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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">DqjZh8vgqNJGpfwzBg5nfBk</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00006</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2010000300006</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(10)09400306</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2010000300006</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigos Originais</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Altera&#231;&#245;es na produ&#231;&#227;o de IL-10 e TNF-&#945; no m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico em ratos com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca secund&#225;ria ao infarto do mioc&#225;rdio</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lopes</surname>
            <given-names>Renato Delacio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Batista J&#250;nior</surname>
            <given-names>Miguel Luiz</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rosa</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Cesar</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lira</surname>
            <given-names>Fabio Santos de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Martins Jr</surname>
            <given-names>Eivor</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Shimura</surname>
            <given-names>Alex Yamashita</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Brum</surname>
            <given-names>Patr&#237;cia Chakur</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lancha Jr</surname>
            <given-names>Antonio Herbert</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Seelaender</surname>
            <given-names>Mar&#237;lia C. L.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lopes</surname>
            <given-names>Antonio Carlos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="state">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff03">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Durham- North Caroline</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state"/>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Duke Clinical Research Institute</institution>
        <country country="US">United States</country>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff02">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Mogi das Cruzes</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de Mogi das Cruzes</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>03</month>
        <year>2010</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>94</volume>
      <issue>3</issue>
      <fpage>313</fpage>
      <lpage>320</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>14</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2009</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>15</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2009</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>12</day>
          <month>08</month>
          <year>2009</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>FUNDAMENTO: Estudos recentes demonstram que a express&#227;o de mediadores inflamat&#243;rios, como as citocinas, &#233; um importante fator de desenvolvimento e progress&#227;o da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC), principalmente na presen&#231;a de disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda. Essas altera&#231;&#245;es t&#234;m sido demonstradas tanto no plasma como no m&#250;sculo card&#237;aco e, mais recentemente, no m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico de ratos e pacientes com IC. OBJETIVO: Investigar a produ&#231;&#227;o e express&#227;o do fator de necrose tumoral-&#945; (TNF-&#945;) e interleucina-10 (IL-10) no m&#250;sculo s&#243;leo e extensor digital longo (EDL) em animais com disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular p&#243;s-infarto do mioc&#225;rdio (IM). M&#201;TODOS: Utilizaram-se ratos Wistar machos que foram submetidos &#224; ligadura da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria esquerda sem posterior reperfus&#227;o. Quatro semanas ap&#243;s esse procedimento, os animais foram submetidos &#224; an&#225;lise ecocardiogr&#225;fica e divididos nos seguintes grupos experimentais: falso operado (Sham) e IM. Mantiveram-se em observa&#231;&#227;o por um per&#237;odo adicional de 8 semanas. RESULTADOS: O n&#237;vel da citocina TNF-&#945; aumentou 26,5% (p &lt; 0,05), e sua express&#227;o g&#234;nica, 3 vezes (p &lt; 0,01). O n&#237;vel de IL-10 apresentou diminui&#231;&#227;o de 38,2% (p &lt; 0,05). Ambas as altera&#231;&#245;es ocorreram apenas no m&#250;sculo s&#243;leo, sem altera&#231;&#245;es no EDL. A diminui&#231;&#227;o (36,5%, p &lt; 0,05) na raz&#227;o IL-10/ TNF-&#945; deveu-se tanto ao aumento dos n&#237;veis teciduais do TNF-&#945; quanto &#224; diminui&#231;&#227;o da IL-10 dos n&#237;veis teciduais. CONCLUS&#195;O: Nossos resultados demonstraram altera&#231;&#245;es relevantes na raz&#227;o IL-10/ TNF-&#945;, o que pode ter um papel aditivo na avalia&#231;&#227;o da deteriora&#231;&#227;o e progress&#227;o do quadro da disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda p&#243;s-IM. Al&#233;m disso, nosso estudo sugere que essas altera&#231;&#245;es parecem estar relacionadas ao tipo de fibra muscular.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>Disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda</kwd>
        <kwd>m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico</kwd>
        <kwd>citocinas</kwd>
        <kwd>inflama&#231;&#227;o</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>28</day>
        <month>04</month>
        <year>2010</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>ARTIGO ORIGINAL </p>
    <p> BIOLOGIA MOLECULAR</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Altera&#231;&#245;es na produ&#231;&#227;o de IL-10 e TNF-</bold>
      <bold>&#945; no m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico em ratos com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca secund&#225;ria ao infarto do mioc&#225;rdio</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Renato Delacio Lopes<sup>II, III</sup>; Miguel Luiz Batista J&#250;nior<sup>I</sup>; Jos&#233; Cesar Rosa<sup>I</sup>; Fabio Santos de Lira<sup>I</sup>; Eivor Martins Jr<sup>I</sup>; Alex Yamashita Shimura<sup>I</sup>; Patr&#237;cia Chakur Brum<sup>I</sup>; Antonio Herbert Lancha Jr<sup>I</sup>; Mar&#237;lia C. L. Seelaender<sup>I</sup>; Antonio Carlos Lopes<sup>II</sup></bold>
    </p>
    <p><sup>I</sup>Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo </p>
    <p><sup>II</sup>Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo</p>
    <p><sup>III</sup>Universidade de Mogi das Cruzes, Mogi das Cruzes </p>
    <p><sup>IV</sup>Duke Clinical Research Institute, Durham- North Caroline, USA</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="back">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESUMO</bold>
    </p>
    <p><bold>FUNDAMENTO: </bold> Estudos recentes demonstram que a express&#227;o de mediadores inflamat&#243;rios, como as citocinas, &#233; um importante fator de desenvolvimento e progress&#227;o da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC), principalmente na presen&#231;a de disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda. Essas altera&#231;&#245;es t&#234;m sido demonstradas tanto no plasma como no m&#250;sculo card&#237;aco e, mais recentemente, no m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico de ratos e pacientes com IC. </p>
    <p><bold>OBJETIVO:</bold> Investigar a produ&#231;&#227;o e express&#227;o do fator de necrose tumoral-&#945; (TNF-&#945;) e interleucina-10 (IL-10) no m&#250;sculo s&#243;leo e extensor digital longo (EDL) em animais com disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular p&#243;s-infarto do mioc&#225;rdio (IM). </p>
    <p><bold>M&#201;TODOS:</bold> Utilizaram-se ratos Wistar machos que foram submetidos &#224; ligadura da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria esquerda sem posterior reperfus&#227;o. Quatro semanas ap&#243;s esse procedimento, os animais foram submetidos &#224; an&#225;lise ecocardiogr&#225;fica e divididos nos seguintes grupos experimentais: falso operado (Sham) e IM. Mantiveram-se em observa&#231;&#227;o por um per&#237;odo adicional de 8 semanas. </p>
    <p> RESULTADOS: O n&#237;vel da citocina TNF-&#945; aumentou 26,5% (p &lt; 0,05), e sua express&#227;o g&#234;nica, 3 vezes (p &lt; 0,01). O n&#237;vel de IL-10 apresentou diminui&#231;&#227;o de 38,2% (p &lt; 0,05). Ambas as altera&#231;&#245;es ocorreram apenas no m&#250;sculo s&#243;leo, sem altera&#231;&#245;es no EDL. A diminui&#231;&#227;o (36,5%, p &lt; 0,05) na raz&#227;o IL-10/ TNF-&#945; deveu-se tanto ao aumento dos n&#237;veis teciduais do TNF-&#945; quanto &#224; diminui&#231;&#227;o da IL-10 dos n&#237;veis teciduais. </p>
    <p><bold>CONCLUS&#195;O:</bold> Nossos resultados demonstraram altera&#231;&#245;es relevantes na raz&#227;o IL-10/ TNF-&#945;, o que pode ter um papel aditivo na avalia&#231;&#227;o da deteriora&#231;&#227;o e progress&#227;o do quadro da disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda p&#243;s-IM. Al&#233;m disso, nosso estudo sugere que essas altera&#231;&#245;es parecem estar relacionadas ao tipo de fibra muscular.</p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave: </bold> Disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda, m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico, citocinas, inflama&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC) &#233; uma s&#237;ndrome cl&#237;nica de fisiopatologia complexa que pode ser resultante de qualquer disfun&#231;&#227;o funcional ou estrutural que atinja o cora&#231;&#227;o e, consequentemente, comprometa a capacidade dos ventr&#237;culos de encherem e bombearem sangue satisfatoriamente<sup>1,2</sup>. As manifesta&#231;&#245;es cardinais da IC s&#227;o dispneia e fadiga, as quais podem limitar a capacidade de realiza&#231;&#227;o de esfor&#231;o f&#237;sico (intoler&#226;ncia ao exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico) e culminar em processos que levem &#224; congest&#227;o pulmonar e sist&#234;mica e ao aumento da resist&#234;ncia vascular perif&#233;rica<sup>1,3</sup>. As principais causas da IC, de origem card&#237;aca, s&#227;o as doen&#231;as das art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias, hipertens&#227;o, cardiomiopatias dilatadas e doen&#231;as das valvas card&#237;acas<sup>1,4</sup>.</p>
    <p>Atualmente, as altera&#231;&#245;es deteriorativas envolvidas na progress&#227;o da IC com disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular n&#227;o dependem somente dos par&#226;metros hemodin&#226;micos, mas tamb&#233;m dos processos que culminam na ativa&#231;&#227;o inflamat&#243;ria local (cora&#231;&#227;o) e sist&#234;mica<sup>5-7</sup>, evidenciadas pelo aumento, tanto na express&#227;o g&#234;nica como na proteica, de citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias, tais como: fator &#945; de necrose tumoral (TNF-&#945;), interleucinas 1&#946; (IL-1&#946;) e 6 (IL-6), entre outras. Essas altera&#231;&#245;es t&#234;m sido demonstradas tanto no plasma como nos m&#250;sculos esquel&#233;tico e card&#237;aco de ratos e pacientes com IC. Esses mediadores inflamat&#243;rios podem, al&#233;m de contribuir para a fisiopatologia e progress&#227;o da IC, influenciar diretamente no aparecimento das manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas da s&#237;ndrome da IC, principalmente nas altera&#231;&#245;es relacionadas &#224; diminui&#231;&#227;o e ao funcionamento da massa muscular<sup>8,9</sup>.</p>
    <p>Por conseguinte, apesar de, nos &#250;ltimos anos, a grande maioria dos estudos sobre IC ter se concentrado nas citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias, atualmente as citocinas anti-inflamat&#243;rias, em especial a IL-10, t&#234;m ganhado destaque e podem ter um papel importante na fisiopatologia da IC<sup>10,11</sup>. Em pacientes com IC e, principalmente, nos casos de disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda, uma diminui&#231;&#227;o na concentra&#231;&#227;o plasm&#225;tica de IL-10 tem sido relatada e correlacionada positivamente com uma piora na fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo<sup>12</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, em animais com IC p&#243;s-IM, a utiliza&#231;&#227;o da rela&#231;&#227;o da produ&#231;&#227;o da IL-10 e do TNF-&#945; (raz&#227;o IL-10/ TNF-&#945;) tem sido recentemente demonstrada como um indicador que se relaciona com maior precis&#227;o com o grau de disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular<sup>12</sup>.</p>
    <p>De fato, nos modelos animais e em pacientes com IC, a distribui&#231;&#227;o de fibras musculares esquel&#233;ticas em tipo I (aer&#243;bias), tipo IIa (aer&#243;bias e anaer&#243;bias) e tipo IIb (anaer&#243;bias) apresenta altera&#231;&#245;es na sua composi&#231;&#227;o. Notadamente, as fibras musculares esquel&#233;ticas do tipo I s&#227;o as mais afetadas, pois desenvolvem algumas caracter&#237;sticas similares &#224;s do tipo IIA<sup>13</sup>, al&#233;m da redu&#231;&#227;o da densidade capilar<sup>3</sup> e diminui&#231;&#227;o da atividade m&#225;xima da enzima citocromo C oxidase<sup>9</sup>, quando comparado ao mesmo tipo de fibra muscular em indiv&#237;duos sem altera&#231;&#245;es patol&#243;gicas no m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico. Da mesma forma, estudos realizados em ratos com disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular p&#243;s-IM t&#234;m reproduzido essas mesmas altera&#231;&#245;es<sup>14</sup>, demonstrando, dessa forma, que as fibras do tipo I do m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico perecem ser as mais afetadas nessa condi&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>Al&#233;m disso, essas altera&#231;&#245;es t&#234;m sido correlacionadas ao aumento na express&#227;o dos genes e produ&#231;&#227;o de citocinas (TNF-&#945;, IL-1&#946; e IL-6) no m&#250;sculo quadr&#237;ceps em humanos<sup>15</sup> e animais<sup>7</sup>. Apesar de as altera&#231;&#245;es delet&#233;rias ocorrerem predominantemente nas fibras do tipo I, estudos recentes t&#234;m demonstrado a presen&#231;a de uma condi&#231;&#227;o inflamat&#243;ria cr&#244;nica nesse tecido. Entretanto, at&#233; o momento, nenhum estudo avaliou a produ&#231;&#227;o dessas citocinas nos diferentes tipos de fibra muscular, fato que se torna ainda mais relevante ao considerarmos que esse tecido pode ser um importante "fornecedor" sist&#234;mico de citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias na presen&#231;a de disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda. Por sua vez, a an&#225;lise da express&#227;o g&#234;nica e a consequente produ&#231;&#227;o dessas citocinas podem ser um indicador mais preciso e/ou adicional para uma avalia&#231;&#227;o da presen&#231;a de marcadores inflamat&#243;rios alterados cronicamente na disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular.</p>
    <p>Dado o exposto, propomo-nos a estudar a rela&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de citocinas pr&#243;-TNF-&#945; e anti-inflamat&#243;ria (IL-10) no m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico em um modelo experimental em ratos com disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular p&#243;s-IM. Ainda, utilizamos o m&#250;sculo s&#243;leo (fibra do tipo I, predominantemente) e o extensor digital longo (EDL) (fibra do tipo IIb, predominantemente) para comparar o perfil dessas citocinas em diferentes tipos musculares.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>M&#233;todos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Animais</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Os procedimentos experimentais est&#227;o de acordo com os princ&#237;pios &#233;ticos na experimenta&#231;&#227;o animal adotados pelo Col&#233;gio Brasileiro de Experimenta&#231;&#227;o Animal (Cobea), tendo sido o protocolo para o uso de animais em experimenta&#231;&#227;o (009/2005) aprovado pela Comiss&#227;o de &#201;tica em Experimenta&#231;&#227;o Animal (Ceea) em reuni&#227;o realizada em 17 de fevereiro de 2005.</p>
    <p>Utilizaram-se ratos Wistar machos, com idade de 8 semanas. Durante o per&#237;odo experimental, foram mantidos em gaiolas coletivas para 5 ratos em biot&#233;rio com ciclo claro/escuro de 12/12 horas, com in&#237;cio do per&#237;odo claro &#224;s 7 horas, do Departamento de Biologia Celular e do Desenvolvimento no Instituto de Ci&#234;ncias Biom&#233;dicas da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo. A temperatura ambiente da sala foi mantida em 25 &#177; 2&#176;C. A umidade do ar foi mantida em 60 &#177; 5%. A todos os grupos, ofereceu-se ra&#231;&#227;o comercial balanceada (Nuvilab<sup>?</sup> CR1 - Nutrivital Nutrientes Ltda.) e &#225;gua <italic>ad libitum</italic>. A fim de minimizar a influ&#234;ncia aguda do <italic>status</italic> prandial nos resultados experimentais, todos os animais foram submetidos a jejum durante a noite anterior &#224; manh&#227; do sacrif&#237;cio.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Indu&#231;&#227;o do infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio (IM) atrav&#233;s da les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica por isquemia sem reperfus&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Esse procedimento cir&#250;rgico foi realizado por meio das t&#233;cnicas do laborat&#243;rio de fisiologia celular e do exerc&#237;cio (KCM ou MAC). Os animais foram submetidos &#224; anestesia com uma solu&#231;&#227;o de Ketalar&#174; (80 mg/kg) + Rompun&#174; (12 mg/kg). Depois da intuba&#231;&#227;o orotraqueal, o animal era submetido &#224; ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica com ventilador Harvard, modelo 683 (frequ&#234;ncia de 90 m/min e volume corrente de 2,0 ml). Ap&#243;s tricotomia, realizava-se toracotomia no hemit&#243;rax esquerdo, no espa&#231;o intercostal do <italic>ictus cordis,</italic> e o cora&#231;&#227;o era rapidamente exteriorizado. O ramo interventricular anterior da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria esquerda era identificado e ligado entre as bordas do ap&#234;ndice auricular esquerdo e o tronco da art&#233;ria pulmonar com fio Prolene 6-0. Promovia-se hiperinsufla&#231;&#227;o pulmonar, e a parede tor&#225;cica era fechada por sutura em bolsa previamente realizada. Para a opera&#231;&#227;o Sham, utilizou-se o mesmo procedimento cir&#250;rgico, por&#233;m sem o rompimento do peric&#225;rdio e a liga&#231;&#227;o da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria descendente anterior esquerda.</p>
    <p>Promovida a ligadura coronariana, os animais eram mantidos no biot&#233;rio por mais 3 semanas. A partir da quarta semana, realizava-se o ecodopplercardiograma (ECO) para confirma&#231;&#227;o da presen&#231;a do infarto, avalia&#231;&#227;o do tamanho deste e realiza&#231;&#227;o de medidas ecocardiogr&#225;ficas, incluindo fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Ecocardiograma Doppler transtor&#225;cico</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Durante 4 e 12 semanas ap&#243;s o IM, os animais foram submetidos &#224; anestesia com uma solu&#231;&#227;o de Ketalar&#174; (50 mg/kg) + Rompun&#174; (10 mg/kg) por via intraperitoneal para o ecocardiograma.</p>
    <p>O ecocardiograma foi realizado com aparelho HP Sonos 5500 (Hewlett Packard, Andover, MA, USA) utilizando transdutor de frequ&#234;ncia fundamental de 12 MHz, com as imagens obtidas com profundidade de 2 cm. Ap&#243;s anestesia e usando o mesmo esquema anterior, os animais eram posicionados em dec&#250;bito lateral esquerdo, e colocavam-se tr&#234;s eletrodos nas patas para obten&#231;&#227;o do eletrocardiograma.</p>
    <p>As imagens em cortes transversais do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo eram gravadas em fitas de v&#237;deo para posterior an&#225;lise. Foram utilizadas as janelas paraestenal esquerda (corte longitudinal e transversal) e apical (quatro e duas c&#226;maras). As medidas lineares, realizadas nas imagens obtidas pelo modo-M, foram: di&#226;metros do VE ao final da di&#225;stole (DDVE) e da s&#237;stole (DSVE), o di&#226;metro anteroposterior do &#225;trio esquerdo (AE) e o di&#226;metro de parede anterior do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo em di&#225;stole (Paved). A extens&#227;o do infarto (%IM), avaliada pela medida do comprimento das regi&#245;es acin&#233;tica e/ou hipocin&#233;tica (RAH) das paredes ventriculares, foi expressa como porcentagem do per&#237;metro total do contorno endoc&#225;rdico (PE) em tr&#234;s cortes transversais do VE (n&#237;vel das bordas das c&#250;spides da valva mitral, dos m&#250;sculos papilares e da regi&#227;o apical), segundo padroniza&#231;&#245;es anteriores caracterizadas pelo grupo do professor Paulo J. F. Tucci<sup>16,17</sup>, utilizando a f&#243;rmula: IIM (%) = (RAH/PE) x 100.</p>
    <p>A fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica foi avaliada pela fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o (FE). Os volumes ventriculares diast&#243;lico (Vd) e sist&#243;lico (Vs) do VE foram obtidos pelo m&#233;todo de Simpson biplano (apical, quatro e duas c&#226;maras), e calculou-se a FE pela f&#243;rmula: FE = (Vd - Vs / Vd) x 100. A fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica foi analisada utilizando-se os &#237;ndices derivados da curva de velocidade do fluxo diast&#243;lico mitral obtido pela t&#233;cnica de Doppler puls&#225;til. Obteve-se a curva de velocidade do fluxo diast&#243;lico a partir da imagem apical de quatro c&#226;maras, posicionando-se a amostragem de volume pr&#243;ximo &#224; face ventricular da valva mitral. Foram determinadas onda E, onda A e raz&#227;o E/A. Ao final do estudo por ECO, os animais em que o IM assumia tamanho maior do que 40% do VE foram selecionados para o grupo infarto do mioc&#225;rdio (IM). Ap&#243;s 12 semanas, os animais do grupo IM foram reavaliados conforme os par&#226;metros supracitados.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Desenho experimental</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Ap&#243;s a an&#225;lise ecocardiogr&#225;fica, os animais foram divididos nos seguintes grupos experimentais: falso operado (Sham, n = 13) e infarto do mioc&#225;rdio (IM, n = 17). Os animais Sham foram submetidos a todos os procedimentos cir&#250;rgicos, com exce&#231;&#227;o da ligadura da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria. Ap&#243;s esse per&#237;odo, os animais foram mantidos durante 8 semanas para observa&#231;&#227;o. Depois desse per&#237;odo, os animais foram sacrificados por decapita&#231;&#227;o sem anestesia.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Obten&#231;&#227;o e homogeneiza&#231;&#227;o dos tecidos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Imediatamente ap&#243;s o sacrif&#237;cio, os tecidos e &#243;rg&#227;os (f&#237;gado, pulm&#245;es, cora&#231;&#227;o, m&#250;sculo s&#243;leo e extensor digital longo - EDL) foram removidos, pesados, congelados em nitrog&#234;nio l&#237;quido e armazenados a -80&#176;C para dosagens posteriores.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Quantifica&#231;&#227;o das citocinas teciduais</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Para dosagem das citocinas TNF-&#945; (DY510) e IL-10 (DY522), utilizou-se o m&#233;todo <italic>enzyme-linked immunoabsorbent assay</italic> (DuoSet ELISA) de captura (R&amp;D System, Inc., Minneapolis, USA). Esse ensaio foi realizado em amostras homogeneizadas, provenientes dos diferentes grupos experimentais, de acordo com as normas descritas pelo fabricante. Os resultados est&#227;o expressos em pg por &#181;g de prote&#237;nas totais nos tecidos avaliados de acordo com o m&#233;todo colorim&#233;trico descrito por Bradford<sup>18</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Quantifica&#231;&#227;o da express&#227;o dos genes das citocinas teciduais</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Para isolar o RNA total do m&#250;sculo s&#243;leo e EDL (pata posterior direita), as amostras pesando entre 0,2 e 0,5 g foram homogeneizadas em TRIZOL <sup>&#174;</sup>Reagent, de acordo com as normas descritas pelo fabricante<sup>19</sup>. As amostras de RNA foram transcritas para DNA em um termociclador (Techne, Cambridge, UK). Para a s&#237;ntese do cDNA, utilizaram-se 2 &#181;g de RNA total de cada amostra. As amostras foram incubadas com 0,5 &#181;g/ml de oligo dT12-18 (Invitrogen, USA) a 65&#176;C por 5 minutos, para se obter a primeira fita de cDNA.</p>
    <p>Os <italic>primers</italic> foram sintetizados pela Integrated DNA Technologies (Prodimol Biotecnologia S/A). A sequ&#234;ncia foi determinada usando o <italic>software Primer</italic> 3, dispon&#237;vel no <italic>site</italic> <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.genome.wi.mit.edu">http://www.genome.wi.mit.edu</ext-link>. Selecionaram-se os <italic>primers</italic> sempre de acordo com os seguintes par&#226;metros descritos por Marone e cols.<sup>20</sup>: TNF-&#945; (NM 012675.2), <italic>sense</italic>: 5'TCT CAA AAC TCG AGT GAC AAG C 3', <italic>anti-sense</italic>: 5'GGT TGT CTT TGA GAT CCA TGC3'; IL-10 (NM 012854.1), <italic>sense</italic>: 5'GAG AGA AGC TGA AGA CCC TCT G3', <italic>anti-sense</italic>: 5'TCA TTC ATG GCC TTG TAG ACA C3'; e 18S (NM 213557.1), <italic>sense</italic>: 5'ACCAGTTCGCCATGGATGA3', <italic>anti-sense</italic>: 5'TGCCGGAGCCGTTGTC3'.</p>
    <p>A express&#227;o dos genes foi quantificada por PCR em tempo real por Higuchi e cols.<sup>21</sup>, utilizando os aparelhos 7500 Fast Real-Time PCR (Applied Biosystems, USA) e Syber <italic>green</italic> como marcadores de fluoresc&#234;ncia (n&#176;11744-500, Invitrogen, USA). As rea&#231;&#245;es foram realizadas em 25 &#181;l de uma mistura contendo 1 &#181;l do cDNA da amostra, 0,5 &#181;l dos <italic>primers</italic> (ajustados de acordo com a concentra&#231;&#227;o apresentada a seguir), 10,5 &#181;l de &#225;gua Depec e 12,5 &#181;l do <italic>mix</italic> Syber <italic>green master</italic> (dNTP - Tamp&#227;o de rea&#231;&#227;o, Taq DNA polimerase Syber <italic>green</italic> I). As condi&#231;&#245;es do PCR em tempo real foram: primeiro ciclo (&#250;nico) a 95&#176;C por 15 minutos para ativa&#231;&#227;o da enzima e 40 ciclos com fases de desnatura&#231;&#227;o a 95&#176;C por 15 segundos e anelamento a 60&#176;C por 30 segundos. Utilizou-se a sequ&#234;ncia de <italic>primers</italic> de acordo com as seguintes concentra&#231;&#245;es:</p>
    <p>&#149; M&#250;sculo s&#243;leo: TNF-&#945; e IL-10 (200 nM) e 18S (300 nM).</p>
    <p>&#149; EDL - TNF-&#945;: IL-10 (200 nM) e 18S (200 nM).</p>
    <p>
      <bold>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A an&#225;lise dos dados foi realizada por meio do <italic>software</italic> SigmaStat (vers&#227;o 3.1, SigmaStat, Systat, Point Richmond, CA). A m&#233;dia aritm&#233;tica e o erro padr&#227;o da m&#233;dia (EPM) foram calculados para todas as vari&#225;veis estudadas. Ap&#243;s o per&#237;odo experimental, os valores das diferentes an&#225;lises entre os resultados foram realizados por teste t-Student n&#227;o pareado. O n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia utilizado em todas as an&#225;lises foi inferior a 5%, ou seja, p &lt; 0,05.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Resultados</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Caracter&#237;sticas gerais dos grupos experimentais</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A mortalidade p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria foi de 23,8% (n = 5, animais que evolu&#237;ram ao &#243;bito durante as 24 horas ap&#243;s o procedimento cir&#250;rgico) no grupo IM e de 13,3% (n = 2) no grupo Sham. O peso corporal total dos pulm&#245;es, do f&#237;gado, dos m&#250;sculos s&#243;leo e EDL, em valor absoluto, n&#227;o foi diferentes em nenhum dos grupos avaliados (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref>). O grupo IM apresentou aumento no peso absoluto do cora&#231;&#227;o de 23,8% (p &lt; 0,012) quando comparado aos animais do grupo Sham. Os animais submetidos ao IM demonstraram aumento na rela&#231;&#227;o peso &#250;mido/peso seco dos pulm&#245;es (4,7%, p &lt; 0,011), no f&#237;gado (3,8, p &lt; 0,035), bem como diminui&#231;&#227;o no peso do m&#250;sculo s&#243;leo relativo ao peso corporal em 27,7% (p &lt; 0,002) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref>).</p>
    <table-wrap id="t1">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-03-0313-00006-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <table-wrap id="t2">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-03-0313-00006-gt02.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>
      <bold>Fun&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo em animais submetidos ao IM</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Nos 17 animais com IM, observaram-se altera&#231;&#245;es contr&#225;teis segmentares do ventr&#237;culo em estudo anatomopatol&#243;gico, ap&#243;s 4 semanas do procedimento cir&#250;rgico (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 3</xref>). Nenhum animal do grupo Sham apresentou altera&#231;&#227;o ecocardiogr&#225;fica do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo sugestiva de IM. As fra&#231;&#245;es de eje&#231;&#227;o (FE) e de encurtamento (FS) sist&#243;licos apresentaram redu&#231;&#227;o em 40,1% e 55,7% (p &lt; 0,001), respectivamente, quando esse resultado foi comparado com o obtido pelo grupo Sham. O volume diast&#243;lico final (VDF) apresentou aumento de 82,2% (p &lt; 0,01), quando comparado ao obtido pelo grupo Sham. Os animais do grupo IM apresentaram uma &#225;rea de infarto de 39 &#177; 0,05%.</p>
    <table-wrap id="t3">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-03-0313-00006-gt03.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>
      <bold>N&#237;veis de TNF-</bold>
      <bold>&#945; no m&#250;sculo estriado esquel&#233;tico</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O grupo de animais submetidos ao IM apresentou aumento significativo de 26,5% (p &lt; 0,05) na produ&#231;&#227;o de TNF-&#945; no m&#250;sculo s&#243;leo, quando comparado ao grupo Sham (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>). No m&#250;sculo EDL, os n&#237;veis de TNF-&#945; n&#227;o foram detectados. Os animais do grupo IM (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2A</xref>) apresentaram aumento significativo, em 3 vezes (p &lt; 0,01), na express&#227;o g&#234;nica de TNF-&#945; no m&#250;sculo s&#243;leo, sem altera&#231;&#227;o no m&#250;sculo EDL (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2b">Figura 2B</xref>).</p>
    <fig id="f1">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-03-0313-00006-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    <fig id="f2"/>
    <p>
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-03-0313-00006-e01.jpg"/></p>
    <p>
      <fig id="f2b">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-03-0313-00006-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>N&#237;veis de IL-10 no m&#250;sculo estriado esquel&#233;tico</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O grupo de animais submetidos ao IM apresentou diminui&#231;&#227;o significativa de 38,2% (p &lt; 0,05) na produ&#231;&#227;o de IL-10 no m&#250;sculo s&#243;leo, quando comparado ao grupo Sham-S (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>). No m&#250;sculo EDL, n&#227;o houve altera&#231;&#227;o nos n&#237;veis dessa citocina. Os animais do grupo IM (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2A</xref>) apresentaram aumento significativo em 3,6 vezes (p &lt; 0,05) na express&#227;o do gene IL-10 no m&#250;sculo s&#243;leo, sem altera&#231;&#227;o no m&#250;sculo EDL (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2b">Figura 2B</xref>).</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Raz&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de IL-10/TNF-</bold>
      <bold>&#945; no m&#250;sculo estriado esquel&#233;tico</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O grupo de animais submetidos ao IM apresentou diminui&#231;&#227;o significativa na raz&#227;o IL-10/TNF-&#945; de 36,5% (p &lt; 0,05), quando comparado ao grupo Sham. Na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3b">figura 3B</xref>, os dados demonstram a participa&#231;&#227;o de cada uma das citocinas na raz&#227;o IL-10/TNF-&#945;.</p>
    <fig id="f3"/>
    <p>
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-03-0313-00006-e02.jpg"/></p>
    <p>
      <fig id="f3b">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-03-0313-00006-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Discuss&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>No presente estudo, a concentra&#231;&#227;o da citocina pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;ria (TNF-&#945;), bem como sua express&#227;o g&#234;nica no m&#250;sculo s&#243;leo, apresentou-se aumentada em animais com disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular p&#243;s-IM. Tal fato foi evidenciado apenas nesse m&#250;sculo, sem altera&#231;&#227;o detectada no m&#250;sculo EDL. Al&#233;m disso, essas altera&#231;&#245;es foram acompanhadas por uma redu&#231;&#227;o na concentra&#231;&#227;o da citocina anti-inflamat&#243;ria (IL-10), tamb&#233;m evidenciada apenas no m&#250;sculo s&#243;leo, e, por sua vez, a raz&#227;o IL-10/ TNF-&#945; apresentou-se alterada, sugerindo o predom&#237;nio do TNF-&#945; em detrimento da IL-10 nesse tecido.</p>
    <p>A cirurgia de ligadura da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria descendente anterior esquerda tem sido utilizada como modelo experimental de IM em animais, por meio da indu&#231;&#227;o da isquemia do mioc&#225;rdio, com ou sem reperfus&#227;o<sup>7,22,23</sup>. Entretanto, dados a respeito da fun&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo s&#227;o insuficientes para a caracteriza&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica de IC, uma vez que essa s&#237;ndrome &#233; definida pela presen&#231;a de anormalidades hemodin&#226;micas, reten&#231;&#227;o h&#237;drica (congest&#227;o) e intoler&#226;ncia ao exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico<sup>24,25</sup>. Assim, mesmo nosso estudo apresentando dados sobre o quadro congestivo, tais como a raz&#227;o do peso seco pelo peso &#250;mido do f&#237;gado e pulm&#227;o, o que nos sugere a presen&#231;a de edema pulmonar e congest&#227;o hep&#225;tica, optamos por classificar o grupo IM como animais com disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular p&#243;s-IM e n&#227;o com IC. &#201; poss&#237;vel que a maioria dos animais do grupo IM tenha tamb&#233;m altera&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas de IC, mas isso n&#227;o foi estudado no presente trabalho.</p>
    <p>Inicialmente, postulou-se que a produ&#231;&#227;o de TNF-&#945; era exclusivamente executada por mon&#243;citos e macr&#243;fagos quando estimulados adequadamente<sup>26</sup>. Recentemente, a express&#227;o g&#234;nica e proteica de TNF-&#945; no m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico foi caracterizada em humanos<sup>27</sup>, em um estudo que demonstrou, pela primeira vez, a presen&#231;a dessa citocina na aus&#234;ncia de mon&#243;citos infiltrados ou macr&#243;fagos. Isso indicou que a pr&#243;pria fibra muscular esquel&#233;tica pode produzi-la, e assim esta poderia atuar de maneira aut&#243;crina e par&#225;crina, em quantidade suficiente para mediar uma s&#233;rie de altera&#231;&#245;es morfol&#243;gicas e funcionais no tecido<sup>3,28</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em nosso estudo, ratos com disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular p&#243;s-IM apresentaram um aumento no conte&#250;do da citocina pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;ria TNF-&#945; que foi apenas evidente no m&#250;sculo s&#243;leo, sem altera&#231;&#227;o no m&#250;sculo EDL (n&#227;o foi detectado pelo ELISA). Essa mesma condi&#231;&#227;o foi evidenciada pelo aumento na express&#227;o g&#234;nica do TNF-&#945;, sugerindo que o aumento do conte&#250;do proteico de TNF-&#945; pode ter sido resultante do aumento dos n&#237;veis de mRNA. Esse resultado est&#225; de acordo com outro estudo<sup>7</sup> que utilizou o mesmo modelo experimental e demonstrou aumento tanto na express&#227;o g&#234;nica como nos n&#237;veis musculares do TNF-&#945;. Por&#233;m, esses par&#226;metros foram avaliados no m&#250;sculo quadr&#237;ceps (misto com rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; composi&#231;&#227;o tipo de fibra muscular).</p>
    <p>Dessa forma, apesar de o aumento de mediadores inflamat&#243;rios (TNF-&#945;, IL-1&#946;, IL-6) no m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico ser bem caracterizado tanto em pacientes com IC<sup>15</sup> como em ratos com IC e disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda p&#243;s-IM<sup>7</sup>, ambas as an&#225;lises foram realizadas no m&#250;sculo quadr&#237;ceps, e pouco se sabe sobre qual &#233; o tipo de fibra muscular mais afetado na IC. Isso se torna ainda mais evidente quando se leva em considera&#231;&#227;o que, al&#233;m de essas altera&#231;&#245;es degenerativas no m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico terem sido relacionadas &#224; presen&#231;a desses marcadores, a maioria dos estudos tamb&#233;m tem demonstrado que o a fibra mais afetada, em termos morfol&#243;gicos e funcionais na IC, &#233; do tipo I<sup>3</sup>. Assim, mostramos, pela primeira vez, que essa condi&#231;&#227;o parece ser espec&#237;fica ao tecido muscular com o predom&#237;nio de fibras do tipo I. Como n&#227;o separamos o total do homogenato em fra&#231;&#227;o sol&#250;vel e ligada &#224; membrana celular, n&#227;o podemos inferir que a prote&#237;na avaliada foi aquela produzida exclusivamente pelo tecido avaliado.</p>
    <p>N&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos dessas citocinas em pacientes com IC t&#234;m sido relacionados tanto com o progn&#243;stico como com a severidade dessa doen&#231;a, fato que tem sido demonstrado ser ainda mais evidente em pacientes com IC mais avan&#231;ada (classe funcional IV, NYHA)<sup>6,29</sup>. Dessa forma, esse aumento tem sido apontado como resultante de um quadro inflamat&#243;rio perif&#233;rico, o qual seria idealmente desencadeado no m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico, por causa do fluxo sangu&#237;neo reduzido e consequente aumento de esp&#233;cies reativas do oxig&#234;nio<sup>5</sup>. Essa hip&#243;tese vem ganhando consist&#234;ncia, uma vez que os estudos, tanto em animais<sup>7,12,23,30,31</sup> como em humanos<sup>2,32,33</sup>, demonstraram que o aumento no <italic>millie</italic> inflamat&#243;rio local ocorre independentemente das altera&#231;&#245;es nos n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos, principalmente em pacientes em classes funcionais II e III (NYHA). Por conseguinte, o aumento da express&#227;o g&#234;nica e proteica dessas citocinas, mesmo sem altera&#231;&#245;es nos n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos, confirma os resultados obtidos por estudos que prop&#245;em que a inflama&#231;&#227;o local precede o aumento plasm&#225;tico e pode ser um indicador mais preciso no que diz respeito &#224; progress&#227;o da IC.</p>
    <p><italic>O</italic>s efeitos da IL-10, <italic>in vivo</italic>, t&#234;m sido observados em modelos de inflama&#231;&#227;o, autoimunidade, toler&#226;ncia e infec&#231;&#245;es por parasitas, todos em animais<sup>34</sup>. A IL-10 atenua, em camundongos, os efeitos delet&#233;rios induzidos por lipopolissacar&#237;deo (LPS) e SEB (enterotoxina estafilococos B). Al&#233;m disso, esses efeitos est&#227;o correlacionados &#224; diminui&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis circulantes de TNF-&#945;. Em macr&#243;fagos cultivados com LPS, al&#233;m da produ&#231;&#227;o aumentada das citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias, essa condi&#231;&#227;o &#233; seguida do aumento na IL-10 e tem o TNF-&#945; como importante indutor da express&#227;o g&#234;nica e produ&#231;&#227;o da IL-10<sup>34,35</sup>. Dessa forma, a IL-10 &#233; a principal citocina anti-inflamat&#243;ria e tem um papel importante em modular a produ&#231;&#227;o de TNF-&#945;.</p>
    <p>Em ratos com disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular p&#243;s-IM, os n&#237;veis teciduais de IL-10 foram reduzidos apenas no m&#250;sculo s&#243;leo. Nesses animais, a express&#227;o g&#234;nica apresentou-se aumentada no mesmo tecido, demonstrando que a diminui&#231;&#227;o em sua produ&#231;&#227;o pode n&#227;o estar relacionada, pelo menos neste aspecto, &#224;s altera&#231;&#245;es express&#227;o do mRNA. Isso sugere que o efeito desse modelo experimental na concentra&#231;&#227;o de IL-10 pode ter sido mediado em um n&#237;vel p&#243;s-transcricional, como a produ&#231;&#227;o de IL-10 por elementos regulat&#243;rios transcricionais, como os <italic>enhancers</italic> e/ou mecanismos de controle p&#243;s-transcricional. A &#250;ltima possibilidade &#233; descrita em clones de c&#233;lulas T, as quais expressam a IL-10 sem altera&#231;&#245;es detectada nos n&#237;veis de mRNA<sup>36</sup>. Assim, uma combina&#231;&#227;o de mecanismos p&#243;s-transcricional e ubiquitina&#231;&#227;o para a express&#227;o da IL-10 pode ter um papel crucial para essa citocina<sup>37</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, apesar de o TNF-&#945; ser capaz de induzir a express&#227;o g&#234;nica da IL-10<sup>34</sup> e, consequentemente, a express&#227;o da prote&#237;na, esse efeito parece ser dependente da intensidade da condi&#231;&#227;o inflamat&#243;ria, e, dessa forma, esse aumento na express&#227;o g&#234;nica da IL-10 poderia ter ocorrido por causa de uma diminui&#231;&#227;o na produ&#231;&#227;o da prote&#237;na (rela&#231;&#227;o mRNA/prote&#237;na), em dire&#231;&#227;o ao restabelecimento de uma condi&#231;&#227;o de equil&#237;brio.</p>
    <p>Por conseguinte, o que apresentamos de novo &#233; o fato de ter havido aumento n&#227;o s&#243; na express&#227;o g&#234;nica, mas tamb&#233;m no conte&#250;do da prote&#237;na, no caso da TNF-&#945;, e uma diminui&#231;&#227;o da prote&#237;na IL-10, sugerindo, nesta condi&#231;&#227;o, o direcionamento ao desequil&#237;brio na produ&#231;&#227;o delas. Essa condi&#231;&#227;o pode tender ao predom&#237;nio de um <italic>millieu</italic> pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rio em detrimento do anti-inflamat&#243;rio, notadamente atrav&#233;s da produ&#231;&#227;o aumentada de TNF-&#945; e IL-10 diminu&#237;da. Essa mesma rela&#231;&#227;o foi observada por Stumpf e cols.<sup>10</sup> que utilizaram a raz&#227;o IL-10/TNF-&#945; para caracterizar o "balan&#231;o" pr&#243;/ anti-inflamat&#243;rio. Nesse estudo, paciente com IC (classe funcional NYHA III/IV) apresentaram n&#237;veis aumentados de TNF-&#945; e diminu&#237;dos de IL-10, quando comparado a indiv&#237;duos controle (sem IC) da mesma faixa et&#225;ria.</p>
    <p>Apesar de os mecanismos moleculares n&#227;o estarem bem caracterizados, estudos que utilizaram a IL-10 como terap&#234;utica (rhIL-10, em humanos), assim como em camundongos nocautes (IL-10<sup>-</sup>/<sup>-</sup>), evidenciaram a import&#226;ncia dessa citocina em reverter as altera&#231;&#245;es provenientes da inflama&#231;&#227;o local, notadamente as mediadas pelo TNF-&#945;<sup>10</sup>. Esse resultado vai ao encontro do nosso, uma vez que a raz&#227;o IL-10/ TNF-&#945; diminuiu por causa de um aumento do TNF-&#945; e, principalmente, pela diminui&#231;&#227;o da IL-10, o que sugere um importante papel da IL-10 no "controle" inflamat&#243;rio local no m&#250;sculo s&#243;leo.</p>
    <p>Em pacientes com IC, a perda ou atrofia de massa muscular come&#231;a nos est&#225;gios precoces do desenvolvimento do quadro de IC<sup>8</sup>, relacionados mais &#224;s altera&#231;&#245;es intr&#237;nsecas no m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico<sup>3,38</sup> do que &#224;s provenientes da inatividade f&#237;sica (fator mais determinante em mulheres). Recentemente, tem sido demonstrado que, nessa condi&#231;&#227;o, ocorre uma ativa&#231;&#227;o imune, notadamente por meio de mediadores inflamat&#243;rios, que pode contribuir para o desenvolvimento desse quadro<sup>3,7,8,39</sup>. Em ratos com IC e disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda p&#243;s-IM, essa condi&#231;&#227;o tem sido reproduzida tanto pela diminui&#231;&#227;o na &#225;rea de sec&#231;&#227;o transversa como pelo aumento da produ&#231;&#227;o de citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias (m&#250;sculo quadr&#237;ceps)<sup>7</sup>, da mesma maneira que nosso estudo demonstrou uma redu&#231;&#227;o do peso relativo ao peso corporal no m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico, condi&#231;&#227;o que se mostrou dependente do tipo de fibra muscular predominante, uma vez que essa condi&#231;&#227;o somente esteve presente no m&#250;sculo s&#243;leo, sem altera&#231;&#227;o no m&#250;sculo EDL. Essas altera&#231;&#245;es afetam direta e indiretamente o m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico, e estudos recentes<sup>13,14</sup>, realizados em ratos com IC e disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda p&#243;s-IM, demonstraram que o tecido muscular - quando comparado aos tecidos em que predominam as fibras do tipo IIa e IIb (por exemplo, EDL) - em que predominam as fibras do tipo I (por exemplo, s&#243;leo) apresenta uma sensibilidade maior &#224;s altera&#231;&#245;es, que s&#227;o caracter&#237;sticas desse modelo experimental e que comprometem o aporte sangu&#237;neo e de oxig&#234;nio. Por conseguinte, as altera&#231;&#245;es avaliadas nas citocinas pr&#243; e anti-inflamat&#243;rias demonstraram a presen&#231;a de um estado inflamat&#243;rio cr&#244;nico no m&#250;sculo s&#243;leo, avaliada pela rela&#231;&#227;o IL-10/TNF-&#945;, a qual foi paralela a uma redu&#231;&#227;o na massa do muscular, condi&#231;&#227;o apenas evidenciada no m&#250;sculo com predomin&#226;ncia de fibras do tipo I (s&#243;leo).</p>
    <p>Vale destacar ainda que, diferentemente dos modelos supracitados, nossos animais ainda n&#227;o apresentavam manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas claras de IC, sugerindo que, mesmo antes do estabelecimento dessa s&#237;ndrome, altera&#231;&#245;es no m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico j&#225; s&#227;o evidentes em animais com disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda, e, dessa forma, o m&#250;sculo s&#243;leo pode ser um s&#237;tio de produ&#231;&#227;o de mediadores inflamat&#243;rios nessa condi&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>Em resumo, nossos resultados sugerem um papel de destaque da raz&#227;o IL-10/ TNF-&#945;, que pode ter um papel aditivo na avalia&#231;&#227;o da deteriora&#231;&#227;o e progress&#227;o do quadro da IC, uma vez que parece estar presente antes do estabelecimento da s&#237;ndrome cl&#237;nica da IC. No entanto, mais estudos s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para compreens&#227;o dos mecanismos moleculares que modulam os eventos supracitados.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O presente estudo foi financiado porFapesp n&#186; 05/01445-0 de Mar&#237;lia C. L. Seelaender e 07/52782-1 de Miguel Luiz Batista J&#250;nior.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de tese de doutorado de Miguel Luiz Batista J&#250;nior pelo Departamento de Biologia Celular e de Desenvolvimento do TCBI/USP.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="back" fn-type="corresp">
        <label>
          <bold>Correspond&#234;ncia:</bold>
        </label>
        <p> Miguel Luiz Batista J&#250;nior </p>
        <p> Av. Lineu Prestes, 1524 </p>
        <p> 05508-900 - Butant&#227; </p>
        <p> S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="migueljr@usp.br">migueljr@usp.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Artigo recebido em 15/04/09; revisado recebido em 14/07/09; aceito em 12/08/09</p>
  </body>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Articles</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Changes in the production of IL-10 and TNF-&#945; in skeletal muscle of rats with heart failure secondary to acute myocardial infarction</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>BACKGROUND: Recent studies show that the expression of inflammatory mediators, such as cytokines, is an important factor for the development and progression of heart failure (HF), especially in the presence of left ventricular dysfunction. These changes have been demonstrated both in the plasma and heart muscle and, more recently, in skeletal muscle of rats and in patients with HF. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the production and expression of tumor necrosis factor-&#945; (TNF) and interleukin-10 (IL-10) in the soleus and the extensor digitorum longus (EDL) muscles of animals with left ventricular dysfunction after myocardial infarction (MI). METHODS: We used male Wistar rats that underwent ligation of the left coronary artery without reperfusion. Four weeks after this procedure, the animals underwent echocardiography and were divided into the following experimental groups: sham operated (sham) and IM. They remained under observation for a further period of 8 weeks. RESULTS: The level of the cytokine TNF-&#945; increased by 26.5% (p &lt;0.05), and its gene expression increased 3 times (p &lt;0.01). The level of IL-10 decreased by 38.2% (p &lt;0.05). Both changes occurred only in the soleus muscle, with no change in the EDL. The decrease (36.5%, p &lt;0.05) in the IL-10/TNF-&#945; ratio was due to both increased tissue levels of TNF-&#945; and decreased tissue levels of IL-10. CONCLUSION: Our results showed significant changes in the IL-10/TNF-&#945; ratio, which may have an additive role in the assessment of deterioration and progression of left ventricular dysfunction post-MI. Furthermore, our study suggests that these changes seem to be related to the muscle fiber type. (Arq Bras Cardiol 2010; 94(3):293-300)</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Ventricular dysfunction, left</kwd>
        <kwd>muscle, skeletal</kwd>
        <kwd>cytokines</kwd>
        <kwd>inflammation</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>ORIGINAL ARTICLE</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fn id="top-body2">
          <label>
            <bold>Changes in the production of IL-10 and TNF-</bold>
          </label>
          <p>
            <bold>&#945; in skeletal muscle of rats with heart failure secondary to acute myocardial infarction</bold>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Renato Delacio Lopes<sup>II, III</sup>; Miguel Luiz Batista J&#250;nior<sup>I</sup>; Jos&#233; Cesar Rosa<sup>I</sup>; Fabio Santos de Lira<sup>I</sup>; Eivor Martins Jr<sup>I</sup>; Alex Yamashita Shimura<sup>I</sup>; Patr&#237;cia Chakur Brum<sup>I</sup>; Antonio Herbert Lancha Jr<sup>I</sup>; Mar&#237;lia C. L. Seelaender<sup>I</sup>; Antonio Carlos Lopes<sup>II</sup></bold>
      </p>
      <p><sup>I</sup>Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo</p>
      <p><sup>II</sup>Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo</p>
      <p><sup>III</sup>Universidade de Mogi das Cruzes, Mogi das Cruzes - Brazil</p>
      <p><sup>IV</sup>Duke Clinical Research Institute, Durham, North Caroline - USA</p>
      <p>Mailing address</p>
      <p>
        <bold>ABSTRACT</bold>
      </p>
      <p><bold>BACKGROUND: </bold> Recent studies show that the expression of inflammatory mediators, such as cytokines, is an important factor for the development and progression of heart failure (HF), especially in the presence of left ventricular dysfunction. These changes have been demonstrated both in the plasma and heart muscle and, more recently, in skeletal muscle of rats and in patients with HF.</p>
      <p><bold>OBJECTIVE:</bold> To investigate the production and expression of tumor necrosis factor-&#945; (TNF) and interleukin-10 (IL-10) in the soleus and the extensor digitorum longus (EDL) muscles of animals with left ventricular dysfunction after myocardial infarction (MI).</p>
      <p><bold>METHODS:</bold> We used male Wistar rats that underwent ligation of the left coronary artery without reperfusion. Four weeks after this procedure, the animals underwent echocardiography and were divided into the following experimental groups: sham operated (sham) and IM. They remained under observation for a further period of 8 weeks.</p>
      <p><bold>RESULTS:</bold> The level of the cytokine TNF-&#945; increased by 26.5% (p &lt;0.05), and its gene expression increased 3 times (p &lt;0.01). The level of IL-10 decreased by 38.2% (p &lt;0.05). Both changes occurred only in the soleus muscle, with no change in the EDL. The decrease (36.5%, p &lt;0.05) in the IL-10/TNF-&#945; ratio was due to both increased tissue levels of TNF-&#945; and decreased tissue levels of IL-10.</p>
      <p><bold>CONCLUSION:</bold> Our results showed significant changes in the IL-10/TNF-&#945; ratio, which may have an additive role in the assessment of deterioration and progression of left ventricular dysfunction post-MI. Furthermore, our study suggests that these changes seem to be related to the muscle fiber type.</p>
      <p><bold>Key words:</bold> Ventricular dysfunction, left; muscle, skeletal; cytokines; inflammation.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Heart failure (HF) is a clinical syndrome of complex pathophysiology that may result from any structural or functional disorder that strikes the heart and consequently undermines the ability of the ventricles to satisfactorily fill and pump blood<sup>1,2</sup>. The cardinal manifestations of HF are dyspnea and fatigue, which may limit the ability to perform physical activity (exercise intolerance) and culminate in processes leading to pulmonary and systemic congestion and increased peripheral vascular resistance<sup>1,3</sup>. The main causes of HF of cardiac origin are coronary artery disease, high blood pressure, dilated cardiomyopathy and heart valve diseases<sup>1,4</sup>.</p>
      <p>Currently, the deteriorative changes involved in the progression of HF with left ventricular dysfunction do not depend only on hemodynamic parameters, but also on the processes that culminate in local (heart) and systemic inflammatory activation<sup>5-7</sup>, which are evidenced by the increase in both gene and protein expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as: tumor necrosis factor (TNF-&#945;), interleukin 1&#946; (IL-1&#946;), and interleukin 6 (IL-6), among others. These changes have been demonstrated both in plasma and in skeletal and heart muscles of rats and patients with HF. These inflammatory mediators may contribute to the pathophysiology and progression of HF, and also directly influence the onset of clinical manifestations of the HF syndrome, particularly the changes related to the reduction and the functioning of muscle mass<sup>8,9</sup>.</p>
      <p>Therefore, although in recent years the vast majority of studies on HF have focused on pro-inflammatory cytokines, the anti-inflammatory cytokines, especially IL-10, have currently gained prominence and may have an important role in the pathophysiology of HF<sup>10,11</sup>. In patients with HF, and especially in cases of left ventricular dysfunction, a decrease in plasma IL-10 has been reported and is positively correlated with a decline in the left ventricular ejection fraction.<sup>12</sup> Moreover, in animals with post-MI HF, the production ratio of IL-10 and TNF-&#945; (IL-10/TNF-&#945; ratio) has recently been demonstrated as a more accurate indicator of the degree of ventricular dysfunction<sup>12</sup>.</p>
      <p>In fact, in animal models and patients with HF, the distribution of muscle fibers into type I (aerobic), type IIa (aerobic and anaerobic) and type IIb (anaerobic) undergoes changes in its composition. Notably, the skeletal muscle fibers type I are the most affected, because they develop some characteristics similar to the type IIA<sup>13</sup>, besides a reduction in capillary density<sup>3</sup> and a reduction in the maximum activity of the enzyme cytochrome c oxidase<sup>9</sup>, in comparison to the same muscle fiber type in individuals without pathological changes in skeletal muscle. Similarly, studies in rats with post-MI left ventricular dysfunction have reproduced this behavior<sup>14</sup>, showing thereby that the type I fibers in skeletal muscle seem to be the most affected in this condition.</p>
      <p>Furthermore, these changes have been correlated to the increase in gene expression and production of cytokines (TNF-&#945;, IL-1&#946;, and IL-6) in the quadriceps muscle of humans<sup>15</sup> and animals<sup>7</sup>. Although the deleterious changes occur predominantly in type I fibers, recent studies have shown the presence of a chronic inflammatory condition in that tissue. However, to date, no studies have evaluated the production of these cytokines in the different muscle fiber types, a fact that becomes even more significant when we consider that this tissue may be an important systemic "supplier" of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the presence of left ventricular dysfunction. In turn, the analysis of the gene expression and the consequent production of these cytokines may be a more accurate and/or additional indicator of the presence of changed chronic inflammatory markers in ventricular dysfunction.</p>
      <p>On this basis, we proposed to study the relationship between the levels of pro-TNF-&#945; cytokines and anti-inflammatory (IL-10) cytokines in skeletal muscle in an experimental model in rats with post-MI left ventricular dysfunction. Still, we used the soleus muscle (fiber type I, predominantly) and the extensor digitorum longus (EDL) muscle (fiber type IIb, predominantly) to compare the profiles of these cytokines in different muscle types.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Methods</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Animals</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The experimental procedures were in accordance with the ethical principles for animal experimentation adopted by the Brazilian College of Animal Experimentation (Cobea), and the protocol for the use of animals in experimentation (009/2005) was approved by the Animal Experimentation Ethics Committee (Ceea) at a meeting held on February 17<sup>th</sup>, 2005.</p>
      <p>We used male Wistar rats aged 8 weeks. During the experimental period, they were kept in collective cages for 5 mice, in a vivarium with a light/dark cycle of 12/12 hours, with the light phase starting at 7 am, in the Department of Cell Biology and Development of the Institute of Biomedical Sciences of the University of S&#227;o Paulo. Room temperature was maintained at 25 &#177; 2&#176; C. Humidity was maintained at 60 &#177; 5%. All groups received a balanced commercial diet (Nuvilab CR1 - Nutrivital Nutrients Ltda.) and water <italic>ad libitum</italic>. In order to minimize the acute influence of the prandial status in the experimental results, all animals were fasted overnight before the morning sacrifice.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Induction of acute myocardial infarction (MI) by myocardial injury through ischemia without reperfusion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This surgical procedure was performed using the techniques of the exercise and cellular physiology laboratory (KCM or MAC). The animals were anesthetized with a solution of Ketalar &#174; (80 mg/kg) + Rompun &#174; (12 mg/kg). After intubation, the animals received mechanical ventilation with a Harvard ventilator, model 683 (frequency of 90 m/min, and tidal volume of 2.0 ml). After shaving the chest, a left thoracotomy was performed in the intercostal space of the apex beat, and the heart was quickly exposed. The anterior interventricular branch of the left coronary artery was identified and ligated between the edges of the left auricular appendage and the pulmonary artery with 6-0 prolene sutures. The lungs were hyperinflated, and the chest wall was closed with a previously performed purse-string suture. For the sham operation, we used the same surgical procedure but without the disruption of the pericardium and the ligation of the left anterior descending coronary artery.</p>
      <p>After the coronary artery ligation, the animals were confined to the vivarium for 3 more weeks. By the fourth week, an echodopplercardiogram (ECHO) was performed to confirm the presence of infarction, to evaluate its size, and to conduct echocardiographic measurements, including left ventricular ejection fraction.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Transthoracic doppler echocardiography</bold>
      </p>
      <p>During 4 and 12 weeks after MI, the animals were anesthetized with a solution of Ketalar &#174; (50 mg/kg) + Rompun &#174; (10 mg/kg) intraperitoneally for echocardiography.</p>
      <p>The echocardiography was performed in an HP Sonos 5500 (Hewlett Packard, Andover, MA, USA) using a transducer fundamental frequency of 12 MHz, to obtain images at 2 cm depth. After anesthesia and using the same procedure, the animals were placed in the left lateral position, and three electrodes were placed in their legs for the electrocardiogram.</p>
      <p>Cross-sectional scans of the left ventricle were recorded on videotape for later analysis. We used the left paraesternal (longitudinal and transverse) and the apical (four and two chambers) views. The linear measurements taken from images obtained by M-mode were: LV diameters at end-diastole (LVDD) and systole (LVSD); the anteroposterior diameter of the left atrium (LA); and the diameter of the anterior wall of the left ventricle in diastole (Paved). The infarction size (% MI), assessed by measuring the length of the akinetic and/or hypokinetic (AHR) regions of the ventricular walls, was expressed as a percentage of the total perimeter of the endocardial contour (EP) in three transverse LV views (level of the edges of the leaflets of the mitral valve, papillary muscles, and apical region), according to earlier patterning characterized by the group of Professor Paul J. F. Tucci<sup>16,17</sup>, using the formula: MI (%) = (AHR / EP) x 100.</p>
      <p>The cardiac function was evaluated by the ejection fraction (EF). The ventricular diastolic (DV) and systolic (SV) volumes were obtained using the Simpson biplane (apical, four and two chambers) method, and the EF was calculated by the formula EF = (DV-SV/DV) x 100. The diastolic function was assessed using indices derived from the velocity curve of the mitral diastolic flow obtained by the pulsed Doppler technique. We obtained the velocity curve of the mitral diastolic flow from the apical four-chamber view, placing the sample volume close to the ventricular face of the mitral valve. We determined the E wave, the A wave, and the E/A ratio. At the end of the ECHO assessment, the animals in which the MI was greater than 40% of the LV were selected for the group of myocardial infarction (MI). After 12 weeks, the animals in the MI group were reevaluated as to the aforementioned parameters.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Experimental design</bold>
      </p>
      <p>After the echocardiography, the animals were divided into two experimental groups: sham operated (sham, n = 13) and myocardial infarction (MI, n=17). The sham group animals underwent all surgical procedures except the coronary artery ligation. After this, the animals were kept for 8 weeks under observation. Following this period, the animals were sacrificed by decapitation without anesthesia.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Collection and homogenization of tissues</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Immediately after sacrifice, tissues and organs (liver, lungs, heart, soleus and extensor digitorum longus-EDL muscles) were removed, weighed, frozen in liquid nitrogen, and stored at -80&#176; C for subsequent measurements.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Quantification of tissue cytokines</bold>
      </p>
      <p>For measurement of TNF-&#945; (DY510) and IL-10 (DY522) cytokines, we used the enzyme-linked immunoabsorbent assay (DuoSet ELISA) capture method (R&amp;D System, Inc., Minneapolis, USA). This assay was performed on homogenized samples from the different experimental groups, according to the standards described by the manufacturer. The results are expressed in pg/&#956;g of total protein in the assessed tissues according to the colorimetric method described by Bradford<sup>18</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Quantification of tissue cytokine gene expression</bold>
      </p>
      <p>To isolate total RNA from the EDL and the soleus muscles (right hindpaw), samples weighing between 0.2 and 0.5g were homogenized in TRIZOL&#174; Reagent, according to the standards described by the manufacturer<sup>19</sup>. The RNA samples were transcribed to DNA in a thermocycler (Techne, Cambridge, UK). To synthesize cDNA, we used 2&#956;g of total RNA from each sample. The samples were incubated with 0.5 &#956;g/ml of oligo DT12-18 (Invitrogen, USA) at 65&#176; C, for 5 minutes, to obtain the first tape of cDNA.</p>
      <p>Primers were synthesized by Integrated DNA Technologies (Prodimol Biotecnologia S/A). The sequence was determined using the software Primer 3, available at <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.genome.wi.mit.edu">http://www.genome.wi.mit.edu</ext-link>. Primers were selected in accordance with the following parameters described by Marone et al<sup>20</sup>: TNF-&#945; (NM 012675.2); <italic>sense</italic>: 5'TCT CAA AAC TCG AGT GAC AAG C 3'; <italic>anti-sense</italic>: 5'GGT TGT CTT TGA GAT CCA TGC3'; IL-10 (NM 012854.1), <italic>sense</italic>: 5'GAG AGA AGC TGA AGA CCC TCT G3'; <italic>anti-sense</italic>: 5'TCA TTC ATG GCC TTG TAG ACA C3'; and 18S (NM 213557.1), <italic>sense</italic>: 5'ACCAGTTCGCCATGGATGA3'; <italic>anti-sense</italic>: 5'TGCCGGAGCCGTTGTC3'.</p>
      <p>The gene expression was quantified by real-time PCR (Higuchi et al<sup>21</sup>) using a <italic>7500 Fast Real-Time PCR</italic> (Applied Biosystems, USA) machine and a <italic>Syber Green</italic> kit as fluorescence markers (number 11744-500, Invitrogen, USA). Reactions were performed in 25&#181;l of a mixture containing 1&#181;l of cDNA sample, 0.5 &#181;l of primers (adjusted to the concentration shown below), 10.5 &#181;l of Depec water, and 12.5 &#181;l of <italic>Syber green master</italic> mix (dNTP - reaction buffer, Taq DNA polymerase Syber green I). The conditions of real-time PCR were: first cycle (single), at 95&#176;C, for 15 minutes to activate the enzyme; 40 cycles with denaturation phases, at 95&#176;C, for 15 seconds; and annealing, at 60&#176;C, for 30 seconds. We used the primer sequence according to the following concentrations:</p>
      <p>&#149; soleus muscle: TNF-&#945; and IL-10 (200 nM) and 18S (300 nM).</p>
      <p>&#149; EDL - TNF-&#945;: IL-10 (200 nM) and 18S (200 nM).</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Statistical analysis</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Data analysis was performed using the software SigmaStat (version 3.1, SigmaStat, Systat, Point Richmond, CA). The mean and standard error of the mean (SEM) were calculated for all variables. After the trial period, the values of the different analyses of the results were performed by unpaired Student's t-test. The level of significance used in all tests was less than 5%, i.e., p &lt;0.05.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Results</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>General characteristics of the experimental groups</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The postoperative mortality was 23.8% (n = 5 animals that evolved to death during the 24 hours after surgery) in the MI group, and 13.3% (n = 2) in the sham group. The total weight of the lungs, liver, soleus and EDL, in absolute value, was not different in any of the groups evaluated (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1-body2">Table 1</xref>). The MI group showed a 23.8% (p &lt;0.012) increase in the absolute heart weight when compared to the sham group. The animals with MI showed an increase in the wet weight/dry weight ratio of the lungs (4.7%, p &lt;0.011), of the liver (3.8, p &lt;0.035), and a 27.7% (p &lt;0.002) decrease in the soleus muscle weight relative to the body weight (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2-body2">Table 2</xref>).</p>
      <table-wrap id="t1-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-03-0313-00006-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <table-wrap id="t2-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-03-0313-00006-gt02-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>
        <bold>Left ventricular function in animals with MI</bold>
      </p>
      <p>In the 17 animals with MI, we observed segmental contractile alterations in ventricular pathological studies, 4 weeks after surgery (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3-body2">Table 3</xref>). No animals of the sham group had abnormal left ventricular echocardiographic changes suggestive of MI. The ejection fraction (EF) and the systolic shortening fraction (SF) showed a 40.1% and a 55.7% (p &lt;0.001) reductions, respectively, when these results were compared with those obtained in the sham group. The end diastolic volume (EDV) increased by 82.2% (p &lt;0.01) when compared to that obtained in the sham group. The animals in the MI group had an infarct area of 39 &#177; 0.05%.</p>
      <table-wrap id="t3-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-03-0313-00006-gt03-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>
        <bold>TNF-</bold>
        <bold>&#945; levels in skeletal muscle</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The MI group animals showed a significant 26.5% increase (p &lt;0.05) in the production of TNF-&#945; in the soleus muscle when compared to the sham group (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1-body2">Fig. 1</xref>). In EDL muscle, the levels of TNF-&#945; were not detected. The animals in the MI group (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2-body2">Fig. 2A</xref>) showed a significant 3-fold increase (p &lt;0.01) in TNF-&#945; gene expression in the soleus muscle, with no change in the EDL muscle (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2b-body2">Fig. 2B</xref>).</p>
      <fig id="f1-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-03-0313-00006-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <fig id="f2-body2"/>
      <p>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-03-0313-00006-e01-en.jpg"/></p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f2b-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-03-0313-00006-gf02-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>IL-10 levels in skeletal muscle</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The MI group animals showed a significant 38.2% decrease (p &lt;0.05) of production of IL-10 in the soleus muscle, when compared to the sham-S group (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1-body2">Fig. 1</xref>). In the EDL muscle, there was no change in the levels of this cytokine. The animals in the MI group (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2-body2">Fig. 2A</xref>) showed a significant 3.6-fold increase (p &lt;0.05) in IL-10 gene expression in the soleus muscle, with no change in the EDL muscle (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2b-body2">Fig. 2B</xref>).</p>
      <p>
        <bold>IL-10/TNF-</bold>
        <bold>&#945; ratio in skeletal muscle</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The MI group animals showed a significant 36.5% decrease (p &lt;0.05) in the IL-10/TNF-&#945; ratio when compared to the sham group. The chart 3B data show the participation of each cytokine in the IL-10/TNF-&#945; ratio.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Discussion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>In this study, the concentration of pro-inflammatory cytokine (TNF-&#945;) and its gene expression were increased in the soleus muscle of animals with ventricular dysfunction after MI. This was observed only in the soleus muscle, and no change was detected in the EDL muscle. Furthermore, these changes were accompanied by a reduction in the concentration of anti-inflammatory cytokine (IL-10) levels, also observed only in the soleus muscle, in turn, the IL-10/TNF-&#945; ratio was altered, suggesting the predominance of TNF-&#945; to the detriment of IL-10 in that tissue.</p>
      <p>The ligation of the left anterior descending coronary artery was used as an experimental model of MI in animals, by the induction of myocardial ischemia, with or without reperfusion<sup>7,22,23</sup>. However, data on left ventricular function are insufficient for the clinical characterization of HF, because this syndrome is defined by the presence of hemodynamic abnormalities, fluid retention (congestion), and physical exercise intolerance<sup>24,25</sup>. Although our study showed data referring to the congestive picture, such as the dry weight/ wet weight ratio of liver and lungs, which suggests the presence of pulmonary edema and hepatic congestion, we chose to classify the MI group as animals with severe ventricular post-MI, and not with HF. It is possible that most of the animals in the MI group also had HF clinical changes, but this has not been studied in this paper.</p>
      <p>Initially, it was assumed that the production of TNF-&#945; was performed by monocytes and macrophages exclusively when appropriately stimulated<sup>26</sup>. Recently, TNF-&#945; gene and protein expression in skeletal muscle has been characterized in humans<sup>27</sup>, in a study that showed for the first time the presence of this cytokine in the absence of infiltrating monocytes and macrophages. This indicated that the skeletal muscle fiber itself can produce it, and so it could act in an autocrine and paracrine manner, in sufficient quantity to mediate a series of morphological and functional changes in the tissue<sup>3,28</sup>.</p>
      <p>In our study, rats with left ventricular dysfunction post-MI showed an increased content of pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-&#945;, which was only evident in the soleus muscle, with no change in the EDL muscle (not detected by ELISA). This condition was evidenced by the increase in TNF-&#945; gene expression, suggesting that the increase in the TNF-&#945; protein content may have been due to increased levels of mRNA. This result is consistent with another study<sup>7</sup> that used the same experimental model and demonstrated an increase in both gene expression and muscle levels of TNF-&#945;. However, these parameters were assessed in the quadriceps muscle, which is mixed with regard to its muscle fiber type.</p>
      <p>Therefore, despite the fact that an increase in inflammatory mediators (TNF-&#945;, IL-1 &#946;, IL-6) in skeletal muscle is well characterized both in patients with HF<sup>15</sup> and in rats with heart failure and left ventricular dysfunction post-MI<sup>7</sup>, both tests were performed in the quadriceps muscle, and little is known about what type of muscle fiber is more affected in HF. This becomes even more evident when one takes into account that, in addition to the fact that these degenerative changes in skeletal muscle have been related to the presence of these markers, most studies have also shown that, in HF, the most affected fiber, both morphologically and functionally, is the type I fiber<sup>3</sup>. Thus, we showed, for the first time, that this condition appears to be specific to muscle tissue with a predominance of type I fibers. As we did not separate the total homogenate in a soluble fraction bound to the cell membrane, we could not infer that the protein assessed was the one which was produced exclusively by the tissue evaluated.</p>
      <p>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-94-03-0313-00006-e02-en.jpg"/></p>
      <p>Plasma levels of these cytokines in patients with HF have been related to both prognosis and severity of the disease, a fact which has been shown to be even more evident in patients with more advanced HF (functional class IV, NYHA)<sup>6,29</sup>. Therefore, it has been suggested that this increase results from a peripheral inflammatory process, which would ideally be initiated in skeletal muscle, because of reduced blood flow and a consequent increase in reactive oxygen species<sup>5</sup>. This hypothesis has gained consistency, as studies conducted both in animals<sup>7,12,23,30,31</sup> and humans<sup>2,32,33</sup> have shown that the increase in local inflammatory milieu occurs independently of plasma levels changes, especially in patients in functional classes II and III (NYHA). Therefore, the increased gene and protein expression of these cytokines, even without plasma levels changes, confirms the results obtained by studies that suggest that local inflammation precedes the increase in plasma and may be a more accurate indicator with respect to the progression of HF.</p>
      <p>The effects of IL-10 in vivo have been observed in models of inflammation, autoimmunity, tolerance and parasitic infections in animals<sup>34</sup>. In mice, IL-10 attenuated the deleterious effects induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and SEB (staphylococcal enterotoxin B). Furthermore, these effects were correlated with decreased TNF-&#945; circulating levels. In macrophages cultured in the presence of LPS, besides the increase in production of proinflammatory cytokines, this condition is also followed by an increase in IL-10, and TNF-&#945; is an important inducer of IL-10 gene expression and production<sup>34,35</sup>. Therefore, IL-10 is the main anti-inflammatory cytokine and plays an important role in modulating the production of TNF-&#945;.</p>
      <p>In rats with left ventricular dysfunction post-MI, IL-10 tissue levels were reduced only in the soleus muscle. In these animals, the gene expression was increased in the same tissue, showing that perhaps the decrease in its production is not related to changes in mRNA expression, at least in this aspect. This suggests that the effects of this experimental model in the concentration of IL-10 may have been mediated in a post-transcriptional level, like the production of IL-10 transcriptional regulatory elements, such as enhancers and/or mechanisms of post-transcriptional control. The last possibility is described in T cell clones, which express IL-10, with no detectable changes in mRNA levels<sup>36</sup>. Therefore, a combination of post-transcriptional mechanisms and ubiquitination for the expression of IL-10 may have a crucial role for this cytokine<sup>37</sup>. Furthermore, although TNF-&#945; can induce IL-10 gene expression<sup>34</sup> and consequently its protein expression, this effect seems to be dependent on the intensity of the inflammatory condition, and thus the increase in the IL-10 gene expression could have occurred because of a decrease in protein production (mRNA/protein ratio) toward the restoration of a balanced condition.</p>
      <p>Therefore, the new fact we present is that there was an increase not only in gene expression, but also in protein content, in the case of TNF-&#945;, and a decrease in IL-10 protein, suggesting, in this condition, a tendency towards an imbalance in their production. This condition may tend to the predominance of a pro-inflammatory milieu at the expense of the anti-inflammatory milieu, especially through an increased production of TNF-&#945; and a decreased production of IL-10. This association was observed by Stumpf et al<sup>10</sup> who used the IL-10/TNF-&#945; ratio to characterize the pro/anti-inflammatory "balance". In this study, patients with HF (NYHA functional class III/IV) showed increased levels of TNF-&#945; and decreased levels of IL-10 when compared with control subjects (without IC) of the same age.</p>
      <p>Although the molecular mechanisms are not well characterized, studies using IL-10 as treatment (rhIL-10) in humans and in knocked out mice (IL-10<sup>-</sup>/<sup>-</sup>) stressed the importance of this cytokine in reversing the alterations caused by local inflammation, especially those mediated by TNF-&#945;<sup>10</sup>. This result is consistent with ours, since the IL-10/TNF-&#945; ratio decreased because of an increase in TNF-&#945; and, especially, a decrease in IL-10, suggesting an important role of IL - 10 in the local inflammatory "control" in the soleus muscle.</p>
      <p>In patients with HF, muscle mass loss or atrophy of begins in the early stages of HF<sup>8</sup> development, and this is more specifically related to intrinsic changes in skeletal muscle<sup>3,38</sup> than in those resulting from physical inactivity (a more determining factor in women). Recently, it has been shown that, in this condition, there is an immune activation, especially by inflammatory mediators, which may contribute to the development of this condition<sup>3,7,8,39</sup>. In rats with heart failure and left ventricular dysfunction after MI, this condition has been reproduced both by the decrease in cross-sectional area and by increased production of proinflammatory cytokines (quadriceps muscle)<sup>7</sup>. Similarly, our study showed a skeletal muscle weight reduction relative to body weight, a condition that proved to be dependent on the predominant type of muscle fiber, since it was present only in the soleus muscle, with no change in the EDL muscle. These changes directly and indirectly affect skeletal muscle, and recent studies<sup>13,14</sup> in rats with heart failure and left ventricular dysfunction after MI showed that muscle tissues with predominantly type I fibers (e.g., soleus muscle) may be more sensitive to changes that are characteristic of this experimental model and that compromise the blood and oxygen supply, when compared to tissues in which type IIa and IIb fibers are predominant (e.g., EDL muscle). Therefore, the changes found in proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines have demonstrated the presence of a chronic inflammatory state in the soleus muscle, as assessed by the IL-10/TNF-&#945; ratio, which was paralleled by a reduction in muscle mass, a condition which was only observed in muscle tissue with a predominance of type I fibers (soleus).</p>
      <p>Also noteworthy is that, unlike the above, our animals still had no clear clinical manifestations of HF, suggesting that even before the establishment of this syndrome, changes in skeletal muscle are evident in animals with left ventricular dysfunction, and thus the soleus muscle may be a site of production of inflammatory mediators in this condition.</p>
      <p>In summary, our results suggest an important role of the IL-10/TNF-&#945; ratio, which may have an additive role in assessing the damage and progression of HF, since it seems to be present even before the establishment of the clinical HF syndrome. However, more studies are needed for the understanding of the molecular mechanisms that modulate the events mentioned above.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
</article>
