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    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">phDbz4ms34sHdthCGgHtDTn</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00011</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2009000700011</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(09)09300111</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2009000700011</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio de cirurgia card&#237;aca</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ferro</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos Rom&#233;rio Costa</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Dinaldo Cavalcanti de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Nunes</surname>
            <given-names>Fabiana Piech</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Piegas</surname>
            <given-names>Leopoldo Soares</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state"/>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o </institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>07</month>
        <year>2009</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>93</volume>
      <issue>1</issue>
      <fpage>59</fpage>
      <lpage>63</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>11</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2007</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>06</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2007</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>18</day>
          <month>12</month>
          <year>2007</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>A fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial (FA) &#233; uma arritmia frequente no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio de cirurgia card&#237;aca. Nesse contexto, est&#225; associada &#224; presen&#231;a de comorbidades, a um maior tempo de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o e a maior custo relacionado &#224; cirurgia. Os mecanismos envolvidos na g&#234;nese da FA no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio de cirurgia card&#237;aca (FAPO) s&#227;o diferentes daqueles causadores da FA parox&#237;stica. O conhecimento desses mecanismos permite a aplicabilidade de medidas que s&#227;o eficazes em reduzir a incid&#234;ncia dessa arritmia. O tratamento, segundo recomenda&#231;&#245;es da literatura, &#233; eficaz e seguro, pois as taxas de revers&#227;o a ritmo sinusal s&#227;o elevadas e as complica&#231;&#245;es reduzidas, e n&#227;o est&#225; associado com a ocorr&#234;ncia elevada de efeitos colaterais.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>Fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial</kwd>
        <kwd>cirurgia tor&#225;cica</kwd>
        <kwd>cuidados p&#243;s-operat&#243;rios</kwd>
        <kwd>arritmia</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>13</day>
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2009</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body><p><bold>ARTIGO DE REVIS&#195;O</bold></p><p><bold>Fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio de cirurgia card&#237;aca</bold></p><p><bold>Carlos Rom&#233;rio Costa Ferro; Dinaldo Cavalcanti de Oliveira; Fabiana Piech Nunes; Leopoldo Soares Piegas</bold></p><p>Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o - Associa&#231;&#227;o do Sanat&#243;rio S&#237;rio, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil</p><p><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="back">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref></p><p><bold>RESUMO</bold></p> A fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial (FA) &#233; uma arritmia frequente no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio de cirurgia card&#237;aca. Nesse contexto, est&#225; associada &#224; presen&#231;a de comorbidades, a um maior tempo de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o e a maior custo relacionado &#224; cirurgia. <p content-type="break">Os mecanismos envolvidos na g&#234;nese da FA no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio de cirurgia card&#237;aca (FAPO) s&#227;o diferentes daqueles causadores da FA parox&#237;stica. O conhecimento desses mecanismos permite a aplicabilidade de medidas que s&#227;o eficazes em reduzir a incid&#234;ncia dessa arritmia. </p><p content-type="break">O tratamento, segundo recomenda&#231;&#245;es da literatura, &#233; eficaz e seguro, pois as taxas de revers&#227;o a ritmo sinusal s&#227;o elevadas e as complica&#231;&#245;es reduzidas, e n&#227;o est&#225; associado com a ocorr&#234;ncia elevada de efeitos colaterais. </p><p><bold>Palavras-chave: </bold> Fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial; cirurgia tor&#225;cica; cuidados p&#243;s-operat&#243;rios; arritmia.</p>     <p><bold>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold></p> <p>A fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial (FA) &#233; uma arritmia frequente no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio de cirurgia card&#237;aca. Nesse contexto, est&#225; associada &#224; presen&#231;a de comorbidades, a um maior tempo de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o e a maior custo relacionado &#224; cirurgia<sup>1-4</sup>.</p>   <p><bold>Epidemiologia</bold></p> <p>Essa arritmia ocorre com maior frequ&#234;ncia nos primeiros cinco dias de p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio, com pico entre 24 e 72 horas, sendo infrequente ap&#243;s a primeira semana<sup>5,6</sup>. Na maioria dos casos, converte-se espontaneamente para ritmo sinusal, n&#227;o necessitando de interven&#231;&#227;o farmacol&#243;gica<sup>6</sup>. Pacientes submetidos &#224; cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio (CRM) possuem uma menor incid&#234;ncia de FA no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio (de 30% a 40%), quando comparados &#224;queles submetidos &#224; cirurgia valvar (60%)<sup>7</sup>. A utiliza&#231;&#227;o de circula&#231;&#227;o extracorp&#243;rea (CEC) tamb&#233;m est&#225; associada a uma maior incid&#234;ncia de FA, embora alguns autores demonstrem n&#227;o existir diferen&#231;a na incid&#234;ncia com rela&#231;&#227;o ao uso, ou n&#227;o, da CEC<sup>8-10</sup>.</p>   <p><bold>Mecanismos</bold></p> <p>Os mecanismos envolvidos na g&#234;nese da FA p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria (FAPO) s&#227;o multifatoriais, n&#227;o bem definidos e diferentes daqueles encontrados na FA parox&#237;stica. O mioc&#225;rdio atrial possui um importante papel na fisiopatogenia da FAPO, uma vez que &#233; bastante manipul&#225;vel por causa das atriotomias utilizadas para as canula&#231;&#245;es da CEC e para o reparo das valvopatias. Sabe-se que, mesmo ap&#243;s a cardioplegia, os &#225;trios ainda apresentam atividade el&#233;trica residual, o que resulta em graus variados de isquemia, a despeito das medidas de prote&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica<sup>11-13</sup>. Tais incis&#245;es associadas &#224; isquemia atrial decorrente do procedimento cir&#250;rgico e &#224; cardiopatia subjacente resultam em anormalidades na condu&#231;&#227;o atrial, na refratariedade e na origem de fatores deflagradores, como os batimentos ect&#243;picos atriais<sup>14-16</sup>.</p> <p>A inflama&#231;&#227;o tamb&#233;m possui um importante papel na fisiopatogenia da FAPO. &#201; demonstrado que a manipula&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica no mioc&#225;rdio, a CEC e at&#233; mesmo uma pericardiotomia isolada podem desencadear graus diferentes de resposta inflamat&#243;ria, clinicamente manifestada por leucocitose, febre ou arritmias<sup>17</sup>. Isso &#233; bioquimicamente marcado pela eleva&#231;&#227;o de mediadores inflamat&#243;rios como a interleucina-6, fator de necrose tumoral-&#945;, ativa&#231;&#227;o do complemento e da prote&#237;na C reativa<sup>18,19</sup>. As concentra&#231;&#245;es destes come&#231;am a se elevar cerca de 6 horas ap&#243;s a cirurgia, atingindo pico no segundo dia de p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio<sup>20</sup>. O processo inflamat&#243;rio levar&#225; a uma condu&#231;&#227;o anisotr&#243;pica anormal, que resultar&#225; em redu&#231;&#227;o da velocidade de condu&#231;&#227;o e propaga&#231;&#227;o heterog&#234;nea do impulso, o que facilitar&#225; a reentrada e a g&#234;nese da FA<sup>6</sup>.</p> <p>Mais recentemente, tem-se discutido que a predisposi&#231;&#227;o a desenvolver FA pode estar relacionada &#224; propriedade el&#233;trica passiva do mioc&#225;rdio atrial, que &#233; a propriedade de condu&#231;&#227;o c&#233;lula-a-c&#233;lula<sup>21,22</sup>. Nos cora&#231;&#245;es de humanos, a condu&#231;&#227;o c&#233;lula-a-c&#233;lula dos mi&#243;citos &#233; formada por tr&#234;s diferentes tipos de conexinas (conexinas 40, 43 e 45). Estas participam da propaga&#231;&#227;o do est&#237;mulo el&#233;trico durante o ritmo card&#237;aco normal. Entretanto, em condi&#231;&#245;es em que suas propriedades biof&#237;sicas s&#227;o alteradas, como ap&#243;s cirurgia card&#237;aca, ocorrem modifica&#231;&#245;es na sua express&#227;o, resultando em diferen&#231;as na velocidade de condu&#231;&#227;o entre regi&#245;es adjacentes, predispondo o surgimento de FA<sup>23</sup>.</p> <p>Altera&#231;&#245;es do sistema nervoso auton&#244;mico tamb&#233;m s&#227;o respons&#225;veis pelo aparecimento da FA no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio, em especial ap&#243;s cirurgia card&#237;aca, e os seus efeitos nos &#225;trios s&#227;o complexos<sup>24</sup>. &#201; descrito que mudan&#231;as na rela&#231;&#227;o entre a resposta simp&#225;tica e parassimp&#225;tica podem ser observadas imediatamente ap&#243;s uma cirurgia card&#237;aca com CEC, podendo indicar uma suscetibilidade ao aparecimento de arritmias<sup>25</sup>.</p>   <p><bold>Implica&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas</bold></p> <p>A presen&#231;a de FA ap&#243;s cirurgia card&#237;aca est&#225; relacionada aos seguintes fatores: prolongamento do tempo de interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar, maior taxa de readmiss&#227;o nas unidades de terapia intensiva, um tempo prolongado de ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica, necessidade de drogas inotr&#243;picas ou suporte circulat&#243;rio mec&#226;nico, e at&#233; reintuba&#231;&#227;o<sup>26-28</sup>.</p> <p>A sua presen&#231;a est&#225; significativamente associada a complica&#231;&#245;es p&#243;s-operat&#243;rias como hip&#243;xia, hipovolemia, sepse e dist&#250;rbios eletrol&#237;ticos<sup>29,30</sup>. Tamb&#233;m est&#225; relacionada aos seguintes fatores: maior incid&#234;ncia de complica&#231;&#245;es gastrointestinais, insufici&#234;ncia renal, acidente vascular encef&#225;lico (AVE), insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC), necessidade de uso de drogas antiarr&#237;tmicas ap&#243;s alta hospitalar e aumento na mortalidade num per&#237;odo que varia de trinta dias a seis meses ap&#243;s a cirurgia<sup>16,26,28,31</sup>.</p>   <p><bold>Preditores</bold></p> <p>O surgimento de FA ap&#243;s uma cirurgia card&#237;aca est&#225; relacionado &#224; presen&#231;a de vari&#225;veis pr&#233;, intra e p&#243;s-operat&#243;rias.</p>   <p><bold>Pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio</bold></p> <p>A idade avan&#231;ada tem sido considerada um preditor independente de FA no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio de cirurgia card&#237;aca<sup>32</sup>. &#201; descrito que essa arritmia acomete mais de 18% dos indiv&#237;duos acima de 60 anos e cerca de 50% daqueles com idade superior a 80 anos ap&#243;s uma CRM<sup>32,33</sup>. Essa associa&#231;&#227;o se deve ao fato de esses indiv&#237;duos apresentarem mais comorbidades relacionadas &#224; idade e possu&#237;rem altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais no mioc&#225;rdio atrial, como distens&#227;o e fibrose, secund&#225;rias &#224;s altera&#231;&#245;es pr&#243;prias do envelhecimento<sup>34</sup>.</p> <p>A hipertens&#227;o arterial (HAS) tamb&#233;m &#233; considerada um importante preditor, uma vez que est&#225; associada a altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais card&#237;acas como fibrose e dilata&#231;&#227;o, bem como a outras comorbidades relacionadas &#224; FA (por exemplo, idade avan&#231;ada)<sup>34</sup>.</p> <p>Sexo masculino est&#225; mais relacionado &#224; presen&#231;a de FAPO. Isso pode ser explicado tanto pelas diferen&#231;as relacionadas ao sexo nos canais i&#244;nicos como pelos efeitos hormonais no t&#244;nus auton&#244;mico.</p> <p>Outro importante preditor &#233; a hist&#243;ria pr&#233;via de FA e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca.</p>   <p><bold>Intra-operat&#243;rio</bold></p> <p>Fatores relacionados ao procedimento cir&#250;rgico, como tempo de clampeamento a&#243;rtico e utiliza&#231;&#227;o de CEC, s&#227;o relacionados ao surgimento de FAPO. Os mecanismos sugeridos consistem na isquemia atrial e no desencadeamento de um processo inflamat&#243;rio<sup>33</sup>.</p>   <p><bold>P&#243;s-operat&#243;rio</bold></p> <p>As condi&#231;&#245;es associadas &#224; FAPO est&#227;o relacionadas &#224; presen&#231;a de complica&#231;&#245;es como infec&#231;&#245;es, ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica prolongada, instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica e uso de aminas vasoativas.</p> <p>Outras vari&#225;veis envolvidas s&#227;o idade avan&#231;ada, paroxismos de FA antecedendo &#224; cirurgia, infarto do mioc&#225;rdio pr&#233;vio, disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda, HAS, diabete melito (DM), isquemia p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria, descontinua&#231;&#227;o de drogas beta-adren&#233;rgicas antecedendo &#224; cirurgia, dura&#231;&#227;o do clampeamento a&#243;rtico, uso de aminas vasoativas e baixo d&#233;bito card&#237;aco no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio<sup>35,36</sup>.</p>   <p><bold>Preven&#231;&#227;o de FA p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria</bold></p> <p>Apesar de os fatores de risco para FA p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria serem conhecidos, em um substancial n&#250;mero de pacientes nenhum fator de risco pode ser identificado. Isso justifica a import&#226;ncia em estabelecer medidas profil&#225;ticas a fim de reduzir a incid&#234;ncia dessa arritmia e consequentemente suas implica&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas ao paciente submetido &#224; cirurgia card&#237;aca. A seguir, ser&#227;o abordadas as recomenda&#231;&#245;es para preven&#231;&#227;o e manejo de FA no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio de cirurgia card&#237;aca<sup>37,38</sup>.</p>   <p><bold>Uso de agentes betabloqueadores</bold></p> <p>A administra&#231;&#227;o de agentes betabloqueadores &#233; a medida mais eficaz na profilaxia de FA, reduzindo significativamente a sua incid&#234;ncia no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio de cirurgia card&#237;aca<sup>39-43</sup>. O uso de betabloqueadores tamb&#233;m est&#225; relacionado &#224; diminui&#231;&#227;o da morbidade e mortalidade. Em sua s&#233;rie, Ferguson e cols.<sup>44</sup> encontraram uma diminui&#231;&#227;o na mortalidade de 3,4% para 2,8% nos pacientes que receberam betabloqueadores no perioperat&#243;rio.</p> <p>Os betabloqueadores devem ser utilizados em todos os pacientes submetidos &#224; cirurgia card&#237;aca como terapia de primeira escolha, a n&#227;o ser que existam contra-indica&#231;&#245;es. Esses agentes devem ser administrados na manh&#227; da cirurgia e reiniciados no primeiro dia de p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio. Se o paciente n&#227;o fazia uso de betabloqueador, este dever&#225; ser iniciado no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio ou ap&#243;s a cirurgia, respeitando as contra-indica&#231;&#245;es<sup>37,38</sup>.</p> <p><bold>Sotalol</bold></p> <p>Alguns estudos t&#234;m demonstrado superioridade do sotalol em compara&#231;&#227;o aos agentes betabloqueadores na redu&#231;&#227;o de FA p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria<sup>45-49</sup>. Cristal e cols.<sup>41</sup> mostraram uma diferen&#231;a significativa na incid&#234;ncia de FA de 12%, com o uso de sotalol, comparado com 22% com betabloqueadores. Dessa maneira, o uso do sotalol pode ser uma alternativa aos betabloqueadores na preven&#231;&#227;o da FAPO<sup>37,38</sup>.</p> <p><bold>Amiodarona</bold></p> <p>O uso de amiodarona tamb&#233;m est&#225; relacionado &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o na incid&#234;ncia da FA ap&#243;s cirurgia card&#237;aca<sup>50-52</sup>. Assim, relata-se uma redu&#231;&#227;o de 22,5% a 37% a favor da amiodarona, quando comparada ao placebo em prevenir a FA<sup>41</sup>. Apesar de tamb&#233;m mostrar redu&#231;&#227;o na incid&#234;ncia de FAPO, Butler e cols.<sup>53</sup> relataram a presen&#231;a de bradiarritmias e pausas como complica&#231;&#227;o dessa terapia e limita&#231;&#227;o para seu uso de rotina.</p> <p>Dessa forma, o uso profil&#225;tico de amiodarona &#233; recomendado para os casos em que n&#227;o &#233; poss&#237;vel utilizar betabloqueadores. Nos pacientes com alto risco de desenvolver FA, a associa&#231;&#227;o entre betabloquedores e amiodarona pode ser aceit&#225;vel com baixa incid&#234;ncia de complica&#231;&#227;o. Nesses pacientes, aten&#231;&#227;o deve ser dispensada para a presen&#231;a de bradiarritmias, disponibilizando um marcapasso tempor&#225;rio para eventual necessidade<sup>37,38</sup>.</p> <p><bold>Estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial</bold></p> <p>A estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial artificial reduz a incid&#234;ncia de FAPO por seu efeito na supress&#227;o de eventos deflagradores como as extra-s&#237;stoles atriais ou diminui&#231;&#227;o da refratariedade atrial<sup>54,55</sup>.</p> <p>Greenberg e cols.<sup>54</sup> demonstraram que em pacientes submetidos &#224; estimula&#231;&#227;o do &#225;trio esquerdo ou &#224; biatrial houve redu&#231;&#227;o da incid&#234;ncia de FAPO e do tempo de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o.</p> <p>Em recente metan&#225;lise, Burgess e cols.<sup>56</sup> demonstraram que pacientes submetidos &#224; estimula&#231;&#227;o biatrial apresentaram 17,7% de FAPO, enquanto os controles 35,3%.</p> <p>As diretrizes para preven&#231;&#227;o de FA no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio sugerem a estimula&#231;&#227;o biatrial como recomenda&#231;&#227;o grau A -- n&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia B<sup>38</sup>.</p> <p>Recomenda-se que a estimula&#231;&#227;o seja realizada com uma frequ&#234;ncia entre 80 e 90 bpm, por um per&#237;odo de 3 a 5 dias, podendo-se aumentar caso a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca basal dos pacientes se eleve para valores superiores a 80 bpm<sup>37,38</sup>.</p> <p><bold>Magn&#233;sio</bold></p> <p>N&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos reduzidos de magn&#233;sio est&#227;o relacionados &#224; presen&#231;a de FA no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio, por predisporem a altera&#231;&#245;es no potencial de a&#231;&#227;o e na repolariza&#231;&#227;o da membrana celular do mi&#243;cito. Tal efeito deve-se ao fato de o magn&#233;sio ser um co-fator da enzima s&#243;dio-pot&#225;ssio ATPase, que regula o gradiente transmembrana dos &#237;ons s&#243;dio e pot&#225;ssio. Em sua metan&#225;lise, Miller e cols.<sup>57</sup> revelaram uma redu&#231;&#227;o na incid&#234;ncia de FAPO de 28% para 18%.</p> <p>O uso profil&#225;tico de magn&#233;sio &#233; uma estrat&#233;gia efetiva para minimizar a incid&#234;ncia de FAPO, devendo ser considerada em todos os pacientes submetidos &#224; cirurgia card&#237;aca.</p>   <p><bold>Manejo da FA p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria</bold></p> <p>Na presen&#231;a de instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica, a cardiovers&#227;o el&#233;trica (CVE) &#233; mandat&#243;ria. Nos casos em que a resposta ventricular &#233; elevada e n&#227;o se conseguiu o controle adequado com antiarr&#237;tmicos, a CVE pode ser realizada, seguindo as mesmas recomenda&#231;&#245;es v&#225;lidas para os casos n&#227;o-cir&#250;rgicos<sup>58</sup>.</p> <p>O papel do pot&#225;ssio no tratamento da FAPO n&#227;o &#233; completamente compreendido. Na pr&#225;tica, recomenda-se manter n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de pot&#225;ssio no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio entre 4,5 e 5,5 mmol/l<sup>38</sup>.</p> <p>A menos que contra-indicado, os betabloqueadores (BB) s&#227;o os f&#225;rmacos de escolha para o controle da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, principalmente quando a fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular &#233; preservada. Os bloqueadores dos canais de c&#225;lcio (BCC) s&#227;o alternativas eficazes para tal finalidade, embora esteja relacionada com hipotens&#227;o. A digoxina &#233; menos efetiva que os BB ou BCC, principalmente quando coexiste um estado adren&#233;rgico exacerbado.</p> <p>V&#225;rios agentes podem ser utilizados para converter a FA p&#243;s-cir&#250;rgica em ritmo sinusal, como amiodarona, procainamida, ibutilide e sotalol. A amiodarona endovenosa tem sido preferida por sua boa efic&#225;cia e pelo fato de estar relacionada, relativamente, a poucas complica&#231;&#245;es. Recomenda-se uma dose de ataque de 5 mg/kg em 30 minutos e manuten&#231;&#227;o de 15 a 40 mg/h<sup>38,58</sup>.</p> <p>&#201; conhecido o risco de AVE nos pacientes submetidos &#224; cirurgia card&#237;aca, em especial nos casos de CRM. Nesse contexto, recomenda-se anticoagula&#231;&#227;o com heparina ou anticoagulante oral quando a FA persistir por mais de 48 horas. A escolha entre heparina e anticoagulante oral deve ser individualizada para cada paciente e para o tipo de cirurgia realizada<sup>58</sup>. Na aus&#234;ncia de contra-indica&#231;&#245;es, a warfarina &#233; prefer&#237;vel para os pacientes de alto risco (idade <underline>&gt;</underline> 65 anos, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, diabete melito, HAS, acidente isqu&#234;mico transit&#243;rio ou AVE), mantendo valores da rela&#231;&#227;o normatizada internacional (RNI) entre 2 e 3. Nesses pacientes, mesmo que ocorra revers&#227;o para ritmo sinusal, a warfarina deve ser continuada por 4 semanas. &#193;cido acetilsalic&#237;lico na dose de 325 mg &#233; uma alternativa para os pacientes de baixo risco.</p> <p>Um algoritmo pr&#225;tico para profilaxia e manejo da FAPO de cirurgia card&#237;aca &#233; mostrado na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">figura 1</xref>.</p><p content-type="asset"><fig id="f01"><graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-93-01-0059-00011-gf01.jpg"/></fig></p>   <p><bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</bold></p> <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p> <p><bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold></p> <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p> <p><bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold></p> <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>                                                                  <p><fn id="back" fn-type="corresp"><label><bold> Correspond&#234;ncia:</bold></label><p>Carlos Rom&#233;rio Costa Ferro </p><p>Rua Ab&#237;lio Soares, 625/64 A - Para&#237;so </p><p> 04005-002 - S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil </p><p>E-mail: </p><p><email xlink:href="doliveira@hcor.com.br">doliveira@hcor.com.br</email>, </p><p><email xlink:href="dinaldo@cardiol.br">dinaldo@cardiol.br</email></p></fn></p> <p>Artigo recebido em 11/06/2007; revisado recebido em 06/11/2007; aceito em 18/12/2007.</p></body>
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  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRes" xml:lang="es">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories/>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="es">Fibrilaci&#243;n atrial en el postoperatorio de cirug&#237;a cardiaca</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="es">
        <kwd>Fibrilaci&#243;n atrial</kwd>
        <kwd>cirug&#237;a tor&#225;cica</kwd>
        <kwd>cuidados postoperatorios</kwd>
        <kwd>arritmia</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>ART&#205;CULO DE REVISI&#211;N</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fn id="top-body2">
          <label>
            <bold>Fibrilaci&#243;n atrial en el postoperatorio de cirug&#237;a cardiaca</bold>
          </label>
          <p>
            <bold>Carlos Rom&#233;rio Costa Ferro; Dinaldo Cavalcanti de Oliveira; Fabiana Piech Nunes; Leopoldo Soares Piegas</bold>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p>Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o - Associa&#231;&#227;o do Sanat&#243;rio S&#237;rio, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil</p>
      <p>Correspondencia</p>
      <p><bold>Palabras clave: </bold> Fibrilaci&#243;n atrial; cirug&#237;a tor&#225;cica; cuidados postoperatorios; arritmia.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Introducci&#243;n</bold>
      </p>
      <p>La fibrilaci&#243;n atrial (FA) es una arritmia frecuente en el postoperatorio de cirug&#237;a cardiaca. En ese contexto, est&#225; asociada a la presencia de comorbidades, a un mayor tiempo de hospitalizaci&#243;n y a un mayor coste relacionado a la cirug&#237;a<sup>1-4</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Epidemiolog&#237;a</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Esa arritmia ocurre con mayor frecuencia en los primeros cinco d&#237;as de postoperatorio, con pico entre 24 y 72 horas, sin frecuencia tras la primera semana<sup>5,6</sup>. En la mayor&#237;a de los casos, se convierte espont&#225;neamente en ritmo sinusal, no necesitando de intervenci&#243;n farmacol&#243;gica<sup>6</sup>. Pacientes sometidos a cirug&#237;a de revascularizaci&#243;n de miocardio (CRM) poseen una menor incidencia de FA en el postoperatorio (del 30% al 40%), cuando comparados a aquellos sometidos a cirug&#237;a valvular (60%)<sup>7</sup>. La utilizaci&#243;n de circulaci&#243;n extracorp&#243;rea (CEC) tambi&#233;n est&#225; asociada a una mayor incidencia de FA, aunque algunos autores revelan no existir diferencia en la incidencia con relaci&#243;n al uso, o no, de la CEC<sup>8-10</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Mecanismos</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Los mecanismos implicados en la g&#233;nesis de la FA postoperatoria (FAPO) son multifactoriales, no muy bien definidos a&#250;n y distintos de aquellos encontrados en la FA parox&#237;stica. El miocardio atrial desempe&#241;a un importante papel en la fisiopatogenia de la FAPO, una vez que es bastante manipulable a causa de las atriotom&#237;as empleadas para las canulaciones de la CEC y para el reparo de las valvulopat&#237;as. Se sabe que, aun tras la cardioplej&#237;a, los atrios todav&#237;a presentan actividad el&#233;ctrica residual, lo que resulta en grados variados de isquemia, no obstante de las medidas de protecci&#243;n mioc&#225;rdica<sup>11-13</sup>. Dichas incisiones asociadas a la isquemia atrial consecuente del procedimiento quir&#250;rgico y a la cardiopat&#237;a subyacente resultan en anormalidades en la conducci&#243;n atrial, en la refractariedad y en el origen de factores deflagradores, como los latidos ect&#243;picos atriales<sup>14-16</sup>.</p>
      <p>La inflamaci&#243;n tambi&#233;n juega un importante rol en la fisiopatogenia de la FAPO. Est&#225; evidenciado que la manipulaci&#243;n quir&#250;rgica en el miocardio, la CEC y hasta aun una pericardiotom&#237;a aislada pueden desencadenar grados diferentes de respuesta inflamatoria, cl&#237;nicamente manifestada por leucocitosis, fiebre o arritmias<sup>17</sup>. Eso es bioqu&#237;micamente marcado por la elevaci&#243;n de mediadores inflamatorios como la interleuquina-6, factor de necrosis tumoral-&#945;, activaci&#243;n del complemento y de la prote&#237;na C reactiva<sup>18,19</sup>. Las concentraciones de &#233;stos empiezan a se elevar cerca de 6 horas tras la cirug&#237;a, alcanzando pico en el segundo d&#237;a tras la operaci&#243;n<sup>20</sup>. El proceso inflamatorio conllevar&#225; una conducci&#243;n anisotr&#243;pica anormal, que resultar&#225; en reducci&#243;n de la velocidad de conducci&#243;n y propagaci&#243;n heterog&#233;nea del impulso, lo que facilitar&#225; la reentrada y la g&#233;nesis de la FA<sup>6</sup>.</p>
      <p>M&#225;s recientemente, se ha discutido que la predisposici&#243;n a desarrollar FA puede estar relacionada a la propiedad el&#233;ctrica pasiva del miocardio atrial, que es la propiedad de conducci&#243;n c&#233;lula-a-c&#233;lula<sup>21,22</sup>. En los corazones de humanos, la conducci&#243;n c&#233;lula-a-c&#233;lula de los miocitos est&#225; formada por tres diferentes tipos de conexinas (conexinas 40, 43 y 45). Ellas participan en la propagaci&#243;n del est&#237;mulo el&#233;ctrico durante el ritmo cardiaco normal. Sin embargo, en condiciones en que sus propiedades biof&#237;sicas se alteran, como tras cirug&#237;a cardiaca, ocurren modificaciones en su expresi&#243;n, resultando en diferencias en la velocidad de conducci&#243;n entre regiones adyacentes, predisponiendo la presencia de FA<sup>23</sup>.</p>
      <p>Alteraciones del sistema nervioso auton&#243;mico tambi&#233;n son responsables de la presencia de la FA en el postoperatorio, espec&#237;ficamente tras cirug&#237;a cardiaca, y sus efectos en los atrios son complejos<sup>24</sup>. Se describe que cambios en la relaci&#243;n entre la respuesta simp&#225;tica y parasimp&#225;tica se pueden observar inmediatamente tras una cirug&#237;a cardiaca con CEC, pudiendo indicar una susceptibilidad a la presencia de arritmias<sup>25</sup></p>
      <p>
        <bold>Implicaciones cl&#237;nicas</bold>
      </p>
      <p>La presencia de FA tras cirug&#237;a cardiaca est&#225; relacionada a los siguientes factores: prolongamiento del tiempo de internaci&#243;n hospitalaria, mayor tasa de readmisi&#243;n en las unidades de cuidados intensivos, un tiempo prolongado de ventilaci&#243;n mec&#225;nica, necesidad de f&#225;rmacos inotr&#243;picos o soporte circulatorio mec&#225;nico, y hasta reintubaci&#243;n<sup>26-28</sup>.</p>
      <p>Su presencia est&#225; significativamente asociada a complicaciones postoperatorias como hipoxia, hipovolemia, sepsis y disturbios electrol&#237;ticos<sup>29,30</sup>. Tambi&#233;n est&#225; relacionada a los siguientes factores: mayor incidencia de complicaciones gastrointestinales, insuficiencia renal, accidente vascular encef&#225;lico (AVE), insuficiencia cardiaca (IC), necesidad de uso de f&#225;rmacos antiarr&#237;tmicos tras alta hospitalaria y aumento en la mortalidad en un per&#237;odo que var&#237;a de 30 d&#237;as a 6 meses tras la cirug&#237;a<sup>16,26,28,31</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Predictores</bold>
      </p>
      <p>La presencia de FA tras una cirug&#237;a cardiaca est&#225; relacionada a la presencia de variables pre, intra y postoperatorias.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Preoperatorio</bold>
      </p>
      <p>La edad avanzada ha sido considerada como un predictor independiente de FA en el postoperatorio de cirug&#237;a card&#237;aca<sup>32</sup>. Se describe que esa arritmia acomete a m&#225;s del 18% de los individuos con edad superior a los 60 a&#241;os y alrededor del 50% de aquellos con edad superior a los 80 a&#241;os tras una CRM<sup>32,33</sup>. Esa asociaci&#243;n se debe al hecho de esos individuos presentar m&#225;s comorbidades relacionadas a la edad, adem&#225;s de poseer alteraciones estructurales en el miocardio atrial, como distensi&#243;n y fibrosis, secundarias a las alteraciones propias del envejecimiento<sup>34</sup>.</p>
      <p>La hipertensi&#243;n arterial (HAS) tambi&#233;n es considerada como un importante predictor, una vez que est&#225; asociada a alteraciones estructurales cardiacas como fibrosis y dilataci&#243;n, as&#237; como a otras comorbidades relacionadas a FA (por ejemplo, la edad avanzada)<sup>34</sup>.</p>
      <p>El sexo masculino est&#225; m&#225;s relacionado a la presencia de FAPO. Eso se puede explicar tanto por las diferencias relacionadas al sexo en los canales i&#243;nicos como a los efectos hormonales en el tono auton&#243;mico.</p>
      <p>Otro importante predictor es la historia previa de FA y la insuficiencia cardiaca.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Intraoperatorio</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Los factores relacionados al procedimiento quir&#250;rgico, como el tiempo de pinzamiento a&#243;rtico y la utilizaci&#243;n de CEC, est&#225;n tambi&#233;n relacionados a la presencia de FAPO. Los mecanismos sugeridos consisten en la isquemia atrial y en el desencadenamiento de un proceso inflamatorio<sup>33</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Postoperatorio</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Las condiciones asociadas a la FAPO est&#225;n relacionadas a la presencia de complicaciones como infecciones, ventilaci&#243;n mec&#225;nica prolongada, inestabilidad hemodin&#225;mica y uso de aminas vasoactivas.</p>
      <p>Otras variables implicadas son edad avanzada, paroxismos de FA antecediendo a la cirug&#237;a, infarto de miocardio previo, disfunci&#243;n ventricular izquierda, HAS, diabetes mellitus (DM), isquemia postoperatoria, descontinuaci&#243;n de los f&#225;rmacos betaadren&#233;rgicos antecediendo a la cirug&#237;a, duraci&#243;n del pinzamiento a&#243;rtico, uso de aminas vasoactivas y bajo gasto cardiaco en el postoperat&#243;rio<sup>35,36</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Prevenci&#243;n de FA postoperatoria</bold>
      </p>
      <p>No obstante el conocimiento de los factores de riesgo para FA postoperatoria, no se puede identificar ning&#250;n factor de riesgo en un n&#250;mero substancial de pacientes. Eso justifica la importancia en establecer medidas profil&#225;cticas a fin de reducir la incidencia de esa arritmia y consecuentemente sus implicaciones cl&#237;nicas al paciente sometido a cirug&#237;a cardiaca. Se abordar&#225;n a continuaci&#243;n las recomendaciones para prevenci&#243;n y manejo de FA en el postoperatorio de cirug&#237;a cardiaca<sup>37,38</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Empleo de agentes betabloqueantes</bold>
      </p>
      <p>La administraci&#243;n de agentes betabloqueantes es la medida m&#225;s eficaz en la profilaxis de FA, reduciendo significativamente su incidencia en el postoperatorio de cirug&#237;a cardiaca<sup>39-43</sup>. El empleo de betabloqueantes tambi&#233;n est&#225; relacionado a la disminuci&#243;n de la morbilidad y mortalidad. En su serie, Ferguson et al.<sup>44</sup> encontraron una disminuci&#243;n en la mortalidad de un 3,4% para un 2,8% en los pacientes que recibieron betabloqueantes en el perioperatorio.</p>
      <p>Los betabloqueantes se deben emplear en todos los pacientes sometidos a la cirug&#237;a cardiaca como tratamiento de primera elecci&#243;n, a no ser que existan contraindicaciones. Esos agentes se deben administrar por la ma&#241;ana de la cirug&#237;a y reiniciar el tratamiento al primer d&#237;a de postoperatorio. Si no se empleaba el betabloqueante en el paciente, el tratamiento se deber&#237;a iniciar en el preoperatorio o tras la cirug&#237;a, respectando las contraindicaciones<sup>37,38</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sotalol</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Algunos estudios han evidenciado la superioridad del sotalol en comparaci&#243;n a los agentes betabloqueantes en la reducci&#243;n de la FA postoperatoria<sup>45-49</sup>. Cristal et al.<sup>41</sup> evidenciaron una diferencia significativa en la incidencia de FA del 12%, con el empleo de sotalol, comparado al 22% con betabloqueantes. De esa manera, el empleo del sotalol puede ser una alternativa a los betabloqueantes en la prevenci&#243;n de la FAPO<sup>37,38</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Amiodarona</bold>
      </p>
      <p>El empleo de amiodarona tambi&#233;n est&#225; relacionado a la reducci&#243;n en la incidencia de la FA tras cirug&#237;a cardiaca<sup>50-52</sup>. As&#237;, se relata una reducci&#243;n de un 22,5% al 37% a favor de la amiodarona, cuando comparada al placebo, en la prevenci&#243;n a la FA<sup>41</sup>. A pesar de evidenciar asimismo la reducci&#243;n en la incidencia de FAPO, Butler et al.<sup>53</sup> relataron la presencia de bradiarritmias y pausas como complicaci&#243;n de esa terapia y limitaci&#243;n para su uso de rutina.</p>
      <p>De esa forma, el uso profil&#225;ctico de amiodarona es recomendado para los casos en que no es posible el empleo de betabloqueantes. En los pacientes con alto riesgo de desarrollar FA, la asociaci&#243;n entre betabloqueantes y amiodarona se la puede aceptar con una baja incidencia de complicaci&#243;n. En esos pacientes, se debe dispensar cuidado en caso de bradiarritmias, y poner a disposici&#243;n un marcapaso temporal en el caso de una eventual necesidad<sup>37,38</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Estimulaci&#243;n atrial</bold>
      </p>
      <p>La estimulaci&#243;n atrial artificial reduce la incidencia de FAPO por su efecto en la supresi&#243;n de eventos deflagradores como las extras&#237;stoles atriales o disminuci&#243;n de la refractariedad atrial<sup>54,55</sup>.</p>
      <p>Greenberg et al.<sup>54</sup> demostraron que en pacientes sometidos a la estimulaci&#243;n del atrio izquierdo o a la biatrial hubo reducci&#243;n de la incidencia de FAPO y del tiempo de hospitalizaci&#243;n.</p>
      <p>En reciente metaan&#225;lisis, Burgess et al.<sup>56</sup> evidenciaron que pacientes sometidos a estimulaci&#243;n biatrial presentaron un 17,7% de FAPO, mientras que los controles presentaron un 35,3%.</p>
      <p>Las directrices para prevenci&#243;n de FA en el postoperatorio sugieren la estimulaci&#243;n biatrial como recomendaci&#243;n grado A - nivel de evidencia B<sup>38</sup>.</p>
      <p>Se recomienda que la estimulaci&#243;n se realice con una frecuencia entre 80 y 90 lpm, por un per&#237;odo de 3 a 5 d&#237;as, pudi&#233;ndose aumentar caso la frecuencia cardiaca basal de los pacientes se eleve para valores superiores a 80 lpm<sup>37,38</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Magnesio</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Niveles plasm&#225;ticos reducidos de magnesio est&#225;n relacionados a la presencia de FA en el postoperatorio, por su predisposici&#243;n a alteraciones en el potencial de acci&#243;n y en la repolarizaci&#243;n de la membrana celular del miocito. Dicho efecto es debido al hecho del magnesio ser un cofactor de la enzima sodio-potasio ATPasa, que regula el gradiente transmembrana de los iones sodio y potasio. En su metaan&#225;lisis, Miller et al.<sup>57</sup> revelaron una reducci&#243;n en la incidencia de FAPO del 28% para el 18%.</p>
      <p>El uso profil&#225;ctico de magnesio es una estrategia efectiva para minimizar la incidencia de FAPO, lo que se debe considerar en todos los pacientes sometidos a cirug&#237;a cardiaca.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Manejo de FA postoperatoria</bold>
      </p>
      <p>En la presencia de inestabilidad hemodin&#225;mica, la cardioversi&#243;n el&#233;ctrica (CVE) es obligatoria. En los casos en que la respuesta ventricular es elevada y no se logr&#243; el control adecuado con antiarr&#237;tmicos, la CVE se puede realizar, siguiendo las mismas recomendaciones v&#225;lidas para los casos no quir&#250;rgicos<sup>58</sup>.</p>
      <p>Todav&#237;a no est&#225; completamente comprendido el papel del potasio en el tratamiento de la FAPO. De hecho, se recomienda mantener niveles s&#233;ricos de potasio en el postoperatorio entre 4,5 y 5,5 mmol/l<sup>38</sup>.</p>
      <p>Salvo en casos de contraindicaciones, los betabloqueantes (BB) son los f&#225;rmacos de elecci&#243;n para el control de la frecuencia cardiaca, principalmente cuando se preserva la funci&#243;n ventricular. Los bloqueantes de los canales de calcio (BCC) son alternativas eficaces para dicha finalidad, aunque relacionada con hipotensi&#243;n. La digoxina es menos efectiva que los BB o BCC, principalmente cuando coexiste un estado adren&#233;rgico agudo.</p>
      <p>Diversos agentes pueden emplearse para convertir la FA post quir&#250;rgica en ritmo sinusal, como amiodarona, procainamida, ibutilide y sotalol. Se ha preferido la amiodarona endovenosa por su buena eficacia y por el hecho de estar relacionada, relativamente, a pocas complicaciones. Se recomienda una dosis de ataque de 5 mg/kg en 30 minutos y mantenimiento de 15 a 40 mg/h<sup>38,58</sup>.</p>
      <p>Se conoce el riesgo de AVE en los pacientes sometidos a cirug&#237;a cardiaca, sobretodo en los casos de CRM. En ese contexto, se recomienda anticoagulaci&#243;n con heparina o anticoagulante oral cuando la FA persistir por m&#225;s de 48 horas. La elecci&#243;n entre heparina y anticoagulante oral debe ser individualizada para cada paciente y para la clase de cirug&#237;a realizada<sup>58</sup>. En la ausencia de contraindicaciones, la warfarina es preferible para los pacientes de alto riesgo (edad <underline>&gt;</underline> 65 a&#241;os, insuficiencia cardiaca, diabetes mellitus, HAS, accidente isqu&#233;mico transitorio o AVE), manteniendo valores de la relaci&#243;n normalizada internacional (INR) entre 2 y 3. En esos pacientes, aunque ocurra reversi&#243;n para ritmo sinusal, la warfarina debe seguir por 4 semanas. &#193;cido acetilsalic&#237;lico en dosis de 325 mg es una alternativa para los pacientes de bajo riesgo.</p>
      <p>Un algoritmo pr&#225;ctico para profilaxis y manejo de la FAPO de cirug&#237;a cardiaca est&#225; detallado en la <xref ref-type="fig" rid="es11f01-body2">Figura 1</xref>.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="es11f01-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-93-01-0059-00011-gf01-es.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potencial Conflicto de Intereses</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Declaro no haber conflicto de intereses pertinentes.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Fuentes de Financiaci&#243;n</bold>
      </p>
      <p>El presente estudio no tuve fuentes de financiaci&#243;n externas.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Vinculaci&#243;n Acad&#233;mica</bold>
      </p>
      <p>No hay vinculaci&#243;n de este estudio a programas de postgrado.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Referencias</bold>
      </p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Postoperative atrial fibrillation after cardiac surgery</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>Atrial fibrillation (AF) is an arrhythmia frequently seen in the postoperative period of cardiac surgery. In this context, it is associated with the presence of comorbidities, longer length of hospital stay, and higher costs related to surgery. The mechanisms involved in the genesis of AF in the postoperative period of cardiac surgery (AFPO) are different from those causing paroxysmal AF. Knowledge of these mechanisms permits the use of efficient measures to reduce the incidence of this arrhythmia. According to recommendations of the literature, treatment is efficient and safe, because the rates of reversion to sinus rhythm are high and complications are reduced, and it is not associated with a high frequency of side effects.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Atrial fibrillation</kwd>
        <kwd>thoracic surgery</kwd>
        <kwd>postoperative care</kwd>
        <kwd>arrhythmia</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>REVIEW ARTICLE</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fn id="top-body3">
          <label>
            <bold>Postoperative atrial fibrillation after cardiac surgery</bold>
          </label>
          <p>
            <bold>Carlos Rom&#233;rio Costa Ferro; Dinaldo Cavalcanti de Oliveira; Fabiana Piech Nunes; Leopoldo Soares Piegas</bold>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p>Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o - Associa&#231;&#227;o do Sanat&#243;rio S&#237;rio, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil</p>
      <p>Mailing address</p>
      <p>
        <bold>SUMMARY</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Atrial fibrillation (AF) is an arrhythmia frequently seen in the postoperative period of cardiac surgery. In this context, it is associated with the presence of comorbidities, longer length of hospital stay, and higher costs related to surgery.</p>
      <p> The mechanisms involved in the genesis of AF in the postoperative period of cardiac surgery (AFPO) are different from those causing paroxysmal AF. Knowledge of these mechanisms permits the use of efficient measures to reduce the incidence of this arrhythmia.</p>
      <p> According to recommendations of the literature, treatment is efficient and safe, because the rates of reversion to sinus rhythm are high and complications are reduced, and it is not associated with a high frequency of side effects.</p>
      <p><bold>Key words:</bold> Atrial fibrillation; thoracic surgery; postoperative care;arrhythmia.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Postoperative atrial fibrillation (AF) is a frequent arrhythmia after cardiac surgery. Within this context, it is associated with the presence of comorbidities, longer hospital stays and higher surgery-related costs<sup>1-4</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Epidemiology</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This arrhythmia occurs more frequently within the first five days postoperatively, with a peak between 24 and 72 hours, and is infrequent after the first week<sup>5,6</sup>. In most cases it spontaneously converts into sinus rhythm and does not require pharmacological intervention<sup>6</sup>. Patients submitted to myocardial revascularization surgery (MRS) have a lower incidence of postoperative AF (from 30% to 40%), as compared with those submitted to valve surgery (60%)<sup>7</sup>. The use of extracorporeal circulation (ECC) is also associated with a higher incidence of AF, although some authors demonstrate that there is no difference in incidence relative to using or not using ECC<sup>8-10</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Mechanisms</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The mechanisms involved in the genesis of postoperative AF (POAF) are multifactoral, not very well defined and different from those found in paroxysmal AF. Atrial myocardium plays an important role in the physiopathogeny of POAF, since it is manipulable because of atriotomies used to enable ECC cannulations and to repair valvopathies. It is known that even after cardioplegia, the atriums still maintain residual electrical activity, which results in varied degrees of ischemia despite the adoption of myocardial protection measures<sup>11-13</sup>. Such incisions associated with atrial ischemia arising from the surgical procedure and from the underlying cardiopathy give rise to abnormalities in atrial conduction, in refractoriness and in the triggering of factors such as ectopic atrial beats<sup>14-16</sup>.</p>
      <p>Inflammation also plays and important role in the physiopathogeny of POAF. It has been demonstrated that surgical manipulation of the myocardium, ECC and even isolated pericardiotomy may trigger different degrees of inflammatory response which manifests clinically in the form of leukocytosis, fever or arrhythmias<sup>17</sup>. This is biochemically marked by the elevation of inflammatory mediators such as interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-&#945;, activation of the complement and of C-reactive protein<sup>18,19</sup>. The concentrations of these mediators begin to rise approximately six hours after the surgery, and peak in the second day postoperatively<sup>20</sup>. The inflammatory process eventually leads to abnormal anisotropic conduction which results in a decrease of the conduction speed and in heterogeneous impulse propagation, which facilitates the reentry and genesis of AF<sup>6</sup>.</p>
      <p>More recently, there have been discussions about the predisposition to develop AF which is thought to be related to the passive electrical property of atrial myocardium, i.e. the cell-to-cell conduction property<sup>21,22</sup>. In human hearts, myocyte cell-to-cell conduction is formed by three types of connexins (connexins 40, 43 and 45). These connexins play a role in the propagation of the electrical stimulus during normal cardiac rhythm. However, in conditions where their biophysical properties are altered, such as after cardiac surgery, there are modifications in their expressions, thus resulting in differences in conduction speed between adjacent regions, thus predisposing the patient to the onset of AF<sup>23</sup>.</p>
      <p>Alterations in the autonomous nervous system are also responsible for the onset of postoperative AF, especially after cardiac surgery, and its effects on the atriums are complex<sup>24</sup>. Some papers have described the changes in the relation between sympathetic and parasympathetic responses that can be observed immediately after cardiac surgery with ECC, which may indicate some susceptibility to the onset of arrhythmias<sup>25</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Clinical implications</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The presence of AF after cardiac surgery is related with the following factors: longer hospital stay, higher rate of readmission into intensive care units, long mechanical ventilation times, need for inotropic drugs or mechanical circulation support, and even reintubation<sup>26-28</sup>.</p>
      <p>Its presence is significantly associated with postoperative complications such as hypoxia, hypovolemia, sepsis and electrolytic disorders<sup>29,30</sup>. It is also related to the following factors: higher incidence of gastrointestinal complications, kidney failure, cerebrovascular accident (CVA), heart failure (HF), need for antiarrhythmic drugs after hospital discharge and increase in mortality over a period that ranges from thirty days to six months after the surgery<sup>16,26,28,31</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Predictors</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The onset of AF after cardiac surgery is related to the presence of pre, intra and postoperative variables.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Preoperative</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Advanced age has been considered an independent predictor of postoperative AF after cardiac surgery<sup>32</sup>. Some papers have described that this arrhythmia affects more than 18% of the individuals above 60 years of age and approximately 50% of those above 80 after an MRS<sup>32,33</sup>. This association is due to the fact that these individuals present more comorbidities relating to age and have structural alterations in the atrial myocardium, such as distension and fibrosis that are secondary to alterations which are typical of aging<sup>34</sup>.</p>
      <p>Arterial hypertension (AH) is also considered an important predictor, since it's associated with cardiac structural alterations such as fibrosis and dilation, and other AF-related comorbidities (for example, advanced age)<sup>34</sup>.</p>
      <p>There is a stronger relation between male gender and the presence of POAF. This can be explained both by gender-related differences in ionic channels and by the effect of hormones on the autonomous tonus.</p>
      <p>Another important predictor is a previous history of AF and heart failure.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Intraoperative</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Factors relating to the surgical procedure such as aortic cross-clamp time and use of ECC are related to the onset of POAF. The mechanisms suggested consist of atrial ischemia and the triggering of an inflammatory process<sup>33</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Postoperative</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Conditions associated with POAF are related to the presence of complications such as infections, prolonged mechanical ventilation, hemodynamic instability and use of vasoactive amines.</p>
      <p>Other variables involved are advanced age, AF paroxysms prior to surgery, previous myocardial infarction, left ventricular dysfunction, AH, diabetes mellitus (DM), postoperative ischemia, discontinuation of beta-adrenergic drugs prior to surgery, duration of aortic cross-clamp, use of vasoactive amines and postoperative low cardiac output<sup>35,36</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Prevention of postoperative AF</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Although the risk factors for postoperative AF are known, no risk factor can be identified in a substantial number of patients. This justifies the importance of establishing prophylactic measures to reduce the incidence of this arrhythmia and consequently its clinical implications for patients undergoing cardiac surgery. The recommendations for the prevention and management of postoperative AF after cardiac surgery will be addressed below<sup>37,38</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Use of betablocking agents</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The administration of betablocking agents is the most effective measure in AF prophylaxis, and significantly reduces its incidence after cardiac surgery<sup>39-43</sup>. The use of betablockers is also related to a reduction in morbidity and mortality. In their series, Ferguson et al<sup>44</sup> observed a reduction of mortality from 3.4% to 2.8% in the patients who were given betablockers perioperatively.</p>
      <p>The betablockers should be administered to all patients undergoing cardiac surgery as a first line therapy, unless there are contraindications. These agents should be administered in the morning on the day of the surgery and resumed in the first day postoperatively. If the patient was not using a betablocker, the drug should be administered preoperatively or after the surgery, respecting the contraindications<sup>37,38</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sotalol</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Some studies have demonstrated the superiority of sotalol as compared with betablocker agents in the reduction of postoperative AF<sup>45-49</sup>. Cristal et al.<sup>41</sup> showed a significant difference of 12% in AF incidence with the administration of sotalol, as compared with 22% with betablockers. The administration of sotalol therefore can be an alternative to betablockers in POAF prevention<sup>37,38</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Amiodarone</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The administration of amiodarone is also related to the reduction AF incidence after cardiac surgery<sup>50-52</sup>. Thus, a reduction by 22.5% to 37% was reported for amiodarone, as compared with placebo in the prevention of AF<sup>41</sup>. Despite showing a reduction in POAF incidence, Butler et al.<sup>53</sup> reported the presence of bradiarrhythmias and pauses as complications of this therapy and limitations for its routine administration.</p>
      <p>The prophylactic administration of amiodarone is therefore recommended for cases where the administration of betablockers is not possible. In those patients with a high risk of developing AF, the association of betablockers and amiodarone can be acceptable with a low incidence of complication. In these patients, attention should be given to the presence of bradiarrhythmias, and a temporary pacemaker should remain available in case it is needed<sup>37,38</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Atrial stimulation</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Artificial atrial stimulation reduces the incidence of POAF because of its suppressive effect on triggering events such as atrial extrasystoles or the decrease of atrial refractoriness<sup>54,55</sup>.</p>
      <p>Greenberg et al.<sup>54</sup> demonstrated a reduction in POAF incidence and hospital stay in patients who underwent left atrial stimulation or biatrial stimulation.</p>
      <p>In a recent metanalysis, Burgess et al.<sup>56</sup> demonstrated that patients submitted to biatrial stimulation had 17.7% of POAF, whereas the control group had 35.3% of POAF incidence.Guidelines for the prevention of postoperative AF suggest that biatrial stimulation is a Grade of recommendation A - Level of evidence B<sup>38</sup>.</p>
      <p>It is advisable that the stimulation be conducted with a rate between 80 and 90 bpm, for a period of 3 to 5 days, and can be increased if the basal heart rate of patients rises to values above 80 bpm<sup>37,38</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Magnesium</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Reduced magnesium serum levels are related to the presence of postoperative AF because such levels predispose to alterations in the action potential and repolarization of the myocyte cell membrane. This effect is due to the fact that magnesium is a co-factor of the sodium potassium ATPase enzyme that regulates the transmembrane gradient of sodium and potassium ions. In their metanalysis, Miller et al.<sup>57</sup> revealed a reduction in POAF incidence from 28% to 18%.</p>
      <p>The prophylactic administration of magnesium is an effective strategy to minimize POAF incidence and should be considered for all patients undergoing cardiac surgery.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Management of Postoperative AF</bold>
      </p>
      <p>In the presence of hemodynamic instability, electrical cardioversion (ECV) is mandatory. In those cases where the ventricular response is high and appropriate control has not been achieved with antiarrhythmic medication, ECV can be performed following the same recommendations that are valid for nonsurgical cases<sup>58</sup>.</p>
      <p>The role of potassium in POAF treatment has not yet been fully understood. The practice recommends that potassium serum levels be maintained between 4.5 and 5.5 mmol/l postoperatively<sup>38</sup>.</p>
      <p>Unless contraindicated, betablockers (BB) are the drugs of choice to control heart rate, especially when the ventricular function is preserved. Calcium channel blockers (CCB) are efficacious alternatives for this purpose, although they are related to hypotension. Digoxin is less effective that BB or CCB, particularly when there is an exacerbated adrenergic condition.</p>
      <p>Many agents can be used to convert postoperative AF into sinus rhythm, such as amiodarone, procainamide, ibutilide and sotalol. Intravenous amiodarone has been preferred because of its good efficacy and because it is related to relatively few complications. An attack dose of 5 mg/kg in 30 minutes and a maintenance dose of 15 to 40 mg/h<sup>38,58</sup> is recommended.</p>
      <p>The risk of CVA in patients undergoing cardiac surgery is well known, mostly in cases of MRS. Within this context, anticoagulation with heparin or oral anticoagulant is recommended when AF persists for more than 48 hours. The choice between heparin and oral anticoagulant should be personalized according to each patient and type of surgery<sup>58</sup>. If there are no contraindications, warfarin is preferable for high risk patients (age <underline>&gt;</underline> 65 years, heart failure, diabetes mellitus, AH, transitory ischemic accident or CVA); the values of the international normalized ratio (INR) should be maintained between 2 and 3. In these patients, even if there is reversal to sinus rhythm, warfarin should be continued for four weeks. A 325 mg dose of acetylsalicylic acid is an alternative for low risk patients.</p>
      <p>A practical algorithm for prophylaxis and management of POAF in cardiac surgery is shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="en11f01-body3">figure 1</xref>.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en11f01-body3">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-93-01-0059-00011-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
      </p>
      <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
      </p>
      <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Study Association</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This study is not associated with any post-graduation program.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
</article>
