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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">TCYkyBfdyQHLQkQCp7NKq3c</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00021</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2010000300021</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(10)09400321</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2010000300021</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Tratamento da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o normal</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mesquita</surname>
            <given-names>Evandro Tinoco</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Jorge</surname>
            <given-names>Antonio Jos&#233; Lagoeiro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Niter&#243;i</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>03</month>
        <year>2010</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>94</volume>
      <issue>3</issue>
      <fpage>414</fpage>
      <lpage>426</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>06</day>
          <month>08</month>
          <year>2008</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>07</day>
          <month>10</month>
          <year>2008</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>03</day>
          <month>10</month>
          <year>2008</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>Diferente da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o reduzida (ICFER), que grandes estudos t&#234;m comprovado a efic&#225;cia de medicamentos em melhorar a morbidade e mortalidade, nenhum estudo de tratamento mostrou resultados definitivos em pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o normal (ICFEN). A ICFEN &#233; mais prevalente em mulheres e idosos, estando associada a m&#250;ltiplas comorbidades. Apesar do &#243;timo tratamento n&#227;o ter sido ainda definido, o controle da hipertens&#227;o arterial e a redu&#231;&#227;o da sobrecarga liquida s&#227;o medidas importantes no controle da s&#237;ndrome. No Brasil, as recomenda&#231;&#245;es no tratamento da IC est&#227;o baseadas na Revis&#227;o das II Diretrizes da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia para o diagn&#243;stico e tratamento da Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca 2002. Por&#233;m, nenhuma das recomenda&#231;&#245;es &#233; especifica para pacientes com ICFEN, j&#225; que est&#227;o embasadas em medidas gerais propostas por especialistas. Esta revis&#227;o objetiva mostrar as evid&#234;ncias cient&#237;ficas provenientes de recentes ensaios cl&#237;nicos na ICFEN e as perspectivas para o futuro em termo de novos medicamentos.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca</kwd>
        <kwd>fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda</kwd>
        <kwd>hipertrofia ventricular esquerda</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>28</day>
        <month>04</month>
        <year>2010</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>ARTIGO DE REVIS&#195;O</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Tratamento da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o normal</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Evandro Tinoco Mesquita; Antonio Jos&#233; Lagoeiro Jorge</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Niter&#243;i, RJ - Brasil</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="back">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESUMO</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Diferente da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o reduzida (ICFER), que grandes estudos t&#234;m comprovado a efic&#225;cia de medicamentos em melhorar a morbidade e mortalidade, nenhum estudo de tratamento mostrou resultados definitivos em pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o normal (ICFEN). A ICFEN &#233; mais prevalente em mulheres e idosos, estando associada a m&#250;ltiplas comorbidades. Apesar do &#243;timo tratamento n&#227;o ter sido ainda definido, o controle da hipertens&#227;o arterial e a redu&#231;&#227;o da sobrecarga liquida s&#227;o medidas importantes no controle da s&#237;ndrome. </p>
    <p> No Brasil, as recomenda&#231;&#245;es no tratamento da IC est&#227;o baseadas na Revis&#227;o das II Diretrizes da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia para o diagn&#243;stico e tratamento da Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca 2002. Por&#233;m, nenhuma das recomenda&#231;&#245;es &#233; especifica para pacientes com ICFEN, j&#225; que est&#227;o embasadas em medidas gerais propostas por especialistas. </p>
    <p> Esta revis&#227;o objetiva mostrar as evid&#234;ncias cient&#237;ficas provenientes de recentes ensaios cl&#237;nicos na ICFEN e as perspectivas para o futuro em termo de novos medicamentos.</p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold> Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca/terapia, fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda, hipertrofia ventricular esquerda.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Nos &#250;ltimos anos, v&#234;m se observando de modo crescente que muitos pacientes que apresentam insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC) t&#234;m a fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o (FEVE) normal e apresentam preval&#234;ncia entre 13% e 74%, dependendo do crit&#233;rio diagn&#243;stico e do perfil da popula&#231;&#227;o<sup>1</sup>.</p>
    <p>Com o envelhecimento da popula&#231;&#227;o, a tend&#234;ncia ser&#225; observamos nos pr&#243;ximos anos um crescimento dessa preval&#234;ncia, principalmente entre mulheres portadoras de comorbidades como hipertens&#227;o arterial, obesidade, diabetes e fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial<sup>2</sup>.</p>
    <p>Estudos<sup>3,4</sup> mostram que a ocorr&#234;ncia de eventos cl&#237;nicos aumenta acentuadamente ap&#243;s a primeira hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por IC, sendo que um ter&#231;o dos pacientes com IC podem ser reinternados no per&#237;odo de um ano<sup>5</sup>. Owan e cols.<sup>4</sup> mostraram que a mortalidade um ano ap&#243;s a primeira interna&#231;&#227;o por ICFEN seria de 29% e por ICFER de 32% - e ap&#243;s cinco anos a mortalidade dos pacientes com ICFEN e ICFER seria de 65% e 68% respectivamente<sup>4</sup>. O mesmo estudo observou que apesar da taxa de sobrevida ter sido maior entre pacientes com ICFEN, os portadores de ICFER tiveram um aumento da probabilidade de sobrevida durante o per&#237;odo do estudo<sup>4</sup>. Tal ocorr&#234;ncia se deve ao desenvolvimento ao longo dos anos de um tratamento efetivo embasado em evid&#234;ncias cientificas proveniente de ensaios cl&#237;nicos para ICFER (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig21q01">quadro 1</xref>).</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="fig21q01">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-03-0414-00021-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>O progn&#243;stico, tanto de ICFEN como de ICFER, &#233; ruim. Nos pacientes hospitalizados, a mortalidade &#233; semelhante nos dois grupos e qualquer diferen&#231;a observada favorecendo a ICFEN se torna insignificante ap&#243;s tr&#234;s meses da alta hospitalar<sup>6</sup>.</p>
    <p>A mortalidade na ICFEN permanece elevada porque as causas de morte n&#227;o s&#227;o completamente definidas, existindo uma lacuna no conhecimento da causa espec&#237;fica da morte na ICFEN, que come&#231;a a ser entendida a partir dos &#250;ltimos estudos. Um estudo<sup>7</sup> observou que indiv&#237;duos com IC apresentam alta mortalidade, independente de serem classificados em ICFEN ou ICFER, por&#233;m, pacientes com ICFEN tem uma menor preval&#234;ncia de comorbidades cardiovasculares, sendo que a morte na ICFEN est&#225; associada a causas pulmonares e neoplasias<sup>7</sup>(<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">figura 1</xref>). Esses achados real&#231;am a heterogeneidade da IC e t&#234;m implica&#231;&#245;es no desenho e nas interpreta&#231;&#245;es de estudos de interven&#231;&#227;o para reduzir a mortalidade, principalmente em ICFEN<sup>7</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, foi observado que no momento da alta, pacientes com ICFER recebiam um tratamento mais intenso do que pacientes com ICFEN. Logo, estrat&#233;gias terap&#234;uticas mais agressivas poder&#227;o ter, no futuro, um impacto significante nos resultados da ICFEN<sup>3</sup>.</p>
    <fig id="f1">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-03-0414-00021-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>Existe hoje uma necessidade de se desenvolver um tratamento efetivo baseado em grandes estudos cl&#237;nicos para pacientes com ICFEN.</p>
    <p>O objetivo desta revis&#227;o &#233; apresentar os avan&#231;os terap&#234;uticos para o tratamento da ICFEN no contexto da pr&#225;tica ambulatorial.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Identificando os alvos terap&#234;uticos na ICFEN</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Para que se possa desenvolver um tratamento efetivo para ICFEN, h&#225; necessidade de se entender sua fisiopatologia, cujo conhecimento nos &#250;ltimos anos tem sido revisto de forma abrangente atrav&#233;s de estudos invasivos e por m&#233;todos de cardioimagem<sup>8</sup>.</p>
    <p>As anormalidades da disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica presentes na ICFEN consistem em altera&#231;&#245;es do relaxamento do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (VE) e/ou aumento de sua rigidez, que resultam em anormalidades no enchimento do ventr&#237;culo e aumento da press&#227;o de enchimento.</p>
    <p>Outras condi&#231;&#245;es como aumento da rigidez vascular, disfun&#231;&#227;o atrial, ativa&#231;&#227;o neuro-humoral e perda de reserva cronotr&#243;pica durante o exerc&#237;cio tamb&#233;m podem contribuir para o desenvolvimento de ICFEN<sup>2</sup>. Como na ICFER, evid&#234;ncias mostram que a ativa&#231;&#227;o do sistema renina angiotensina aldosterona (SRAA) tem papel importante no desenvolvimento da ICFEN, principalmente atrav&#233;s dos efeitos tr&#243;ficos da angiotensina II nos vasos e no mioc&#225;rdio, levando a hipertrofia e fibrose, que piora o relaxamento e resulta em aumento da press&#227;o diast&#243;lica do VE<sup>2</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">figura 2</xref>).</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="f02">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-03-0414-00021-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>Existem diferen&#231;as estruturais e funcionais entre ICFEN e ICFER (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">tabela 1</xref>). Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; morfologia do VE, a principal &#233; o aumento do volume do ventr&#237;culo e a mudan&#231;a de sua forma devido ao processo de remodelamento, que &#233; mais acentuado nos pacientes com ICFER do que nos pacientes com ICFEN<sup>9</sup>.</p>
    <table-wrap id="t1">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-03-0414-00021-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>Pacientes com ICFEN podem ter disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica significativa com FEVE normal quando avaliados pelo encurtamento do eixo longitudinal, que pode ser identificado pelo ecodoppler tecidual (EDT). A preserva&#231;&#227;o da FEVE est&#225; diretamente relacionada com a presen&#231;a de hipertrofia do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (HVE)<sup>10</sup>.</p>
    <p>Logo, altera&#231;&#245;es no relaxamento card&#237;aco, a presen&#231;a de hipertrofia mioc&#225;rdica e o remodelamento s&#227;o anormalidades chaves que alteram a rigidez do ventr&#237;culo e as press&#245;es de enchimento, levando a intoler&#226;ncia ao exerc&#237;cio, que seria o primeiro sintoma de ICFEN e determinante de redu&#231;&#227;o de qualidade de vida<sup>11</sup>.</p>
    <p>O EDT e o pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico tipo B (BNP) s&#227;o importantes ferramentas diagn&#243;sticas na avalia&#231;&#227;o dos pacientes com ICFEN, sendo que a medida da FEVE e o volume diast&#243;lico final (VDF) auxiliariam na separa&#231;&#227;o dos casos de ICFER e IC de alto d&#233;bito da ICFEN<sup>12</sup>. A ICFEN apresenta altera&#231;&#245;es na fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica e sist&#243;lica que s&#227;o melhores avaliadas pelo EDT do que pelo ecodoppler padr&#227;o (an&#225;lise do fluxo transmitral). A avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o regional pela medida do eixo longitudinal (S') e a rela&#231;&#227;o E/E' para avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica s&#227;o medidas importantes que s&#243; podem ser obtidas pelo EDT<sup>8</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Como fazer o diagn&#243;stico</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O paciente com ICFEN freq&#252;entemente n&#227;o apresenta sinais de congest&#227;o sist&#234;mica ou pulmonar, excetuando os quadros agudos de descompensa&#231;&#227;o. Portanto, no ambulat&#243;rio a queixa mais comum &#233; a de dispn&#233;ia<sup>13</sup>.</p>
    <p>A Diretriz da Sociedade Europ&#233;ia de Cardiologia<sup>13</sup> publicada em 2007, prop&#244;s novos crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos para a ICFEN (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">figura 3</xref>) centrados em torno de par&#226;metros obtidos pelo EDT, onde se destaca a medida da rela&#231;&#227;o E/E'. Onde E seria o pico inicial do fluxo mitral, ao passo que E' seria a velocidade do anel mitral obtida pelo EDT. A medida de E' pode ser considerada como um substituto n&#227;o invasivo do relaxamento ventricular. A rela&#231;&#227;o E/E' supera a influ&#234;ncia do relaxamento do VE na medida do pico de E, e com isso reflete a press&#227;o do &#225;trio esquerdo<sup>14</sup>.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="f03">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-03-0414-00021-gf04.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>A diretriz europ&#233;ia estabelece que um E/E' &gt; 15 (que se relaciona com a press&#227;o diast&#243;lica final do VE &gt; 18 mmHg), na presen&#231;a de FEVE <underline>&gt;</underline> 50% em ventr&#237;culos n&#227;o dilatados (&#237;ndice de volume diast&#243;lico final &lt; 97ml/m<sup>2</sup>), em pacientes com sintomas ou sinais de IC &#233; diagn&#243;stico de ICFEN<sup>13</sup>. Um valor de E/E' &lt; 8 exclui a presen&#231;a de ICFEN. Entretanto, se a rela&#231;&#227;o est&#225; entre oito e 15, pode sugerir a disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica, mas outros par&#226;metros ecocardiogr&#225;ficos dever&#227;o tamb&#233;m ser usados para suportar esse diagn&#243;stico. Estes incluem medidas da massa do VE indexada (&gt; 122 g/m<sup>2</sup> em mulheres e &gt; 149 g/m<sup>2</sup> em homens), volume de &#225;trio esquerdo indexado (VAE-I &gt; 40 ml/m<sup>2</sup>), doppler do fluxo transmitral (rela&#231;&#227;o E/A &lt; 0,5 e tempo de desacelera&#231;&#227;o de E &gt; 280 ms) e doppler do fluxo venoso pulmonar (Ard-Ad &gt; 30 ms). A diretriz tamb&#233;m permite diagnosticar a ICFEN sem os par&#226;metros do EDT, utilizando o eletrocardiograma (ECG - presen&#231;a de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial) e a dosagem do BNP/Pr&#243;-BNP<sup>13</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Tratamento</bold>
    </p>
    <p>As metas de tratamento da ICFEN s&#227;o semelhantes &#224;quelas da ICFER. Objetivam melhorar a qualidade de vida com melhora dos sintomas, aumentar a toler&#226;ncia ao exerc&#237;cio e reduzir as interna&#231;&#245;es hospitalares, aumentando a sobrevida (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">tabela 2</xref>).</p>
    <table-wrap id="t2">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-03-0414-00021-gt02.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>As diretrizes mais recentes da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia (2002)<sup>15</sup>, Sociedade Europ&#233;ia (2008)<sup>16</sup> e ACC/AHA (2005)<sup>17</sup> para o diagn&#243;stico e tratamento da IC fazem refer&#234;ncia a ICFEN. Por&#233;m, as recomenda&#231;&#245;es para o tratamento s&#227;o especulativas pela limita&#231;&#227;o de dados dispon&#237;veis. Na diretriz Europ&#233;ia 2008, a recomenda&#231;&#227;o &#233; utilizar uma abordagem terap&#234;utica semelhante a da ICFER. A diretriz da ACC/AHA faz recomenda&#231;&#245;es no manejo da ICFEN com classe IIb com n&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia C. As diretrizes da SBC, tamb&#233;m por falta de dados consistentes, recomendam os mesmos medicamentos utilizados na ICFER com classe IIa e recomenda&#231;&#227;o grau B.</p>
    <p>A escolha do medicamento na ICFEN, de acordo com a diretriz da ACA/AHA, est&#225; fundamentada em evid&#234;ncias para quatro pontos chaves:</p>
    <p>1) Controle da hipertens&#227;o sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica;</p>
    <p>2) Controle da resposta ventricular em pacientes com fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial;</p>
    <p>3) Controle da congest&#227;o pulmonar e edema perif&#233;rico com diur&#233;ticos;</p>
    <p>4) Revasculariza&#231;&#227;o coronariana em pacientes com DAC nos quais a isquemia tem um efeito adverso na fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica.</p>
    <p>A redu&#231;&#227;o da HVE &#233; uma importante meta terap&#234;utica na ICFEN, pois pode levar a melhora da fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica. Uma meta-an&#225;lise publicada em 2003 avaliou a efic&#225;cia de diferentes medicamentos em reverter a HVE em pacientes com hipertens&#227;o. Oitenta estudos foram avaliados para a redu&#231;&#227;o relativa de massa do VE indexada (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">figura 4</xref>)<sup>18</sup>.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="f04">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-03-0414-00021-gf05.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>O tratamento da ICFEN ainda &#233; emp&#237;rico, sendo as recomenda&#231;&#245;es embasadas em resultados de pequenos estudos cl&#237;nicos, experi&#234;ncia pessoal e no controle das comorbidades que se relacionam com a ICFEN (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">figura 5</xref>).</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="f05">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-03-0414-00021-gf06.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>Com exce&#231;&#227;o dos estudos CHARM-preserved<sup>19</sup>. SENIORS, PEP-CHF e o estudo DIG<sup>20</sup>, nenhum grande estudo - randomizado, duplo cego, placebo controlado - se encontra dispon&#237;vel para o cuidado de pacientes com ICFEN<sup>21</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Abordagem n&#227;o medicamentosa</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O primeiro grande desafio &#233; como conduzir a mudan&#231;a de estilo de vida, particularmente em idosos com ICFEN, j&#225; que poucos pacientes ir&#227;o aderir a um programa de novos padr&#245;es de estilo de vida em substitui&#231;&#227;o a modelos enraizados h&#225; v&#225;rias d&#233;cadas.</p>
    <p>Parar de fumar &#233; mudan&#231;a fundamental de comportamento no tratamento da ICFEN<sup>22</sup>.</p>
    <p>O &#225;lcool tem efeito delet&#233;rio no cora&#231;&#227;o e aumenta a press&#227;o arterial, devendo ser evitado em pacientes com ICFEN.</p>
    <p>A atividade f&#237;sica regular reduz a press&#227;o arterial e melhora a fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, logo, pacientes em classe funcional II deveriam ser encorajados a realizar algum tipo de atividade f&#237;sica diariamente<sup>22</sup>.</p>
    <p>A perda de peso reduz a press&#227;o arterial e tem papel importante em pacientes diab&#233;ticos. O controle do sal tamb&#233;m &#233; efetivo no controle da press&#227;o arterial<sup>23</sup>.</p>
    <p>A preserva&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o renal &#233; importante em pacientes com ICFEN, medidas profil&#225;ticas para evitar o deterioramento da capacidade de filtra&#231;&#227;o renal devem ser sempre adotadas.</p>
    <p>Outras comorbidades associadas que pioram de modo direto ou indireto a fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica, como anemia, hipotiroidismo, obesidade e apn&#233;ia do sono, devem ser investigadas e tratadas adequadamente<sup>23</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Bloqueadores de canais de c&#225;lcio</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Os bloqueadores de canal de c&#225;lcio (BCC), por serem medicamentos que reduzem a FC e a contratilidade mioc&#225;rdica, podem ser ben&#233;ficos para pacientes com ICFEN<sup>24</sup>.</p>
    <p>Existem dois pequenos estudos comparando placebo com verapamil<sup>25,26</sup>. Setaro e cols.<sup>25</sup> estudaram 22 pacientes com IC e FEVE &gt; 45% e observaram que o verapamil melhorou os sintomas e a toler&#226;ncia ao exerc&#237;cio quando comparado ao placebo<sup>22</sup>. Os resultados de Hung e cols., que estudaram 15 pacientes, foram bastante semelhantes, com melhora dos sintomas e da toler&#226;ncia ao exerc&#237;cio<sup>26</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Betabloqueadores</bold>
    </p>
    <p>No cora&#231;&#227;o normal, quando ocorre um aumento da FC, teremos como resposta um aumento na contratilidade e da velocidade de relaxamento. Na ICFEN, devido ao lento decl&#237;nio da press&#227;o do VE, ocorre um aumento da press&#227;o diast&#243;lica final (PDF). Em pacientes com grau I e II de disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica, a dura&#231;&#227;o da di&#225;stole &#233; fundamental, e betabloqueadores (BB) melhoram os sintomas, pois reduzindo a FC aumentam o tempo de dura&#231;&#227;o do relaxamento, e, com isso, ocorre um maior enchimento diast&#243;lico. Ao contr&#225;rio, nos pacientes em fase III e IV de disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica, o enchimento do ventr&#237;culo se completa no meio da di&#225;stole e estes pacientes t&#234;m um volume sist&#243;lico fixo. A redu&#231;&#227;o da FC entre 50 e 60 bpm pode reduzir ainda mais o d&#233;bito card&#237;aco (DC), piorando os sintomas desses pacientes. O tratamento com betabloqueadores deve ser iniciado com doses baixas, que devem ser aumentadas gradativamente at&#233; alcan&#231;armos a dose m&#225;xima recomendada<sup>27</sup>.</p>
    <p>Aronow e cols.<sup>28</sup> estudaram 158 pacientes com IC e FEVE &gt; 40% p&#243;s infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio (IAM), sendo que um grupo recebeu propranolol e o outro n&#227;o. Ap&#243;s um ano de tratamento, foi observada a melhora da FEVE, uma maior redu&#231;&#227;o da massa do VE e uma menor mortalidade (56% x 76%) no grupo propranolol, quando comparado ao grupo que n&#227;o fez uso do medicamento<sup>28</sup>. O estudo tem falhas metodol&#243;gicas devido &#224; falta de um grupo placebo, e tamb&#233;m por ter selecionado um grupo de pacientes isqu&#234;micos, j&#225; que a a&#231;&#227;o ben&#233;fica de betabloqueadores em pacientes com IAM &#233; bem reconhecida.</p>
    <p>Dobre e cols.<sup>29</sup> observaram 443 pacientes com IC com FEVE &gt; 40%, internados por IC descompensada, em que 227(51%) receberam BB no momento da alta. Os pacientes foram seguidos por 25 meses. Os resultados mostram que a mortalidade por todas as causas foi de 17,6% no grupo que recebeu BB e de 33,8% no grupo sem BB. Apesar de suas limita&#231;&#245;es (n&#227;o randomizado) esse estudo prospectivo observacional foi o primeiro a sugerir que a prescri&#231;&#227;o de um BB est&#225; associada com a redu&#231;&#227;o de mortalidade em pacientes com avan&#231;ada ICFEN<sup>29</sup>.</p>
    <p>O estudo SENIORS<sup>30</sup> que envolveu 2000 pacientes randomizados para placebo e nebivolol foi o primeiro estudo a avaliar os efeitos do nebivolol em pacientes idosos com IC, dos quais 35% tinham FEVE preservada<sup>30</sup>. O nebivolol reduziu o desfecho prim&#225;rio combinado de morte ou interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar, mas o efeito em todas as causas de mortalidade foi menor quando comparado com pacientes mais jovens e com disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica. O estudo n&#227;o foi desenhado para avaliar em separado os efeitos do nebivolol em pacientes com ICFEN<sup>30</sup>.</p>
    <p>O estudo Swedic<sup>31</sup> avaliou 113 pacientes com sintomas de ICFEN que foram randomizados para tratamento com carvedilol ou placebo, com avalia&#231;&#227;o pelo ecocardiograma na avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial e ap&#243;s seis meses. O carvedilol resultou em melhora da rela&#231;&#227;o E/A, mas sem significante melhora no TD, tempo de relaxamento isovolum&#233;trico ou velocidade do fluxo da veia pulmonar<sup>31</sup>.</p>
    <p>Os principais benef&#237;cios dos BB na ICFEN est&#227;o relacionados ao aumento do enchimento diast&#243;lico, que melhora a perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica e com isso reduz a isquemia, al&#233;m de proporcionar a a&#231;&#227;o anti-hipertensiva, a redu&#231;&#227;o da hipertrofia do VE e a redu&#231;&#227;o de arritmias card&#237;acas<sup>29</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Diur&#233;ticos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Diur&#233;ticos melhoram os sintomas da ICFEN, pois reduzem o volume intravascular e levam o VE para uma melhor posi&#231;&#227;o na curva de rela&#231;&#227;o volume lpress&#227;o diast&#243;lica final<sup>27</sup>.</p>
    <p>Terapias que resultam simplesmente em uma mudan&#231;a de posi&#231;&#227;o na curva de rela&#231;&#227;o volume press&#227;o, sem modificar a forma da curva, s&#227;o provavelmente an&#225;logas ao tratamento da febre com paracetamol, ou seja, melhoram os sintomas, mas n&#227;o influenciam a causa, n&#227;o tendo, portanto, impacto na sobrevida ao longo do tempo<sup>27</sup>.</p>
    <p>O estudo Hong-Kong<sup>32</sup>, interrompido precocemente por dificuldade de recrutamento, mostrou que a terapia com diur&#233;ticos melhora os sintomas de ICFEN e que nem a irbesartana nem o ramipril tiveram um efeito adicional ao uso de diur&#233;ticos<sup>32</sup>.</p>
    <p>Pacientes com ICFEN moderada e hipertens&#227;o arterial devem utilizar baixas doses de diur&#233;ticos tiaz&#237;dicos, j&#225; que a efic&#225;cia de baixas doses de diur&#233;ticos como terapia de primeira linha para preven&#231;&#227;o de eventos cardiovasculares tem sido bem documentada<sup>33</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em pacientes que apresentam ICFEN severa pode ser necess&#225;ria a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de um diur&#233;tico de al&#231;a para controle da congest&#227;o pulmonar. A base para este tratamento reside na maior efetividade do diur&#233;tico de al&#231;a, principalmente se a fun&#231;&#227;o renal est&#225; comprometida<sup>34</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Inibidores da enzima conversora da angiotensina</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Moduladores neuro-hormonais s&#227;o medicamentos que influenciam a hipertens&#227;o arterial, a doen&#231;a arterial coronariana, a fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial e o diabetes melito. Esses medicamentos formam a base do tratamento da ICFEN, pois s&#227;o efetivos no controle dessas doen&#231;as que contribuem para piora da fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica<sup>6</sup>.</p>
    <p>A angiotensina II predisp&#245;e ao aparecimento da HVE, reduz o relaxamento e aumenta a rigidez ventricular<sup>24</sup>. Medicamentos que modulam o sistema neuro-hormonal, al&#233;m de apresentar efeitos hemodin&#226;micos ben&#233;ficos, tamb&#233;m reduzem o crescimento de c&#233;lulas do m&#250;sculo liso, previnem o dep&#243;sito de col&#225;geno, reduzem a express&#227;o do fator de crescimento e promovem a regress&#227;o da fibrose mioc&#225;rdica<sup>27</sup>.</p>
    <p>Estudos t&#234;m mostrado a redu&#231;&#227;o da massa do VE com inibidores da enzima conversora da angiotensina (IECA). Brilla e cols.<sup>35</sup> descreveram a regress&#227;o da fibrose mioc&#225;rdica pelo lisinopril em pacientes com doen&#231;a card&#237;aca hipertensiva. O estudo examinou 35 pacientes que tinham hipertens&#227;o arterial prim&#225;ria, HVE e disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica. Os pacientes foram randomizados para receberem lisinopril ou hidroclorotiazida. O desfecho prim&#225;rio foi a avalia&#231;&#227;o da fibrose mioc&#225;rdica atrav&#233;s de biopsia endomioc&#225;rdica, com a medi&#231;&#227;o da fra&#231;&#227;o do volume de col&#225;geno e da concentra&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica de hidroxiprolina. No grupo lisinopril houve uma redu&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dia de 6,9% na concentra&#231;&#227;o de hidroxiprolina e de uma m&#233;dia de 9,9 ug/mg para 8,3 ug/mg de peso do VE. Os resultados foram associados com um aumento da rela&#231;&#227;o E/A (0,72 para 0,91) e uma redu&#231;&#227;o do tempo de relaxamento isovolum&#233;trico (123 ms para 81 ms). O estudo concluiu que, em pacientes com cardiopatia hipertensiva o lisinopril regride a fibrose mioc&#225;rdica, independente da regress&#227;o da HVE, o que &#233; acompanhado de melhora da disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica<sup>35</sup>.</p>
    <p>No estudo PEP-CHF<sup>36</sup>, duplo cego, comparando placebo com perindopril 4mg, com 850 pacientes (idade &gt; 70 anos) com IC e fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o preservada, o desfecho prim&#225;rio combinado foi mortalidade por todas as causas e hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o ap&#243;s um ano de seguimento. Os efeitos do perindopril sobre a morbimortalidade ao longo de um ano foram incertos, j&#225; que o estudo teve pouco poder estat&#237;stico para avalia&#231;&#227;o de desfechos prim&#225;rios. Entretanto, houve melhora dos sintomas e da capacidade para realizar exerc&#237;cios no grupo perindopril, tendo sido tamb&#233;m observado um menor n&#250;mero de interna&#231;&#245;es hospitalares no primeiro ano de seguimento<sup>36</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Bloqueadores dos receptores da angiotensina</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O estudo CHARM-Preserved<sup>19</sup> foi desenhado para avaliar o papel dos bloqueadores dos receptores de angiotensina (BRA) em pacientes com ICFEN (FEVE &gt;40%). O estudo avaliou 3.023 pacientes randomizados para candesartana ou placebo ap&#243;s 36,6 meses de seguimento. O desfecho prim&#225;rio do estudo (morte cardiovascular ou interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar por IC) ocorreu em 22% do grupo candesartana e em 24% do grupo placebo. O estudo mostrou uma taxa de mortalidade semelhante entre os dois grupos e o n&#250;mero de interna&#231;&#245;es hospitalares foi menor no grupo candesartana. A candesartana mostrou um moderado impacto em prevenir interna&#231;&#245;es hospitalares por IC em pacientes com FEVE &gt; 40%, por&#233;m sem diferen&#231;a na taxa de mortalidade entre os dois grupos<sup>19</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Antagonistas dos receptores da aldosterona</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Bloqueadores dos receptores de aldosterona, como espironolactona e eplerenona, s&#227;o diur&#233;ticos poupadores de pot&#225;ssio capazes de reduzir a press&#227;o arterial, melhorar a fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial e inibir a forma&#231;&#227;o de fibrose. A diferen&#231;a entre a espironolactona e o eplerenona &#233; que este tem um reduzido efeito no receptor da progesterona e do androg&#234;nio. Estudos comparativos t&#234;m mostrado que a eplerenona tem efeito anti-hipertensivo semelhante ao enalapril, a amlodipina, ao losartan e a espironolactona<sup>6</sup>.</p>
    <p>A espironolactona suprime a convers&#227;o vascular da angiotensina II, melhorando a fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial e inibindo a fibrose perivascular. O tratamento cr&#244;nico com espironolactona reduz a massa do VE e os marcadores plasm&#225;ticos da fibrose mioc&#225;rdica<sup>6</sup>.</p>
    <p>A eplerenona tem efeitos similares aos da espironolactona. Estudos como 4E-Left Ventricular Hypertrophy<sup>37</sup> confirmam os efeitos ben&#233;ficos da eplerenona em reduzir a massa do VE em pacientes com hipertens&#227;o arterial. Nesse estudo, pacientes que receberam 200 mg de eplerenona foram comparados com pacientes recebendo 40 mg de enalapril e pacientes que receberam uma combina&#231;&#227;o de 200mg de eplerenona com 10 mg de enalapril. O desfecho prim&#225;rio foi a mudan&#231;a da massa do VE em 9 meses. A eplerenona foi t&#227;o efetiva quanto o enalapril na redu&#231;&#227;o da HVE e no controle da press&#227;o arterial. A combina&#231;&#227;o de eplerenona e enalapril foi mais efetiva em reduzir a massa do VE e press&#227;o sist&#243;lica do que a eplerenona isoladamente<sup>37</sup>.</p>
    <p>As mudan&#231;as de massa do VE e da hipertrofia t&#234;m implica&#231;&#245;es importantes para o tratamento da ICFEN. Embora IECA e BRA reduzam os n&#237;veis de aldosterona no sangue no inicio do tratamento, ap&#243;s algum tempo ocorre um efeito rebote em que os n&#237;veis de aldosterona voltam a subir apesar do tratamento mantido. Ent&#227;o, medicamentos que inibem a a&#231;&#227;o da aldosterona podem ter um papel diferencial no tratamento da ICFEN<sup>6</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Inibidores da renina</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O bloqueio do SRAA pode ser obtido tamb&#233;m pela inibi&#231;&#227;o da renina atrav&#233;s do aliskireno, um novo inibidor da renina (IR) ativo por via oral. Nenhum estudo foi realizado ainda em pacientes com ICFEN, havendo apenas estudos conclu&#237;dos com pacientes que apresentam ICFER<sup>38</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Digoxina</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O digital &#233; um dos medicamentos mais antigos usados no controle da IC, mas tem sido historicamente considerado contra-indicado em pacientes com ICFEN<sup>2</sup>. Considera&#231;&#245;es te&#243;ricas sugerem um potencial beneficio, bem como um dano ocasionado pela digoxina nesse grupo de pacientes. Por exemplo, a digoxina pode melhorar a ativa depend&#234;ncia de energia da fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica<sup>39</sup>, que consequentemente pode levar a efeitos ben&#233;ficos no perfil neuro-hormonal. Ao contr&#225;rio, o digital pode produzir um aumento na demanda de energia sist&#243;lica, adicionando uma sobrecarga de c&#225;lcio citos&#243;lico na di&#225;stole. Esse efeito pode n&#227;o ser clinicamente aparente, mas durante um estresse hemodin&#226;mico o digital pode promover ou contribuir para a disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica<sup>2</sup>.</p>
    <p>O estudo DIG<sup>20</sup> era, at&#233; recentemente, o &#250;nico grande estudo de um medicamento para pacientes com ICFEN<sup>24</sup>. Como parte de todo o Programa DIG, foi feito um estudo com 988 pacientes com IC e FEVE &gt; 45% que foram randomizados para receber placebo ou digoxina. Por compara&#231;&#227;o, 6800 pacientes com ICFER foram randomizados para placebo ou para digoxina. No grupo ICFEN, o percentual de morte foi o mesmo que no grupo placebo (23,4%). A digoxina n&#227;o reduziu a mortalidade, mas reduziu a taxa de interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar (taxa de risco de 0,82 para digoxina)<sup>20</sup>.</p>
    <p>Apesar dos resultados do DIG, a digoxina n&#227;o &#233; largamente utilizada no tratamento de pacientes com ICFEN, onde outros agentes podem ser mais eficientes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Estatinas</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O uso de estatinas tem se expandido na ultima d&#233;cada, principalmente devido ao grande n&#250;mero de estudos cl&#237;nicos que demonstram sua efic&#225;cia em v&#225;rios modelos de doen&#231;a<sup>2</sup>.</p>
    <p>No geral, o beneficio das estatinas em pacientes com ICFEN pode ser dividido em dois tipos. Primeiro, as estatinas est&#227;o associadas com a redu&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis sangu&#237;neos dos lip&#237;dios, o que est&#225; associado com a redu&#231;&#227;o de eventos cardiovasculares. Segundo, as estatinas podem ter um efeito independente da redu&#231;&#227;o dos lip&#237;dios (efeito pleiotr&#243;pico), que pode incluir a diminui&#231;&#227;o da massa do VE, a redu&#231;&#227;o da fibrose card&#237;aca, um efeito favor&#225;vel no sistema neuro-hormonal e um aumento da elasticidade arterial, efeitos que podem ter impacto na evolu&#231;&#227;o da disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica<sup>2</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em uma analise retrospectiva de um pequeno grupo de 137 pacientes com ICFEN<sup>37</sup>, o uso de estatina foi associado com uma melhora na sobrevida, com um risco relativo de morte de 0,22<sup>40</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Trimetazidina</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A trimetazidina &#233; um medicamento que modifica o uso de substratos de energia no cora&#231;&#227;o atrav&#233;s da inibi&#231;&#227;o da oxida&#231;&#227;o de &#225;cidos graxos card&#237;acos, melhorando com isso a isquemia mioc&#225;rdica. Um estudo mostrou que o uso de trimetazidina, com terapia especifica otimizada em pacientes idosos com miocardiopatia isqu&#234;mica, tem efeitos ben&#233;ficos na fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica e melhora a qualidade de vida<sup>41</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Perspectivas futuras</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O agente terap&#234;utico ideal deveria ter como objetivo os mecanismos que causam a ICFEN. Esse agente deveria ent&#227;o melhorar a homeostasia do c&#225;lcio, bloquear a ativa&#231;&#227;o neuro-hormonal, prevenir e regredir a fibrose e melhorar a elasticidade ventricular e arterial. Alguns medicamentos existentes j&#225; possuem essas propriedades e muitos outros est&#227;o em desenvolvimento. Infelizmente, existem poucos estudos randomizados, duplos cegos e placebos controlados que avaliem a efic&#225;cia e seguran&#231;a desses medicamentos no tratamento da ICFEN. As dificuldades que tem impedido a realiza&#231;&#227;o desses estudos - falta de reconhecimento da import&#226;ncia da ICFEN, dificuldade em definir o perfil da popula&#231;&#227;o a ser estudada, falta de concord&#226;ncia na defini&#231;&#227;o de crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos para ICFEN - parecem que v&#234;m diminuindo ao longo dos &#250;ltimos anos com a melhora do conhecimento sobre a fisiopatologia da ICFEN, e tamb&#233;m em rela&#231;&#227;o a novos m&#233;todos diagn&#243;sticos como o BNP e o EDT.</p>
    <p>O I-Preserve<sup>42</sup> &#233; um grande estudo randomizado, duplo cego, placebo controlado envolvendo 4.128 pacientes que ir&#225; investigar os benef&#237;cios da irbesartana na ICFEN. O recrutamento foi completado em 2005 e os resultados finais est&#227;o previstos para o final de 2008. Os crit&#233;rios de inclus&#227;o foram: pacientes com no m&#237;nimo 60 anos de idade, sintomas de IC com FEVE <underline>&gt;</underline> 45% e hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por IC nos &#250;ltimos seis meses ou evid&#234;ncias de IC com disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica. O desfecho prim&#225;rio &#233; morte por todas as causas ou hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por doen&#231;a cardiovascular. A grande diferen&#231;a entre o I-Preserve e o CHARM est&#225; no ponto de corte da FEVE (40% x 45%)<sup>42</sup>.</p>
    <p>Outro estudo em andamento (fase de recrutamento) &#233; o TopCat, que ir&#225; avaliar os efeitos da espironolactona versus placebo em pacientes com ICFEN (FEVE <underline>&gt;</underline> 45%). O desfecho prim&#225;rio &#233; uma composi&#231;&#227;o entre mortalidade cardiovascular, morte card&#237;aca abortada ou hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por IC. O estudo dever&#225; estar finalizado em julho de 2012<sup>2</sup>.</p>
    <p>O aumento da rigidez ventricular e vascular presentes na ICFEN &#233; devido em parte a forma&#231;&#227;o de pontes cruzadas n&#227;o enzim&#225;ticas que se desenvolvem entre produtos finais de glica&#231;&#227;o avan&#231;ada (AGE) e prote&#237;nas como o col&#225;geno e a elastina. Um derivado do thiazolium conhecido como alagebrium (ALT 711) parece ser eficiente em quebrar as pontes cruzadas, e como isso melhorar a distensibilidade ventricular e aumentar a complac&#234;ncia arterial. Estudos cl&#237;nicos iniciais mostraram um aumento da complac&#234;ncia arterial em idosos com hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica. O alagebrium pode ent&#227;o ser um agente ben&#233;fico no tratamento da ICFEN<sup>22</sup>.</p>
    <p>Little e cols.<sup>43</sup> avaliaram o alagebrium em um estudo aberto com 23 pacientes est&#225;veis com ICFEN (FEVE <underline>&gt;</underline> 50%) por 16 semanas. O alagebrium foi associado com a redu&#231;&#227;o da massa do VE, melhora dos &#237;ndices de disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica pelo EDT e melhora da qualidade de vida. N&#227;o houve, por&#233;m, mudan&#231;as na press&#227;o arterial, na press&#227;o de pulso e na distensibilidade a&#243;rtica. Outros estudos em fase II com o medicamento j&#225; est&#227;o em andamento<sup>22</sup> (consulte <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.clinicaltrials.gov">www.clinicaltrials.gov</ext-link>).</p>
    <p>Um dos motivos pelo qual o emprego de betabloqueador tem se mostrado &#250;til no tratamento da IC &#233; devido, em parte, &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o da FC. Como a FC &#233; um dos principais determinantes do consumo de oxig&#234;nio do mioc&#225;rdio, a redu&#231;&#227;o da FC pode ser relacionada com a melhora da isquemia<sup>44</sup>. A ivabradina, um agente redutor seletivo da FC que atua bloqueando o canal de pot&#225;ssio do tipo If nas c&#233;lulas do n&#243;dulo sino-atrial, mostrou ter efeitos ben&#233;ficos na redu&#231;&#227;o da isquemia mioc&#225;rdica atrav&#233;s da redu&#231;&#227;o da FC. A ivabradina poderia ser &#250;til em pacientes com ICFEN, pois existe um paralelo entre redu&#231;&#227;o da FC e melhora clinica na IC. O uso da ivabradina pode melhorar o quadro clinico na ICFEN pelo prolongamento do tempo da di&#225;stole atrav&#233;s da redu&#231;&#227;o da FC, sem impacto negativo na fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular<sup>45</sup>. Existe atualmente em andamento, um estudo com ivabradina em IC com FEVE &lt; 40%, o BEAUTIFUL Study, que ser&#225; um importante passo para determinar a import&#226;ncia da FC em pacientes com DAC e disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular<sup>44</sup>.</p>
    <p>Outro estudo em andamento envolve o medicamento MCC-135, que seria utilizado para melhorar a fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica aumentando a absor&#231;&#227;o de c&#225;lcio pelo reticulo sarcoplasm&#225;tico e inibindo a troca de s&#243;dio e pot&#225;ssio. O MCC135-GO1 &#233; um estudo duplo cego, randomizado, placebo controlado de fase II em 500 pacientes com IC, sendo 230 com ICFEN. Os resultados do estudo n&#227;o foram ainda apresentados<sup>46</sup>.</p>
    <p>Pesquisadores tem tido grande interesse no desenvolvimento de antagonistas dos receptores da endotelina para o tratamento da IC. Entretanto, as tentativas da utiliza&#231;&#227;o de bosentan, darusentan e tezosentan, em pacientes com ICFER, n&#227;o foram bem sucedidas<sup>47</sup>. Atualmente, tem sido reconhecido que a endotelina pode desempenhar um importante papel no desenvolvimento da disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica. A endotelina interage com o SRAA e metaloproteinases no desenvolvimento da disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica, e este processo pode ser controlado pelo antagonista do receptor da endotelina tipo A.</p>
    <p>A terapia de ressincroniza&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca (TRC) para pacientes em ICFER com dissincronia tem mostrado melhorar tanto a fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica como diast&#243;lica<sup>48</sup>, sendo que &#205;ndices diast&#243;licos parecem melhorar ap&#243;s a TRC especialmente em pacientes com cardiomiopatia n&#227;o isqu&#234;mica<sup>48</sup>.</p>
    <p>A experi&#234;ncia da TRC em pacientes com ICFEN ainda &#233; limitada, e o significado da dissincronia em pacientes com ICFEN n&#227;o est&#225; esclarecido.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Conclus&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Observamos, nos &#250;ltimos anos, uma expans&#227;o no entendimento das altera&#231;&#245;es fisiopatol&#243;gicas envolvidas na ICFEN, em que a import&#226;ncia da fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica em rela&#231;&#227;o aos mecanismos de enchimento, relaxamento e elasticidade do ventr&#237;culo, al&#233;m da rigidez ventricular/arterial e da fun&#231;&#227;o do &#225;trio esquerdo, desempenham um importante papel na fisiopatologia da ICFEN. O perfeito entendimento dessas altera&#231;&#245;es ir&#227;o ajudar nas pesquisas por novas terapias para a ICFEN.</p>
    <p>O estabelecimento de crit&#233;rios para o diagn&#243;stico e exclus&#227;o de ICFEN &#233; &#250;til n&#227;o somente para o cuidado individual dos pacientes, mas tamb&#233;m para o recrutamento em estudos cl&#237;nicos que ir&#227;o avaliar terapias para ICFEN.</p>
    <p>Estudos em andamento, com medicamentos j&#225; empregados na IC al&#233;m de novos medicamentos e novas tecnologias em desenvolvimento, ir&#227;o modificar o tratamento da ICFEN nas pr&#243;ximas d&#233;cadas permitindo uma melhor qualidade de vida para os portadores dessa grave doen&#231;a.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Evandro Tinoco Mesquita &#233; coordenador nacional do Estudo I-Preserve realizado pelos Laborat&#243;rios SANOFI-AVENTIS e Bristol-Myers-Squibb.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de Disserta&#231;&#227;o de Mestrado de Ant&#244;nio Jorge Lagoeiro Jorge pela Universidade Federal Fluminense.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="back" fn-type="corresp">
        <p>Correspond&#234;ncia:</p>
        <p> Evandro Tinoco Mesquita </p>
        <p> Rua General Polidoro, 192 - Botafogo </p>
        <p> 22280-000 - Rio de Janeiro - RJ </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="etmesquita@gmail.com">etmesquita@gmail.com</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Artigo recebido em 06/08/08; revisado recebido em 03/10/08; aceito em 07/10/08.</p>
  </body>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Update</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Treatment of heart failure with normal ejection fraction</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>Different from heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFREF), for which large studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of drug treatment to improve morbidity and mortality, no treatment study has shown definitive results in patients with heart failure with normal ejection fraction (HFNEF). HFNEF is more prevalent in women and the elderly and it is associated with multiple comorbidities. Although the optimum treatment has yet to be defined, the control of arterial hypertension and decreased fluid overload are important measures to control the syndrome. In Brazil, the recommendations for the treatment of HF are based on the Review of the II Directives of the Brazilian Society of Cardiology for the diagnosis and treatment of Heart Failure - 2002. However, none of the recommendations is specific for patients with HFNEF, as they are based on general measures proposed by specialists. This review aims at demonstrating the scientific evidence from recent clinical trials in HFNEF and future perspectives in terms of new medications.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Heart failure</kwd>
        <kwd>ventricular function, left</kwd>
        <kwd>hypertrophy, left ventricular</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>REVIEW ARTICLE</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fn id="top-body2">
          <label>
            <bold>Treatment of heart failure with normal ejection fraction</bold>
          </label>
          <p>
            <bold>Evandro Tinoco Mesquita; Antonio Jos&#233; Lagoeiro Jorge</bold>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p>Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Niter&#243;i, RJ - Brazil</p>
      <p>Mailing address</p>
      <p>
        <bold>ABSTRACT</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Different from heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFREF), for which large studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of drug treatment to improve morbidity and mortality, no treatment study has shown definitive results in patients with heart failure with normal ejection fraction (HFNEF). HFNEF is more prevalent in women and the elderly and it is associated with multiple comorbidities. Although the optimum treatment has yet to be defined, the control of arterial hypertension and decreased fluid overload are important measures to control the syndrome.</p>
      <p> In Brazil, the recommendations for the treatment of HF are based on the Review of the II Directives of the Brazilian Society of Cardiology for the diagnosis and treatment of Heart Failure - 2002. However, none of the recommendations is specific for patients with HFNEF, as they are based on general measures proposed by specialists.</p>
      <p> This review aims at demonstrating the scientific evidence from recent clinical trials in HFNEF and future perspectives in terms of new medications.</p>
      <p><bold>Key words:</bold> Heart failure/therapy; ventricular function, left; hypertrophy, left ventricular.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>In the last years, it has been increasingly observed that many patients presenting heart failure (HF) have a normal left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF), with a prevalence between 13% and 74%, depending on the diagnostic criterion and the population profile<sup>1</sup>. The tendency towards an increase in this prevalence in the next years will be due to the aging of the population, mainly among women with comorbidities such as arterial hypertension, obesity, diabetes and atrial fibrillation<sup>2</sup>.</p>
      <p>Studies<sup>3,4</sup> have shown that the occurrence of clinical events markedly increases after the first hospitalization due to HF and that one-third of the patients with HF can be re-hospitalized within a one-year period<sup>5</sup>. Owan et al<sup>4</sup> showed that the mortality one year after the first hospitalization due to heart failure with normal ejection fraction (HFNEF) would be 29% and due to heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFREF), 32%; after five years, the mortality of patients with HFNEF and HFREF would be, respectively, 65% and 68%<sup>4</sup>. The same study observed that, although the survival rate was higher in patients with HRNEF, the ones with HFREF had an increased probability of survival during the study period<sup>4</sup>. This fact is due to the development, throughout the years, of an effective, scientific-evidence based treatment from clinical trials for HFREF (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="c1-body2">Chart 1</xref>).</p>
      <fig id="c1-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-03-0414-00021-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>The prognosis of HFNEF, as well as of HFREF, is a poor one. In hospitalized patients, the mortality is similar in both groups and any observed difference favoring the patients with HFNEF becomes negligible after three months of hospital release<sup>6</sup>.</p>
      <p>The mortality in HFNEF remains high because the causes of death are yet to be fully defined and there is a gap in the knowledge of the specific cause of death in HFNEF, which has started to be understood based on the last studies.</p>
      <p>A study<sup>7</sup> observed that individuals with HF presented high mortality, regardless of being classified as HFNEF or HFREF; however, patients with HFNEF presented a lower prevalence cardiovascular comorbidities and death in individuals with HFNEF is associated with pulmonary causes and neoplasias (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1-body2">Figure 1</xref>)<sup>7</sup>. These findings emphasize the heterogeneity of HF and have implications in the design and interpretation of intervention studies to reduce mortality, mainly in HFNEF<sup>7</sup>. Additionally, it has been observed that, at the moment of hospital discharge, patients with HFREF received a more intense treatment than patients with HFNEF. Therefore, more aggressive therapeutic strategies might have, in the future, a significant impact on the outcome of HFNEF<sup>3</sup>.</p>
      <fig id="f1-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-03-0414-00021-gf02-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>There is a current need to develop an effective treatment based on large clinical trials for patients with HFNEF. The objective of the present review is to present the therapeutic developments for the treatment of HFNEF in the context of outpatient practice.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Identifying the therapeutic targets in HFNEF</bold>
      </p>
      <p>To develop an effective treatment for HFNEF, it is necessary to understand its physiopathology, of which knowledge in the last years has been reviewed comprehensively through invasive studies and cardio-imaging techniques<sup>8</sup>.</p>
      <p>The diastolic function abnormalities present in HFNEF consist in alterations in left ventricular (LV) relaxation and/or increase of its rigidity, which result in abnormalities in ventricular filling and increased filling pressure. Other conditions such as increased vascular rigidity, atrial dysfunction, neurohumoral activation and loss of chronotropic reserve during exercise can also contribute to the development of HFNEF<sup>2</sup>. As in HFREF, evidence has shown that the activation of the aldosterone renin-angiotensin system (ARAS) has an important role in the development of HFNEF, mainly through the trophic effects of angiotensin II on the vessels and myocardium, leading to hypertrophy and fibrosis, which worsens the relaxation and results in increased diastolic pressure of the LV (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_21f02-body2">Figure 2</xref>)<sup>2</sup>.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_21f02-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-03-0414-00021-gf03-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>There are structural and functional differences between HFNEF and HFREF (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1-body2">Table 1</xref>). Regarding the morphology of the LV, the main one is the increased ventricular volume and the change in its shape due to the process of remodeling, which is more accentuated in patients with HFREF than in those with HFNEF<sup>9</sup>.</p>
      <table-wrap id="t1-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-03-0414-00021-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>Patients with HFNEF can present significant systolic dysfunction with normal LVEF when assessed through the shortening of the longitudinal axis, which can be identified by tissue Doppler echocardiography (TDE). The preservation of the LVEF is directly related to the presence of hypertrophy in the LV (LVH)<sup>10</sup>.</p>
      <p>Therefore, alterations in the cardiac relaxation, the presence of myocardial hypertrophy and remodeling are key abnormalities that alter the ventricular rigidity and the filling pressures, leading to exercise intolerance, which would be the first symptom of HFNEF and a determinant factor in the decrease of quality of life<sup>11</sup>.</p>
      <p>The TDE and the type B natriuretic peptide (BNP) are important diagnostic tools to assess patients with HFNEF, with the LVEF and the LV-end diastolic volume (EDV) helping to differentiate HFREF and high-output HF from HFNEF<sup>12</sup>. The HFNEF presents alterations in the diastolic and systolic functions that are better assessed by the TDE than by the standard echo-Doppler (analysis of the transmitral flow). The assessment of the regional function through the measurement of longitudinal axis (S') and E/E' ratio for the assessment of the diastolic function are important measurements that can only be obtained through the TDE<sup>8</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>How to make the diagnosis</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The patient with HFNEF often does not present signs of systemic or pulmonary congestion, except for the acute pictures of decompensation. Thus, at the outpatient clinic, the most common complaint is dyspnea<sup>13</sup>.</p>
      <p>The Directive of the European Society of Cardiology<sup>13</sup> published in 2007 proposed new diagnostic criteria for HFNEF (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_21f03-body2">Figure 3</xref>) focused on the parameters obtained through the TDE, with special emphasis on the E/E' ratio, where E is the initial peak of the mitral flow and E' is the velocity of the mitral annulus obtained through the TDE. The E' measurement can be considered as non-invasive substitute of ventricular relaxation. The E/E' ratio overcomes the influence of the LV relaxation in the measurement of E peak, and thus, reflects the pressure of the left atrium<sup>14</sup>.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_21f03-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-03-0414-00021-gf04-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>The European directive establishes that an E/E' ratio &gt; 15 (which correlates with the LV-end diastolic pressure &gt; 18 mmHg), in the presence of LVEF <underline>&gt;</underline> 50% in non-dilated ventricles (end-diastolic volume index &lt; 97ml/m<sup>2</sup>), in patients with symptoms or signs of HF is diagnostic of HFNEF<sup>13</sup>. However, if the ratio is between 8 and 15, it can suggest a diastolic dysfunction, but other echocardiographic parameters should also be used to support this diagnosis. These include measurements of the LV mass index (&gt; 122 g/m<sup>2</sup> in women and &gt; 149 g/m<sup>2</sup> in men), left atrial volume index (LAV-I &gt; 40 ml/m<sup>2</sup>), transmitral flow Doppler ( E/A ratio &lt; 0.5 and time of E deceleration &gt; 280 ms) and pulmonary venous flow Doppler (Ard-Ad &gt; 30ms). The directive also allows the identification of HFNEF without the parameters of TDE, using the electrocardiogram (ECG - presence of atrial fibrillation) and BNP-Pro-BNP measurements<sup>13</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Treatment</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The objectives of the treatment of HFNEF are similar to those of HFREF, aiming at improving the quality of life with symptom improvement, increasing exercise tolerance and reducing the number of hospitalizations, increasing survival (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_21t02-body2">Table 2</xref>).</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_21t02-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-03-0414-00021-gt02-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>The most recent directives of the Brazilian Society of Cardiology (2002)<sup>15</sup>, European Society(2008)<sup>16</sup> and ACC/AHA (2005)<sup>17</sup> for the diagnosis and treatment of HF mention the HFNEF. However, the recommendations for the treatment are speculative, due to the limited data available. In the European Directive of 2008, the recommendation is to use a therapeutic approach similar to that used for HFREF. The directive of the ACC/AHA recommends the management of HFNEF with class IIb with a level of evidence C. The directives of the Brazilian Society of Cardiology, also due to the lack of consistent data, recommend the same medications used in the management of HFREF, with class IIa and recommendation grade B.</p>
      <p>The choice of medication in HFNEF, according to the directive of the ACC/AHA is based on evidence for four key points:</p>
      <p>1) Control of systolic and diastolic hypertension;</p>
      <p>2) Control of ventricular response in patients with atrial fibrillation;</p>
      <p>3) Control of pulmonary congestion and peripheral edema with diuretics;</p>
      <p>4) Coronary revascularization in patients with CAD in whom ischemia has an adverse effect on the diastolic function.</p>
      <p>The decrease in the LVH is an important therapeutic goal in HFNEF, as it can lead to an improvement in the diastolic function. A meta-analysis published in 2003 evaluated the efficacy of different medications in the reversal of LVH in patients with hypertension. Eighty studies were assessed for the relative decrease in LV mass index (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_21f04-body2">Figure 4</xref>)<sup>18</sup>.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_21f04-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-03-0414-00021-gf05-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>The treatment of HFNEF is still empirical and the recommendations are based on the outcomes of small clinical trials, personal experience and the control of comorbidities that correlate with HFNEF (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5-body2">Figure 5</xref>).</p>
      <fig id="f5-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-03-0414-00021-gf06-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>Except for the CHARM-preserved<sup>19</sup>, SENIORS, PEP-CHF and DIG studies<sup>20</sup>, no large-scale study - randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled - is available for the treatment of patients with HFNEF<sup>21</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Non-pharmaceutical approach</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The first great challenge is how to conduct a change in the lifestyle, particularly in elderly individuals with HFNEF, as few patients will adhere to a program of new life styles in substitution of models that have been used for decades. Stop smoking is a fundamental behavior change in the treatment of HFNEF<sup>22</sup>.</p>
      <p>Alcohol has a deleterious effect on the heart and increases blood pressure and must be avoided by patients with HFNEF. Regular physical activity decreases blood pressure (BP) and improves endothelial function; thus, functional class II patients should be encouraged to perform some type of physical activity daily<sup>22</sup>. Weight reduction also reduces blood pressure and has an important role in diabetic patients. The reduction in table salt consumption is also effective in the control of BP<sup>23</sup>. The preservation of kidney function is important in patients with HFNEF and prophylactic measures to prevent the deterioration of the renal filtration capacity must always be adopted.</p>
      <p>Other associated comorbidities that directly or indirectly worsen the diastolic function, such as anemia, hypothyroidism, obesity and sleep apnea must be investigated and treated adequately<sup>23</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Calcium-channel blockers</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Calcium-channel blockers (CCB), which decrease the heart rate (HR) and the myocardial contractility, can be beneficial for patients with HFNEF<sup>24</sup>.</p>
      <p>Two small studies have compared a placebo with verapamil<sup>25,26</sup>. Setaro et al<sup>25</sup> studied 22 patients with HF and LVEF &gt; 45% and observed that verapamil improved symptoms and exercise tolerance when compared to the placebo<sup>22</sup>. The results by Hung et al, who studied 15 patients, were very similar, with symptom and exercise tolerance improvement<sup>26</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Beta-blockers</bold>
      </p>
      <p>In the normal heart, when there is an increase in the HR, the response will be an increase in contractility and relaxation velocity. In HFNEF, due to the slow decline in the LV pressure, there is an increase in the end-diastolic pressure (EDP). In patients with diastolic dysfunction grades I and II, the duration of diastole is fundamental and beta-blockers (BB) improve the symptoms, as by reducing the HR, they increase the time of relaxation duration, and then a higher diastolic filling occurs. Differently, in patients with grades III and IV of diastolic dysfunction, the ventricular filling is complete in the middle of diastole and these patients have a fixed systolic volume. The decrease in the HR between 50 and 60 bpm can further reduce the cardiac output (CO), worsening the symptoms of these patients. The treatment with beta-blockers must be initiated with low doses, which should be increased gradually until reaching the maximum recommended dose<sup>27</sup>.</p>
      <p>Aronow et al<sup>28</sup> studied 158 patients with HF and LVEF &gt; 40% post-acute myocardial infarction (AMI); one group received propranolol and the other did not. After one year of treatment, an improvement in the LVEF, a higher reduction in the LV mass and a lower mortality (56% vs. 76%) were observed in the group receiving propranolol, when compared to the group that did not use the drug<sup>28</sup>.</p>
      <p>The study has methodological limitations due to the lack of a placebo group and also due to the fact that it selected a group of ischemic patients, as the beneficial action of beta-blockers in patients with AMI is well-recognized.</p>
      <p>Dobre et al<sup>29</sup> observed 443 patients with HF and LVEF &gt; 40%, hospitalized due to decompensated HF, of which 227 (51%) received BB at the hospital discharge. The patients were followed for 25 months. The results showed that the mortality due to all causes was 17.6% in the group that received BB and 33.8% in the group that did not. In spite of its limitations (non-randomized study), this prospective observational study was the first to suggest that the prescription of a BB is associated with reduced mortality in patients with advanced HFNEF<sup>29</sup>.</p>
      <p>The SENIORS study<sup>30</sup>, which involved 2,000 patients randomized to placebo and nebivolol, was the first study to evaluate the effects of nebivolol in elderly patients with HF, of which 35% presented preserved LVEF<sup>30</sup>. Nebivolol decreased the combined primary outcome of death or hospitalization, but the effect on all causes of mortality was lower when compared with younger patients with systolic dysfunction. The study was not designed to evaluate separately the effects of nebivolol in patients with HFNEF<sup>30</sup>.</p>
      <p>The Swedic<sup>31</sup> study assessed 113 patients with symptoms of HFNEF, who were randomized to treatment with carvedilol or placebo, with assessment performed by echocardiogram at the initial assessment and 6 months later. Carvedilol use resulted in an improvement of the E/A ratio, but without a significant improvement in DT, time of isovolumetric relaxation or pulmonary vein flow velocity<sup>31</sup>.</p>
      <p>The main benefits of BB in HFNEF are associated with the increase in diastolic filling, improving the myocardial perfusion and thus, reducing the ischemia, in addition to promoting an anti-hypertensive effect, decreasing LV hypertrophy and reducing cardiac arrhythmias<sup>29</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Diuretics</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Diuretics improve the HFNEF symptoms, as they reduce the intravascular volume and lead the LV to a better position in the end-diastolic pressure-volume curve<sup>27</sup>.</p>
      <p>Therapies that result simply in a change of position in the end-diastolic pressure-volume curve, without changing the shape of the curve, are probably analog to the treatment of fever with paracetamol, i.e., they improve the symptoms, but they do not influence the cause and therefore, have no impact on long-term survival<sup>27</sup>.</p>
      <p>The Hong-Kong study<sup>32</sup>, interrupted early due to recruiting difficulties, showed that the diuretic therapy improves the symptoms of HFNEF and that neither irbesartan nor ramipril had an additional effect to the use of diuretics<sup>32</sup>.</p>
      <p>Patients with moderate HFNEF and arterial hypertension must use low doses of Thiazide diuretics, as the efficacy of low doses of diuretics as the first-choice treatment for the prevention of cardiovascular events has been well documented<sup>33</sup>.</p>
      <p>Patients that present severe HFNEF might need a loop diuretic to control pulmonary congestion. The basis for this treatment resides in a higher effectiveness of the loop diuretics, mainly if the kidney function is affected<sup>34</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Neurohormonal modulators are drugs that influence arterial hypertension, coronary artery disease, atrial fibrillation and diabetes mellitus.</p>
      <p>These medications are the basis of the treatment of HFNEF, as they are effective for the control of these diseases that contribute to the worsening of the diastolic function<sup>6</sup>.</p>
      <p>The angiotensin II predisposes to the onset of LVH, reduces relaxation and increases ventricular rigidity<sup>24</sup>. Medications that modulate the neurohormonal system, in addition to presenting beneficial hemodynamic effects, also reduce the growth of smooth muscle cells, prevent collagen deposition, reduce growth factor expression and promote the regression of myocardial fibrosis<sup>27</sup>.</p>
      <p>Studies have shown the decrease in LV mass with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEI). Brilla et al<sup>35</sup> described the regression of myocardial fibrosis by lisinopril in patients with hypertensive heart disease. The study assessed 35 patients with primary arterial hypertension, LVH and diastolic dysfunction. The patients were randomized to receive lisinopril or hydrochlorothiazide. The primary outcome was the assessment of myocardial fibrosis through an endomyocardial biopsy, with the measurement of the collagen volume fraction and myocardial concentration of hydroxyproline. In the lisinopril group, there was a mean decrease of 6.9% in the concentration of hydroxyproline and a mean decrease of 9.9 ug/mg to 8.3 ug/mg of LV weight. The results were associated with an increase in the E/A ratio (0.72 to 0.91) and a decrease in the time of isovolumetric relaxation (123 ms to 81 ms). The study concluded that, in patients with hypertensive cardiopathy, the lisinopril reduced the myocardial fibrosis, regardless of the LVH regression, which is followed by an improvement in the diastolic function<sup>35</sup>.</p>
      <p>The PEP-CHF study<sup>36</sup>, which was a double-blind one, compared a placebo with perindopril 4mg, in 850 patients (age &gt; 70 yrs) with HF and preserved EF. The combined primary outcome was mortality due to all causes and hospitalization after one year of follow-up. The effects of the perindopril on the morbimortality during one year were uncertain, as the study had little statistical power to evaluate primary outcomes. However, there was an improvement in symptoms and in the capacity to perform exercises in the perindopril group, as well as a lower number of hospitalizations during the first year of follow-up<sup>36</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Angiotensin-receptor blockers</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The CHARM-Preserved<sup>19</sup> study was designed to evaluate the role of angiotensin-receptor blockers (ARBs) in patients with HFNEF (LVEF &gt; 40%). The study evaluated 3,023 patients that were randomized to candesartan or placebo after 36.6 months of follow-up. The primary outcome of the study (cardiovascular death or hospitalization due to HF) occurred in 22% of the group receiving candesartan and in 24% of the placebo group. The study showed a similar mortality rate between the two groups, but the number of hospitalizations was lower in the candesartan group. Candesartan showed a moderate impact in the prevention of hospitalizations due to HF in patients with LVEF &gt; 40%; however, there was no difference regarding the mortality rate between the two groups<sup>19</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Aldosterone receptor antagonists</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Aldosterone-receptor blockers, such as spironolactone and eplerone are potassium-saving diuretics capable of reducing the BP, improving endothelial function and inhibiting fibrosis. The difference between spironolactone and eplerone is that the latter has a reduced effect on progesterone and androgen receptors. Comparative studies have shown that eplerone has an anti-hypertensive effect similar to enalapril, amlodipine, losartan and spironolactone<sup>6</sup>. Spironolactone suppresses the vascular conversion of angiotensin II, improving the endothelial function and inhibiting perivascular fibrosis. The chronic treatment with spironolactone decreases the LV mass and markers of myocardial fibrosis in plasma<sup>6</sup>.</p>
      <p>Eplerenone has similar effects to those of spironolactone. Studies such as the 4E-Left Ventricular Hypertrophy<sup>37</sup> confirmed the beneficial effects of eplerenone in reducing the LV mass in patients with arterial hypertension. In this study, patients that received 200 mg of eplerenone were compared with patients that received 40 mg of enalapril and patients that received a combination of 200 mg of eplerenone and 10 mg of enalapril. The primary outcome was the alteration in LV mass in a 9-month period. Eplerenone was as effective as enalapril in reducing the LVH and in the control of BP. The combination of eplerenone and enalapril was more effective in reducing the LV mass and systolic pressure than eplerenone alone<sup>37</sup>.</p>
      <p>The changes in LV mass and hypertrophy have important implications for the treatment of HFNEF. Although ACEI and ARBs reduce the levels of aldosterone in blood in the beginning of the treatment, there is a rebound effect after some time, in which the levels of aldosterone increase again in spite of the maintained treatment. Thus, medications that inhibit the action of aldosterone can have a differential role in the treatment of HFNEF<sup>6</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Renin inhibitors</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The ARAS block can also be obtained through the inhibition of renin through aliskiren, a new renin inhibitor (RI), which is active by the oral route of administration. No studies have been carried out in patients with HFNEF, only concluded studies with patients that presented HFREF<sup>38</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Digoxin</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The digitalis is one of the oldest medications used in the control of HF, but it has been historically considered counter-indicated in patients with HFNEF.<sup>2</sup> Theoretical considerations suggest a potential benefit, as well as damage caused by digoxin in this group of patients. For instance, digoxin can improve the active energy dependence of the diastolic function<sup>39</sup>, which can consequently lead to beneficial effects in the neurohormonal profile. On the contrary, digitalis can produce an increase in the systolic energy requirement, adding an overload of cytosolic calcium in the diastole. This effect might not be clinically apparent, but during a hemodynamic stress, the digitalis can promote or contribute to diastolic dysfunction<sup>2</sup>.</p>
      <p>The DIG study<sup>20</sup> was, until recently, the only large-scale study of a drug for patients with HFNEF<sup>24</sup>. As part of the entire DIG Program, a study was carried out with 988 patients with HF and LVEF &gt; 45%, who were randomized to receive placebo or digoxin. By comparison, 6,800 patients with HFREF were randomized to receive placebo or digoxin. In the HFNEF group, the percentage of death was the same as in the placebo group (23.4%). The digoxin did not reduce mortality, but reduced the rate of hospitalization (risk rate of 0.82 for digoxin)<sup>20</sup>.</p>
      <p>In spite of the DIG study results, digoxin is not broadly used in the treatment of patients with HFNEF, as other agents can be more effective.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Statins</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The use of statins has increased in the last decade, mainly due to the large number of clinical trials that demonstrated its effectiveness in several models of disease<sup>2</sup>.</p>
      <p>In general, the benefit of statins in patients with HFNEF can be divided in two groups: First, statins are associated with the decrease in blood levels of lipids, which is associated with the decrease of cardiovascular events. Second, statins can have an effect that is independent from lipid level decrease (pleiotropic effect), which can include the decrease in the LV mass and cardiac fibrosis, a favorable effect in the neurohumoral system and an increase in the arterial elasticity, effects that can have an impact in the evolution of diastolic dysfunction<sup>2</sup>.</p>
      <p>In a retrospective analysis of a small group of 137 patients with HFNEF<sup>37</sup>, the use of statins was associated with improved survival, with a relative risk of death of 0.22<sup>40</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Trimetazidine</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Trimetazidine is a drug that modifies the use of energy substrates in the heart through the inhibition of cardiac fatty acid oxidation, thus improving myocardial ischemia. A study showed that the use of trimetazidine, with an optimized specific therapy in elderly patients with ischemic myocardiopathy, has beneficial effects on the systolic and diastolic function and improves quality of life<sup>41</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Future perspectives</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The ideal therapeutic agent should have as objective the mechanisms that cause the HFNEF. This agent should then improve calcium homeostasis, block the neurohormonal activation, prevent and reverse fibrosis and improve the ventricular and arterial elasticity. Some existing medications already have such properties and many others are being developed. Unfortunately, there have been few randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled studies that evaluated the efficacy and safety of these measurements in the treatment of HFNEF. The difficulties that have prevented the performance of such studies - lack of acknowledgement of the importance of HFNEF, difficulty to define the profile of the population to be studied, lack of concordance in the definition of the diagnostic criteria for HFNEF - seem to have decreased in the last years, with the improvement of the knowledge on the physiopathology of HFNEF and also in relation to new diagnostic methods such as BNP and TDE.</p>
      <p>The I-Preserve study<sup>42</sup> is a large, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study, involving 4,128 patients that will investigate the benefits of irbesartan in HFNEF. The recruiting phase was completed in 2005 and the final results are predicted for the end of 2008. The inclusion criteria were: patients aged at least 60 years, symptoms of HF with LVEF <underline>&gt;</underline> 45% and hospitalization due to HF in the last six months or evidence of HF with diastolic dysfunction. The primary outcome is death due to all causes or hospitalization due to CVD. The main difference between the I-Preserve and the CHARM studies is in the cutoff for the LVEF (40% x 45%)<sup>42</sup>.</p>
      <p>Another ongoing study (recruiting phase) is the TopCat study, which will evaluate the effects of spironolactone <italic>versus</italic> placebo in patients with HFNEF (LVEF <underline>&gt;</underline> 45%). The primary outcome is a combination between cardiovascular mortality, aborted cardiac death or hospitalization due to HF. The study will be finished in July 2012<sup>2</sup>.</p>
      <p>The increase in ventricular and vascular rigidity present in HFNEF is due, in part, to the formation of non-enzymatic cross-bridges that develop between advanced glycated end products (AGE) and proteins such as collagen and elastin. A thiazolium derivative known as alagebrium (ALT 711) seems to be efficient to break the cross-bridges and thus, improve the ventricular distensibility and increase arterial compliance. Initial clinical studies showed an increase in arterial compliance in elderly individuals with systolic arterial hypertension. Alagebrium can therefore be a beneficial agent in the treatment of HFNEF<sup>22</sup>.</p>
      <p>Little et al<sup>43</sup> evaluated alagebrium in an open study with 23 stable patients with HFNEF (LVEF <underline>&gt;</underline> 50%) for 16 weeks. Alagebrium use was associated with decreased LV mass, improvement in diastolic dysfunction index at the TDE and improvement in the quality of life. However, there was no alteration in the BP, in pulse pressure and aortic distensibility. Other studies at phase II with the medication are currently being carried out (check <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.clinicaltrials.gov">www.clinicaltrials.gov</ext-link>)<sup>22</sup>.</p>
      <p>One of the reasons why the use of beta-blockers has shown to be useful in the treatment of HF is due, in part, to the decrease in HR. As the HR is one of the main determinants of myocardial oxygen consumption, the decrease in HR can be related to an improvement in ischemia<sup>44</sup>. Ivabradin, a HR selective reduction agent that acts by blocking the type If potassium channel in the cells of the sinoatrial node, demonstrated beneficial effects in the decrease of myocardial ischemia through a decrease in HR. Ivabradin might be useful for the treatment of patients with HFNEF, as there is a parallel between the decrease in HR and a clinical improvement in HF. The use of ivabradin can improve the clinical picture of HFNEF by prolonging the time of diastole through the HR decrease, without a negative impact on ventricular function<sup>45</sup>.There is an ongoing study with ivabradin in HF with LVEF &lt; 40%, the BEAUTIFUL Study, which will be an important step in determining the importance of HR in patients with CAD and ventricular dysfunction<sup>44</sup>.</p>
      <p>Another ongoing study involves the drug MCC-135, which would be used to improve the diastolic function by increasing the absorption of calcium by the sarcoplasmatic reticulum and inhibiting the sodium-potassium exchange pump. The MCC135-GO1 is a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study at phase II, carried out in 500 patients with HF, of which 230 have HFNEF. The results of the study have not been presented yet<sup>46</sup>.</p>
      <p>Researchers have been very interested in the development of endothelin receptor antagonists for the treatment of HF. Nevertheless, the attempts to use bosentan, darusentan and tezosentan in patients with HFREF have been unsuccessful<sup>47</sup>. Currently, it has been acknowledged that endothelin might have an important role in the development of diastolic dysfunction. The endothelin interacts with the ARAS and metalloproteinases in the development of diastolic dysfunction and this process can be controlled by the type-A endothelin receptor antagonist.</p>
      <p>The cardiac resynchronization therapy (CRT) for patients with HFREF with dyssynchrony has shown to improve both systolic and diastolic function<sup>48</sup>, and the diastolic indices seem to improve after the CRT, especially in patients with non-ischemic cardiomyopathy<sup>48</sup>.</p>
      <p>The experience of CRT in patients with HFNEF is still limited and the significance of the dyssynchrony in patients with HFNEF is yet to be clarified.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Conclusion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>We have observed, in the last years, an increase in the understanding of the physiopathological alterations involved in HFNEF, in which the importance of the diastolic function in relation to the mechanisms of ventricular filling, relaxation and elasticity, in addition to the ventricular/arterial rigidity and the left atrium function, have an important role in the physiopathology of HFNEF. The perfect understanding of these alterations will help future researches for new therapies for HFNEF.</p>
      <p>The establishment of criteria for the diagnosis and ruling out of HFNEF is useful not only for the individual care of patients, but also for the recruiting in clinical trials that will evaluate therapies for HFNEF.</p>
      <p>Ongoing studies, with medications currently employed in the treatment of HF and new drugs and technologies being developed, will modify the treatment of HFNEF in the next decades, allowing a better quality of life for patients with this severe disease.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Evandro Tinoco Mesquita is the national coordinator of I-Preserve Study carried out by SANOFI-AVENTIS Laboratories and Bristol-Myers-Squibb.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
      </p>
      <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Study Association</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This article is part of the thesis of master submitted by Ant&#244;nio Jorge Lagoeiro Jorge, from Universidade Federal Fluminense.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
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