;ncia, no entanto, em estudo regional com 530 nipo-brasileiros, evidenciou-se uma preval&#234;ncia de 21%<sup>11</sup>, enquanto em um estudo realizado na popula&#231;&#227;o de migrantes espanh&#243;is e seus descendentes no Brasil, foi observada uma preval&#234;ncia de 35,6%<sup>12</sup>.</p>
    <p>A SM &#233; considerada um fator de risco t&#227;o importante quanto o tabagismo para o desenvolvimento de doen&#231;as vasculares oclusivas e ateroscler&#243;ticas<sup>1,9,13</sup>. Por isso, o diagn&#243;stico e tratamento da SM s&#227;o de extrema import&#226;ncia j&#225; que sua preval&#234;ncia &#233; crescente em todo o mundo.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Objetivo</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Descrever os resultados de estudos cl&#237;nicos que investigaram o impacto da SM, diagnosticada pelo crit&#233;rio do NCEP ATP III<sup>1</sup>, na ocorr&#234;ncia da DAC e doen&#231;as vasculares oclusivas em indiv&#237;duos com idade superior a 18 anos.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>M&#233;todos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O levantamento bibliogr&#225;fico foi realizado em 2008, sendo consultadas as seguintes bases de dados eletr&#244;nicas: <italic>Medline, Scielo, Pubmed, Highwire Press e Science Direct.</italic>. A busca retrospectiva se limitou aos artigos cient&#237;ficos indexados, originais como estudos cl&#237;nicos, randomizados e n&#227;o randomizados, transversais, prospectivos, de coorte e de base populacional, que envolveram seres humanos com idade igual ou superior a 18 anos e que foram publicados entre 2004 e 2008, escritos nas l&#237;nguas inglesa ou portuguesa, tendo sido utilizadas a combina&#231;&#227;o das seguintes palavras-chave: s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica e doen&#231;a arterial coronariana; s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica e doen&#231;as vasculares. Outra estrat&#233;gia utilizada foi a sele&#231;&#227;o manual de refer&#234;ncias bibliogr&#225;ficas em artigos encontrados.</p>
    <p>Os artigos, identificados inicialmente por tr&#234;s pesquisadores diferentes, foram selecionados pela estrat&#233;gia de busca inicial a partir dos seguintes crit&#233;rios de elegibilidade: (1) artigos publicados nos &#250;ltimos quatro anos; (2) artigos escritos nas l&#237;nguas inglesa ou portuguesa; (3) estudos cl&#237;nicos observacionais; (4) estudos randomizados ou n&#227;o randomizados; (5) estudos realizados com seres humanos adultos ou idosos com SM; (6) diagn&#243;stico cl&#237;nico de doen&#231;a arterial coronariana e/ou de doen&#231;as vasculares oclusivas; e (7) estudos apresentando como desfecho principal a associa&#231;&#227;o das anormalidades metab&#243;licas da s&#237;ndrome com a presen&#231;a dessas doen&#231;as. Foram inclu&#237;dos artigos que utilizaram o crit&#233;rio do NCEP ATP III<sup>1</sup> para o diagn&#243;stico da SM e aqueles que utilizaram juntamente com o NCEP ATP III<sup>2</sup> outro crit&#233;rio para o diagn&#243;stico da SM, tais como o WHO<sup>2</sup>, EGIR<sup>3</sup>, AHA/NHLBI<sup>4</sup>, IDF<sup>5</sup>, e <italic>American College of Endocrinology</italic> (ACE)<sup>14</sup>. Foram exclu&#237;dos, de acordo com crit&#233;rios definidos antes da busca, os estudos realizados com animais, que fizeram suplementa&#231;&#227;o e que realizaram administra&#231;&#227;o oral ou endovenosa de qualquer subst&#226;ncia, assim como aqueles de baixa qualidade metodol&#243;gica, como amostra heterog&#234;nea, ou informa&#231;&#245;es dispon&#237;veis em artigos mais recentes.</p>
    <p>Os estudos selecionados tiveram como desfecho principal a associa&#231;&#227;o das anormalidades metab&#243;licas dos indiv&#237;duos com SM com a presen&#231;a de doen&#231;a arterial coronariana e/ou doen&#231;as vasculares oclusivas<sup>15</sup>. A qualidade metodol&#243;gica dos estudos foi avaliada considerando alguns aspectos, tais como: especifica&#231;&#227;o dos crit&#233;rios de inclus&#227;o e exclus&#227;o do estudo; aloca&#231;&#227;o aleat&#243;ria dos participantes do estudo; similaridade entre os grupos de estudo e controle na fase inicial do estudo; e relato da an&#225;lise estat&#237;stica empregada. Finalmente, tais artigos foram revisados para evitar inclus&#227;o de dados em duplicata.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>An&#225;lise dos dados</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Os dados foram analisados pelo programa RevMan <italic>version</italic> 5,0 (<italic>The Cochrane Collaboration Copenhagen</italic>)<sup>16</sup>. Para avaliar a heterogeneidade entre os estudos, realizou-se o teste Chi<sup>2</sup>, considerando como graus de liberdade n - 1, onde "n" &#233; igual ao n&#250;mero de estudos. Calculou-se a heterogeneidade significativa utilizando o modelo de efeito fixo. A inconsist&#234;ncia (I<sup>2</sup>) foi calculada para verificar a extens&#227;o da diferen&#231;a entre os estudos que contemplavam grupos com e sem SM que apresentavam DAC ou doen&#231;as vasculares oclusivas, sendo considerada baixa 25%, moderada 50% e alta maior que 75%<sup>17</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Resultados</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Foram identificados 42 artigos, dos quais 30 utilizaram o crit&#233;rio do NCEP ATP III (2001)<sup>1</sup> como &#250;nico crit&#233;rio diagn&#243;stico da SM, e 12 artigos utilizaram outros crit&#233;rios para o diagn&#243;stico da SM al&#233;m do NCEP ATP III<sup>1</sup>. Foram selecionados artigos, sendo: 14 do tipo coorte<sup>13,15-29</sup>, 12 transversais<sup>10,30-40</sup>, 8 de coorte prospectivos<sup>41-48</sup>, 2 observacionais<sup>49,50</sup>, 2 prospectivos<sup>51,52</sup>, e 1 para cada tipo de estudo: prospectivo e observacional<sup>53</sup>, transversal e de coorte populacional<sup>54</sup>, caso-controle<sup>55</sup> e longitudinal de base comunit&#225;ria<sup>56</sup>.</p>
    <p>O maior n&#250;mero de publica&#231;&#245;es foi proveniente dos Estados Unidos (n = 17), dos quais 12 artigos utilizaram apenas o crit&#233;rio NCEP ATP III (2001), seguidos da It&#225;lia (n = 6) e Holanda (n = 3). Dois artigos foram selecionados em cada um dos seguintes pa&#237;ses: Inglaterra, Gr&#233;cia, Fran&#231;a, Canad&#225;, Finl&#226;ndia e Turquia; e nos demais pa&#237;ses, Jap&#227;o, Argentina, Noruega, e &#193;ustria, apenas 1 artigo foi selecionado.</p>
    <p>As caracter&#237;sticas metodol&#243;gicas desses estudos, al&#233;m do ano de publica&#231;&#227;o, pa&#237;s de origem, popula&#231;&#227;o estudada, grupo de estudo, faixa et&#225;ria, crit&#233;rio utilizado para o diagn&#243;stico da SM, tipo e dura&#231;&#227;o do estudo e resultados principais, foram apresentados na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t01">tabela 1</xref>.</p>
    <p content-type="html"><table-wrap id="t01"><graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/KW7G6Pjqt9VMHWvFSrDp9Hr/351a0beb751a64d0686abc45a878ef2b38c6990a.gif"/><graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/KW7G6Pjqt9VMHWvFSrDp9Hr/306f8206cfdf787869a06c095871ded510130cec.gif"/><graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-06-0150-00024-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>&#13;
</p>
    <p>Alguns estudos n&#227;o mencionaram o tempo de dura&#231;&#227;o do estudo. Entre os estudos nos quais esses dados foram obtidos foi poss&#237;vel observar que n&#227;o houve dura&#231;&#227;o inferior a 6 meses<sup>28</sup>, tendo sido o maior tempo de seguimento de 20 anos<sup>53</sup>.</p>
    <p>A forma de recrutamento dos participantes foi especificada em todos os estudos. O tamanho amostral variou de 83 a 15.922 indiv&#237;duos, sendo que dos 42 estudos selecionados, apenas 2 apresentaram amostra total inferior a 100 indiv&#237;duos, sendo de 83 e 87 indiv&#237;duos cada um desses estudos<sup>32,37</sup>.</p>
    <p>A maioria dos estudos incluiu indiv&#237;duos de ambos os sexos (n = 36), com a exce&#231;&#227;o de 5 estudos que inclu&#237;ram apenas mulheres<sup>28,34,37,48,50</sup> e 1 estudo que incluiu apenas homens na amostra<sup>43</sup>. Dos estudos selecionados, 50% n&#227;o mencionaram a faixa et&#225;ria da amostra, no entanto a m&#233;dia e o desvio padr&#227;o da idade dos grupos estudados foram mencionadas em 31 (73,8%) artigos selecionados. Dos artigos que n&#227;o mencionaram o desvio padr&#227;o da idade dos grupos estudados, 3 mencionaram apenas a m&#233;dia de idade dos grupos, 3 apenas a faixa et&#225;ria dos grupos e 5 a m&#233;dia de idade e a faixa et&#225;ria dos grupos.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Discuss&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A SM apresenta-se evidenciada devido a sua elevada preval&#234;ncia e por representar um importante conjunto de fatores de risco cardiovascular, frequentemente associados &#224; deposi&#231;&#227;o de gordura central e &#224; resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina<sup>57</sup>. Do ponto de vista epidemiol&#243;gico, a SM &#233; respons&#225;vel pelo aumento estimado da mortalidade geral em 1,5 vez, e por DAC e doen&#231;as vasculares oclusivas em 2,5 vezes<sup>58</sup>. Apesar de sua relev&#226;ncia, no Brasil ainda existem car&#234;ncias de dados sobre suas caracter&#237;sticas epidemiol&#243;gicas e de estudos que verifiquem a sua rela&#231;&#227;o com o aumento da morbimortalidade por doen&#231;as vasculares oclusivas e DAC. O estudo da SM tamb&#233;m tem sido dificultado pela aus&#234;ncia de consenso no crit&#233;rio para o seu diagn&#243;stico e nos pontos de corte dos seus fatores de risco, causando relevantes repercuss&#245;es na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica e na sa&#250;de p&#250;blica. Nesta revis&#227;o, optamos pela sele&#231;&#227;o de artigos que utilizaram o crit&#233;rio do NCEP ATP III<sup>1</sup> para o diagn&#243;stico da SM, n&#227;o s&#243; por esse ser um crit&#233;rio que apresenta f&#225;cil aplicabilidade na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica, mas tamb&#233;m por ele ser um crit&#233;rio largamente utilizado em publica&#231;&#245;es cient&#237;ficas.</p>
    <p>Individualmente, os componentes da SM s&#227;o fatores de risco independentes para o desenvolvimento de doen&#231;a cardiovascular ateroscler&#243;tica<sup>10,13,20,23,24,40,42</sup> . Os diferentes crit&#233;rios existentes para o diagn&#243;stico da SM s&#227;o baseados no princ&#237;pio de que seus fatores de risco possam interagir sinergicamente, ou ainda de maneira a ampliar o risco para DAC e doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica. Alguns estudos demonstraram que quanto maior o n&#250;mero dos componentes da SM em um indiv&#237;duo, maior o risco ou a extens&#227;o da patologia associada a SM<sup>15,23,24,31</sup>.</p>
    <p>Os estudos selecionados nesta revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica evidenciaram a associa&#231;&#227;o da SM com o desenvolvimento ou a mortalidade por DCV<sup>10,13,20,24,25,29,41,47,49,51</sup>, DAC<sup>22,28,31,44,47,55</sup>, diabetes mellitus 2 (DM 2)<sup>20,26,56</sup> e acidente vascular encef&#225;lico (AVE)<sup>29,43,45</sup>. Alguns estudos ainda apontam que os indiv&#237;duos com SM apresentam maior mortalidade por DCVs<sup>20,41</sup> e maior preval&#234;ncia de AVE<sup>43</sup> independentemente da presen&#231;a de intoler&#226;ncia &#224; glicose ou DM 2<sup>20,41,45</sup>.</p>
    <p>Dentre os artigos selecionados, 4 avaliaram a espessura m&#233;dio-&#237;ntima da car&#243;tida<sup>23,40,42,46</sup>, indicando associa&#231;&#227;o do processo aterotromb&#243;tico com a SM, sendo a eleva&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial<sup>42</sup>, a diminui&#231;&#227;o da concentra&#231;&#227;o de HDL-c em homens e a hiperglicemia de jejum em mulheres<sup>46</sup> os componentes da SM mais importantes nessa associa&#231;&#227;o. Foi descrito que quanto maior o n&#250;mero de fatores de risco que caracterizam a SM maior era a tend&#234;ncia de aumento da espessura m&#233;dio-&#237;ntima da car&#243;tida<sup>23</sup>.</p>
    <p>Alguns estudos relatam a associa&#231;&#227;o da SM com a eleva&#231;&#227;o do &#237;ndice de massa corp&#243;rea (IMC)<sup>28,30,56</sup>; ainda foi destacado que os indiv&#237;duos com SM e maior IMC apresentaram maior risco de DM 2 e DCVs<sup>56</sup>. Outros estudos evidenciaram a associa&#231;&#227;o da SM com o aumento da atividade de c&#233;lulas de ades&#227;o molecular, hipoadiponectinemia<sup>32</sup>, e o aumento das concentra&#231;&#245;es de LDL-oxidada<sup>34,53</sup> e prote&#237;na C reativa<sup>35,55</sup>. Um estudo relata que houve aumento da mortalidade por DAC em pacientes com SM e eleva&#231;&#227;o da concentra&#231;&#227;o de prote&#237;na C reativa<sup>44</sup>.</p>
    <p>Estudos que avaliaram a concentra&#231;&#227;o circulante de LDL-oxidada demonstraram que dentre os fatores de risco que caracterizam a SM, aqueles que apresentam maior associa&#231;&#227;o com a oxida&#231;&#227;o dessa lipoprote&#237;na s&#227;o a hiperglicemia de jejum, hipertrigliceridemia, baixa concentra&#231;&#227;o de HDL-c e a obesidade abdominal<sup>34,53</sup>. O <italic>Odds Ratio</italic> adaptado para a incid&#234;ncia dicot&#244;mica dos fatores de risco que caracterizam a SM, <italic>versus</italic> o quinto quintil de LDL-oxidada foram de 2,1 (IC 95%, 1,2 - 3,6) para a obesidade abdominal; 2,4 (IC 95%, 1,5 - 3,8) para hiperglicemia de jejum e 2,1 (IC 95%, 1,1 - 4,0) para a hipertriglicer&#237;demia<sup>53</sup>.</p>
    <p>Apesar da hiper-homocisteinemia (Hhcy) ser um conhecido marcador de doen&#231;as vasculares oclusivas, ainda existem poucos estudos que avaliam sua associa&#231;&#227;o com a SM. Dentre os estudos selecionados nesta revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica, apenas dois avaliaram a associa&#231;&#227;o da Hhcy com a SM e seus fatores de risco<sup>19,49</sup>. Um estudo recente demonstrou que a concentra&#231;&#227;o plasm&#225;tica de homociste&#237;na (hcy) foi superior nos indiv&#237;duos com SM quando comparados aos sem SM. Sua concentra&#231;&#227;o ainda aumentava de acordo com o n&#250;mero de fatores de risco que caracterizam a SM. Quando os indiv&#237;duos sem a SM foram comparados com aqueles que apresentavam os cinco fatores de risco para a SM, a concentra&#231;&#227;o plasm&#225;tica de hcy aumentou significativamente (de 12,7 <italic>&#188;</italic>mol/l para 15,9 <italic>&#188;</italic>mol/l)<sup>19</sup>. Tais achados sugerem que a Hhcy e a SM apresentam efeito sin&#233;rgico no aumento do risco para as doen&#231;as vasculares oclusivas.</p>
    <p>Dos estudos selecionados nesta revis&#227;o, um n&#227;o evidenciou a associa&#231;&#227;o da SM com a DAC<sup>54</sup>, e outro n&#227;o evidenciou associa&#231;&#227;o da SM com a forma&#231;&#227;o de placa ateromatosa<sup>18</sup>. No entanto, a maioria dos estudos demonstraram a associa&#231;&#227;o da SM ou de alguns de seus componentes com o maior risco de morbimortalidade geral e por DAC. Por isso, devemos evidenciar a import&#226;ncia de atuar na preven&#231;&#227;o e controle da SM, assim como dos fatores de risco que a ela est&#227;o associados, para que seja poss&#237;vel trabalhar na redu&#231;&#227;o de DCVs, principal causa de mortalidade mundial.</p>
    <p>A heterogeneidade entre os estudos selecionados pode ser observada na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">figura 1</xref> e, provavelmente, &#233; decorrente dos diferentes marcadores utilizados para o diagn&#243;stico da doen&#231;a vascular oclusiva ou coronariana. Tamb&#233;m foi demonstrada uma maior probabilidade (risco = 2,13) dos os indiv&#237;duos com SM desenvolverem a doen&#231;a vascular ou coronariana. Mas, os resultados continuam contradit&#243;rios, sendo necess&#225;ria a realiza&#231;&#227;o de mais estudos para a obten&#231;&#227;o de resultados mais consistentes.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="f01">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-06-0150-00024-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>A ado&#231;&#227;o, preferencialmente desde a inf&#226;ncia e por toda a popula&#231;&#227;o, de estilos de vida saud&#225;veis, como uma dieta equilibrada e a pr&#225;tica regular de atividade f&#237;sica, &#233; um componente b&#225;sico da preven&#231;&#227;o da SM. Os benef&#237;cios da pr&#225;tica regular de exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos sob a redu&#231;&#227;o da morbimortalidade por DAC t&#234;m sido evidenciados na literatura cient&#237;fica como parte da mudan&#231;a do estilo de vida (MEV), juntamente com a redu&#231;&#227;o de deposi&#231;&#227;o de gordura corporal, principalmente aquela localizada na regi&#227;o abdominal, que representa fator de risco importante para o diagn&#243;stico da SM. O sucesso da interven&#231;&#227;o no controle e tratamento da SM est&#225; intimamente relacionado com a MEV, sendo a terapia n&#227;o-medicamentosa de primeira escolha para o seu tratamento, com a realiza&#231;&#227;o de um plano alimentar para a redu&#231;&#227;o de peso corporal associado ao exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico<sup>57</sup>, al&#233;m do combate ao tabagismo, ao uso abusivo de &#225;lcool e ao estresse. Essas modifica&#231;&#245;es comportamentais j&#225; poder&#227;o melhorar a qualidade e expectativa de vida dos indiv&#237;duos com SM<sup>11</sup>.</p>
    <p>Apesar da MEV ser fundamental na preven&#231;&#227;o e tratamento da SM, apenas um estudo evidenciou em sua conclus&#227;o a import&#226;ncia da MEV para a redu&#231;&#227;o da morbimortalidade por DAC e doen&#231;as vasculares oclusivas nos pacientes com SM<sup>10</sup>. Outro estudo evidenciou apenas a import&#226;ncia da preven&#231;&#227;o da SM e dos fatores de risco que a caracterizam para a redu&#231;&#227;o da incid&#234;ncia de AVE<sup>29</sup>.</p>
    <p>Portanto, a fim de alcan&#231;armos a remiss&#227;o da SM e minimizarmos a preval&#234;ncia das DAC e doen&#231;as vasculares oclusivas, os profissionais da sa&#250;de devem incentivar pr&#225;ticas alimentares saud&#225;veis, como a diminui&#231;&#227;o do consumo de gorduras saturadas e hidrogenadas, o aumento do consumo de frutas, verduras, fibras e cereais integrais e de mudan&#231;as no estilo de vida, como a cessa&#231;&#227;o do tabagismo, que constitui medida fundamental e priorit&#225;ria na preven&#231;&#227;o dos componentes isolados da SM. Al&#233;m disso, a pr&#225;tica de exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos aer&#243;bios promove a redu&#231;&#227;o das concentra&#231;&#245;es plasm&#225;ticas de triglicer&#237;dios e o aumento das concentra&#231;&#245;es de HDL-c<sup>58</sup>, fatores de risco importantes que caracterizam a SM.</p>
    <p>Uma dieta equilibrada associada &#224; pr&#225;tica regular de atividade f&#237;sica seria capaz de promover a redu&#231;&#227;o do peso corporal, al&#233;m de melhorar o quadro cl&#237;nico dos pacientes com SM, proporcionando a diminui&#231;&#227;o dos riscos e da morbimortalidade por DAC e doen&#231;as vasculares oclusivas.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Conclus&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A compreens&#227;o sobre a agrega&#231;&#227;o dos componentes da SM, bem como os mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos que as desencadeiam, ainda n&#227;o foi alcan&#231;ada. Mas, apesar dos relatos na literatura cient&#237;fica serem controversos e da heterogeneidade entre os estudos, observou-se nesta revis&#227;o o grande impacto da SM na ocorr&#234;ncia de DAC e doen&#231;as vasculares oclusivas.</p>
    <p>Portanto, &#233; de suma import&#226;ncia a realiza&#231;&#227;o de estudos randomizados, que utilizem marcadores mais fidedignos para o diagn&#243;stico da DAC e das doen&#231;as vasculares oclusivas, gerando resultados mais consistentes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Agradecimentos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Agradecemos ao apoio do Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cient&#237;fico e Tecnol&#243;gico (CNPq) e da Funda&#231;&#227;o Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo &#224; Pesquisa do Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ).</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O presente estudo foi financiado pelo CNPq e FAPERJ.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="back" fn-type="corresp">
        <p>Correspond&#234;ncia:</p>
        <p> Daniela Reis Elbert Farias </p>
        <p> Rua Aureliano Coutinho, 88/303 </p>
        <p> 25625-000 - Centro - Petr&#243;polis, RJ - Brasil </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="elbert@compuland.com.br">elbert@compuland.com.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Artigo recebido em 09/10/08; revisado recebido em 18/02/09; aceito em 30/04/09</p>
  </body>
  <back>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Clinical Update</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Metabolic syndrome in coronary artery and occlusive vascular diseases: a systematic review</article-title>
      </title-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>REVIEW ARTICLE</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fn id="top-body2">
          <label>
            <bold>Metabolic syndrome in coronary artery and occlusive vascular diseases: a systematic review</bold>
          </label>
          <p>
            <bold>Daniela Reis Elbert Farias; Avany Fernandes Pereira; Glorimar Rosa</bold>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p>Instituto de Nutri&#231;&#227;o Josu&#233; de Castro - Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil</p>
      <p>Mailing address</p>
      <p>
        <bold>ABSTRACT</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Nowadays, the metabolic syndrome (MS) is highly prevalent and is associated with risk factors for non-transmissible chronic diseases, such as type 2 diabetes mellitus, and coronary atherosclerotic disease. The objective of this systematic review is to describe the results of studies that investigated the association of MS with coronary artery disease and occlusive vascular diseases. We conducted a systematic review of data from original studies published between 1999 and 2008, written in English or Portuguese, using the databases Medline, Pubmed, Science Direct and HighWire Press. We included articles in which the diagnosis of MS was made by the criteria of the National Cholesterol Education Program - Adult Treatment Panel III (NCEP ATP III, 2001). We excluded studies with animals, supplementation studies, and those with oral or intravenous administration of any substance, as well as those of low methodological quality and those which had a heterogeneous initial sample. Despite the heterogeneity among studies, we observed that individuals with MS had a higher probability (risk = 2.13) of developing occlusive vascular diseases, coronary disease, diabetes and stroke. Lifestyle changes such as healthy eating habits, regular physical activity and cessation of smoking should be encouraged by health professionals to minimize the complications and morbidity associated with MS.</p>
      <p><bold>Key words:</bold> Metabolic syndrome; coronary artery disease; vascular diseases; meta-analysis.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The metabolic syndrome (MS) is characterized by metabolic changes related to abdominal obesity and insulin resistance. According to the NCEP ATP III<sup>1</sup> the diagnosis is made when there is occurrence of three or more of the following conditions: abdominal obesity (waist circumference above 102 cm in men and 88 cm in women), hypertriglyceridemia (greater than or equal to 150mg/dl); low concentrations of HDL cholesterol (less than 40mg/dl in males and less than 50mg/dl in females); systolic blood pressure above or equal to 130 mmHg, and diastolic blood pressure above 85 mmHg; and fasting hyperglycemia (greater than or equal to 110mg/dl).</p>
      <p>There are other proposed criteria for this diagnosis, such as: the World Health Organization<sup>2</sup> (WHO) criteria, which use microalbuminuria and insulin resistance values; the European Group for the Study of Insulin Resistance<sup>3</sup> (EGIR) criteria, which consider insulin resistance as a mandatory risk factor associated with two or more risk factors; the American Heart Association/National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute<sup>4</sup> (AHA/NHLBI) criteria, which require the presence of three or more risk factors associated with coronary artery disease (CAD); and the International Diabetes Federation<sup>5</sup> (IDF) criteria, which use different values for waist circumference according to ethnicity. Despite the many similarities among the criteria, it is observed that the NCEP ATP III<sup>1</sup> criteria are the most used in the literature<sup>4</sup>.</p>
      <p>The global prevalence of MS is high-between 20% and 25%-and varies according to the diagnostic criteria used<sup>6-9</sup>. Regardless of the diagnostic criteria used, its prevalence is high in individuals with cardiovascular diseases (CVDs)<sup>10</sup>. There are no epidemiological studies to define its prevalence among Brazilians. However, in a regional study with 530 Japanese-Brazilians, a prevalence of 21%<sup>11</sup> was observed, and in a study conducted among the Spanish population of migrants and their descendants in Brazil, a prevalence of 35.6%<sup>12</sup> was observed.</p>
      <p>MS is considered a risk factor as important as smoking habit for the development of occlusive vascular diseases and atherosclerotic diseases<sup>1,9,13</sup>. Therefore, the diagnosis and treatment of MS are extremely important because its prevalence is increasing worldwide.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Objective</bold>
      </p>
      <p>To describe the results of clinical studies that investigated the impact of MS, diagnosed by the NCEP ATP III criteria<sup>1</sup>, on the occurrence of CAD and occlusive vascular disease in individuals aged over 18 years.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Methods</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The bibliographic research was conducted in 2008, and the following electronic databases were reviewed: Medline, Scielo, Pubmed, Science Direct and HighWire Press. A retrospective search was limited to indexed original scientific articles, such as clinical, randomized and non-randomized, transversal, prospective, cohort and population-based studies, involving humans aged 18 years or over, published between 2004 and 2008, written in English or Portuguese, with a combination of the following keywords: metabolic syndrome and coronary artery disease, metabolic syndrome and vascular diseases. Another strategy we used was the manual selection of references in the articles found.</p>
      <p>The articles, originally identified by three different researchers, were selected by the initial search strategy using the following eligibility criteria: (1) articles published in the last four years; (2) articles written in English or Portuguese; (3) Clinical observational studies; (4) randomized or non-randomized studies; (5) studies with adult or elderly human subjects with MS; (6) clinical diagnosis of coronary artery disease and/or occlusive vascular diseases; and (7) studies showing as the main outcome the association of metabolic syndrome abnormalities with these diseases. We included articles that used the NCEP ATP III<sup>1</sup> criteria for the diagnosis of MS and those which used the NCEP ATP III<sup>2</sup> with another criteria for the diagnosis of MS, such as the WHO<sup>2</sup>, the EGIR<sup>3</sup>, the AHA/NHLBI<sup>4</sup>, the IDF<sup>5</sup>, or the American College of Endocrinology (ACE)<sup>14</sup> criteria. According to a criterion defined before the search, we excluded studies with animals, supplementation studies, studies with oral or intravenous administration of any substance, studies of low methodological quality and with heterogeneous sample, as well as studies whose information was available in more recent articles.</p>
      <p>The selected studies had as the primary outcome the association of metabolic abnormalities of individuals with MS in the presence of coronary artery disease and/or occlusive vascular diseases<sup>15</sup>. The methodological quality of the studies was evaluated considering several aspects: specification of the inclusion and exclusion criteria for the study; random allocation of participants in the study; similarities between the study groups and control groups in the initial phase of the study; and statistical analysis report. Finally, these articles were reviewed to avoid inclusion of duplicated data.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Data Analysis</bold>
      </p>
      <p>We used the program RevMan version 5.0 (The Cochrane Collaboration, Copenhagen) to analyze the data<sup>16</sup>. To assess the heterogeneity among studies, we used the Chi<sup>2</sup> test, with n - 1 degrees of freedom, in which "n" is the number of studies. We calculated the significant heterogeneity using the fixed-effects model. The inconsistency (I<sup>2</sup>) was calculated so as to verify the differences between studies that included groups of subjects with and without MS who had CAD or occlusive vascular disease, and an inconsistency rate of 25% was considered low, 50% was considered moderate, and greater than 75% was considered high<sup>17</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Results</bold>
      </p>
      <p>A total of 42 studies have been identified, of which 30 used the NCEP ATP III criterion (2001)<sup>1</sup> as the sole diagnostic criteron for MS, and 12 articles used other criteria for the diagnosis of MS besides the NCEP ATP III<sup>1</sup>. A total of 42 articles have been selected, as follows: 14 cohort studies<sup>13,15-27</sup>, 12 cross-sectional studies<sup>10,30-40</sup>, 8 prospective cohort studies<sup>41-48</sup>, 2 observational studies<sup>49,50</sup>, 2 prospective studies<sup>51,52</sup>, 1 prospective observational study<sup>53</sup>, 1 cross-sectional and population cohort study<sup>54</sup>, 1 case-control study<sup>55</sup>, and 1 longitudinal community-based study<sup>56</sup>.</p>
      <p>The largest number of publications were from the United States (n = 17), of which only 12 articles used the NCEP ATP III criterion (2001), followed by Italy (n = 6) and Holland (n = 3). Two articles were selected from each of the following countries: England, Greece, France, Canada, Finland, Turkey. From Japan, Argentina, Norway and Austria, only 1 article was selected from each.</p>
      <p>The methodological characteristics, year of publication, country of origin, study population, study group, sample age range, criterion used for diagnosis of MS, type, duration and main results of these studies are presented in <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_24t01-body2">table 1</xref>.</p>
      <p content-type="html"><table-wrap id="en_24t01-body2"><graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/KW7G6Pjqt9VMHWvFSrDp9Hr/39b0a6ed18345190f2a46112df05a462c2bf212c.gif"/><graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/KW7G6Pjqt9VMHWvFSrDp9Hr/6e72e5248ac24b3ab8b0980904607075f7e17fd1.gif"/><graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-06-0150-00024-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>&#13;
</p>
      <p>Time duration of some studies was not mentioned. Among the studies in which these data were obtained we observed that no less than 6 months duration<sup>28</sup>, was the largest follow-up time of 20 years<sup>53</sup>.</p>
      <p>The form of recruitment of participants was specified in all studies. The sample size ranged from 83 to 15,922 individuals; of the 42 studies selected, only 2 had lower total sample of 100 individuals; 83 and 87 individuals respectively<sup>32,37</sup>.</p>
      <p>Most studies included individuals of both genders (n = 36), with the exception of 5 studies that included only women<sup>28,34,37,48,50</sup>, and 1 study that included only men in its sample<sup>43</sup>. Of the studies selected, 50% did not mention the sample age range, but 31 (73.8%) selected articles mentioned the mean age and the standard deviation of the study groups. Of the articles which did not mention the standard deviation of the study groups' age, 3 reported only the mean age of the groups, 3 mentioned only the age range of the groups, and 5 mentioned the mean age and the age range of the groups.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Discussion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>MS stands out due to its high prevalence and because it represents an important set of cardiovascular risk factors, often associated with central fat deposition and insulin resistance<sup>57</sup>. From the epidemiological point of view, MS is responsible for an estimated increase in overall mortality by 1.5 times, and in mortality from CAD and occlusive vascular disease by 2.5 times<sup>58</sup>. Despite its relevance, in Brazil there is still a lack of data on its characteristics and no epidemiological studies to assess its relationship with increased morbidity from occlusive vascular disease and CAD. The study of MS has also been hampered by the lack of consensus on the criterion for its diagnosis and the cut-off points for its risk factors, with important implications in clinical practice and public health measures. In this review, we selected articles that used the NCEP ATP III<sup>1</sup> criterion for the diagnosis of MS, not only because this is a criterion that has easy applicability in clinical practice, but it is also widely used in scientific publications.</p>
      <p>Individually, the components of MS are independent risk factors for the development of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease<sup>10,13,20,23,24,40,42</sup>. The different criteria used for the diagnosis of MS are based on the principle that its risk factors may interact synergistically, or may increase the risk for CAD and atherosclerotic disease. Some studies have shown that the higher the number of components of MS in an individual, the greater the risk for or the severity of the MS-related disease<sup>15,23,24,31</sup>.</p>
      <p>The studies selected in this systematic review have shown an association of MS with the development of or mortality from CVD<sup>10,13,20,24,25,29,41,47,49,51</sup>, CAD<sup>22,28,31,44,47,55</sup>, diabetes mellitus 2 (DM 2)<sup>20,26,56</sup>, and stroke (CVA)<sup>29,43,45</sup>. Some studies also suggest that individuals with MS have higher mortality from CVDs<sup>20,41</sup> and higher prevalence of CVA<sup>43</sup>, regardless of the presence of glucose intolerance or DM 2<sup>20,41,45</sup>.</p>
      <p>Among the selected articles, 4 assessed the mean carotid intima-media thickness<sup>23, 40,42,46</sup>, showing an association of MS with the atherothrombotic process; increased blood pressure<sup>42</sup>, decreased concentration of HDL-C in men, and fasting hyperglycemia in women<sup>46</sup> were the most important components of MS in this association. It was reported that the higher the number of risk factors that characterize MS the greater the increase in the mean carotid intima-media thickness<sup>23</sup>.</p>
      <p>Some studies report the association of MS with higher body mass index (BMI)<sup>28,30,56</sup>. It has been also highlighted that individuals with MS have higher BMI and higher risk of DM 2 and CVDs<sup>56</sup>. Other studies showed the association of MS with increased cell adhesion molecular activity, hypoadiponectinemia<sup>32</sup>, and increased concentrations of oxidized LDL<sup>34,53</sup> and C-reactive protein<sup>35,55</sup>. One study reports that there has been an increase of CVD mortality in patients with MS and increased concentration of C-reactive protein<sup>44</sup>.</p>
      <p>Studies that evaluated the concentration of circulating oxidized LDL showed that among the risk factors that characterize MS, those with a higher association with the oxidation of the lipoprotein are fasting hyperglycemia, hypertriglyceridemia, low concentration of HDL-C, and abdominal obesity<sup>34,53</sup>. The adjusted odds ratio for the dichotomous effect of risk factors that characterize MS, versus the fifth quintile of oxidized LDL were 2.1 (95% CI, 1.2 to 3.6) for abdominal obesity; 2.4 (95% CI, 1.5 to 3.8) for fasting hyperglycemia; and 2.1 (95% CI, 1.1 to 4.0) for hypertriglyceridemia<sup>53</sup>.</p>
      <p>Although hyperhomocysteinemia (Hhcy) is a known marker of occlusive vascular diseases, there are still few studies that assess its association with MS. Among the studies selected in this systematic review, only two assessed the association of Hhcy with MS and its risk factors<sup>19,49</sup>. A recent study showed that plasma homocysteine (Hcy) was higher in subjects with MS when compared to those without MS. Its concentration also increased according to the number of risk factors that characterize MS. When individuals without MS were compared with those who had all five risk factors for MS, the plasma concentration of Hcy increased significantly (from 12.7 mmol/L to 15.9 mmol/L)<sup>19</sup>. These findings suggest that MS and Hhcy have synergistic effect in increasing the risk for occlusive vascular diseases.</p>
      <p>Of the studies selected in this review, one showed no association of MS with CAD<sup>54</sup>, and another showed no association of MS with atheromatous plaque formation<sup>18</sup>. However, most studies showed the association of MS and some of its components with higher risk of general morbidity and mortality and of CVD. Therefore, we must highlight the importance of taking measures for the prevention and control of MS and its associated risk factors, in order to reduce CVDs, the main cause of mortality worldwide.</p>
      <p>The heterogeneity among the selected studies is shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_24f01-body2">Figure 1</xref>, and probably is a result of the different markers used for the diagnosis of vascular disease or coronary occlusion. An increased probability (risk = 2.13) of individuals with MS to develop vascular or coronary disease has also been demonstrated. But the results remain contradictory and require further research to obtain more consistent results.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_24f01-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-06-0150-00024-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>The adoption, preferably from childhood and by the entire population, of healthy lifestyles, such as a balanced diet and the regular practice of physical activity is a basic component of MS prevention. The benefits of the regular practice of physical exercise on the reduction of CVD morbidity have been shown in scientific literature as part of a lifestyle change (LC), along with a reduction in body fat deposition, especially in the abdominal region, which represents an important risk factor for the diagnosis of MS. The success of the intervention in the control and treatment of MS is closely related to the LC, and non-drug therapy is the treatment of choice, with a food plan for reducing body weight associated with physical activity<sup>57</sup>, besides cessation of smoking and excessive alcohol consumption and reduction of stress. These behavioral changes may improve the quality of life and life expectancy of individuals with MS<sup>11</sup>.</p>
      <p>Although LC is essential for the prevention and treatment of MS, only one study revealed in its conclusion the importance of LC for the reduction of CVD and occlusive vascular disease morbidity and mortality in patients with MS<sup>10</sup>. Another study showed only the importance of the prevention of MS and its risk factors for the reduction in the incidence of stroke<sup>29</sup>.</p>
      <p>Therefore, in order to achieve the remission of MS and reduce the prevalence of CAD and occlusive vascular diseases, health professionals should encourage healthy eating habits, such as reducing the consumption of saturated and hydrogenated fats, increasing the consumption of fruits, vegetables, fiber, and whole grains, and lifestyle changes such as cessation of smoking, which is fundamental and a priority measure in preventing the individual components of MS. Moreover, the practice of aerobic physical exercise promotes a reduction in plasma triglycerides and an increase in HDL-c concentration<sup>58</sup>, which are important risk factors that characterize MS.</p>
      <p>A balanced diet combined with a regular practice of physical activity can promote body weight reduction and improve the clinical condition of patients with MS, with a reduction in the risks and the morbidity and mortality from CVD and vascular occlusive disease.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Conclusion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The aggregation of MS components and the pathophysiological mechanisms that trigger it are not yet fully understood. But despite controversial literature reports and heterogeneity among studies, the impact of MS on the occurrence of CAD and occlusive vascular diseases has been observed in this review.</p>
      <p>Therefore, it is critical that randomized studies be conducted, using more reliable markers for the diagnosis of CAD and occlusive vascular diseases, and thus generating more consistent results.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Acknowledgments</bold>
      </p>
      <p>We would like to thank the support of the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq) and the Carlos Chagas Filho Foundation for Research Support of the State of Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ).</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
      </p>
      <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This study was funded by CNPq and FAPERJ.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Study Association</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This study is not associated with any post-graduation program.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
</article>
