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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">Vd5M6zXYRZBcG8rXnfwd9hx</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00011</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2008001700011</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(08)09100511</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2008001700011</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Import&#226;ncia dos estudos pr&#233;-cl&#237;nicos em animais de experimenta&#231;&#227;o para a cardiologia intervencionista</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Suzuki</surname>
            <given-names>Yoriyasu</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Yeung</surname>
            <given-names>Alan C.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ikeno</surname>
            <given-names>Fumiaki</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Stanford</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state"/>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Stanford University</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina </institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Departamento de Medicina Cardiovascular</institution>
        <country country="US">United States</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>11</month>
        <year>2008</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>91</volume>
      <issue>5</issue>
      <fpage>348</fpage>
      <lpage>360</lpage>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>O tratamento da doen&#231;a cardiovascular mudou radicalmente nas &#250;ltimas duas d&#233;cadas, proporcionando aos pacientes uma sobrevida maior e melhor qualidade de vida. Grande parte desse sucesso deve-se &#224; introdu&#231;&#227;o de novas terapias. Em nenhuma outra &#225;rea essa mudan&#231;a foi mais evidente do que na cardiologia intervencionista, pois nos &#250;ltimos vinte anos as interven&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares percut&#226;neas sa&#237;ram do terreno experimental para formar a base terap&#234;utica dos portadores de doen&#231;a cardiovascular sintom&#225;tica. O desenvolvimento dessas tecnologias, desde os primeiros est&#225;gios, requer a realiza&#231;&#227;o de estudos pr&#233;-cl&#237;nicos com modelos animais. &#201; poss&#237;vel compreender os mecanismos terap&#234;uticos desses dispositivos, uma vez introduzidos na esfera cl&#237;nica, comparando-se os achados das pesquisas realizadas com modelos animais com amostras de exames anatomopatol&#243;gicos. Esta an&#225;lise apresenta uma vis&#227;o geral do papel emergente dos estudos pr&#233;-cl&#237;nicos, bem como dos resultados, do desenvolvimento e da avalia&#231;&#227;o de modelos amimais, nas tecnologias de interven&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular percut&#226;nea para tratamento de pacientes com doen&#231;a cardiovascular sintom&#225;tica.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>Estudo pr&#233;-cl&#237;nico</kwd>
        <kwd>modelo animal</kwd>
        <kwd>interven&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>05</day>
        <month>01</month>
        <year>2009</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>ARTIGO DE REVIS&#195;O</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Import&#226;ncia dos estudos pr&#233;-cl&#237;nicos em animais de experimenta&#231;&#227;o para a cardiologia intervencionista</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Yoriyasu Suzuki, MD; Alan C. Yeung, MD; Fumiaki Ikeno, MD</bold>
    </p>
    <p> Departamento de Medicina Cardiovascular, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Stanford, Stanford, Calif&#243;rnia - EUA</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESUMO</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O tratamento da doen&#231;a cardiovascular mudou radicalmente nas &#250;ltimas duas d&#233;cadas, proporcionando aos pacientes uma sobrevida maior e melhor qualidade de vida. Grande parte desse sucesso deve-se &#224; introdu&#231;&#227;o de novas terapias. Em nenhuma outra &#225;rea essa mudan&#231;a foi mais evidente do que na cardiologia intervencionista, pois nos &#250;ltimos vinte anos as interven&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares percut&#226;neas sa&#237;ram do terreno experimental para formar a base terap&#234;utica dos portadores de doen&#231;a cardiovascular sintom&#225;tica. O desenvolvimento dessas tecnologias, desde os primeiros est&#225;gios, requer a realiza&#231;&#227;o de estudos pr&#233;-cl&#237;nicos com modelos animais. &#201; poss&#237;vel compreender os mecanismos terap&#234;uticos desses dispositivos, uma vez introduzidos na esfera cl&#237;nica, comparando-se os achados das pesquisas realizadas com modelos animais com amostras de exames anatomopatol&#243;gicos. Esta an&#225;lise apresenta uma vis&#227;o geral do papel emergente dos estudos pr&#233;-cl&#237;nicos, bem como dos resultados, do desenvolvimento e da avalia&#231;&#227;o de modelos amimais, nas tecnologias de interven&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular percut&#226;nea para tratamento de pacientes com doen&#231;a cardiovascular sintom&#225;tica.</p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold> Estudo pr&#233;-cl&#237;nico; modelo animal; interven&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Para que possam contribuir para a melhora da sa&#250;de humana, as descobertas cient&#237;ficas e as tecnologias precisam ser colocadas em pr&#225;tica. Em geral, esses avan&#231;os come&#231;am na "bancada", com pesquisas b&#225;sicas em que os cientistas estudam a doen&#231;a em n&#237;vel molecular ou celular, e depois passam para o n&#237;vel cl&#237;nico, ou seja, para a "a beira do leito".</p>
    <p>Pesquisa "translacional" &#233; um termo intercambi&#225;vel que ressalta a necessidade premente de se converter em benef&#237;cios pr&#225;ticos para os portadores de doen&#231;a cardiovascular sintom&#225;tica os grandes investimentos dos setores p&#250;blico e privado em pesquisas biom&#233;dicas. A pesquisa translacional deve ser encarada com uma via de m&#227;o dupla: da bancada para a beira do leito e da beira do leito para a bancada. Para tornar mais eficaz o processo de convers&#227;o da pesquisa translacional, &#233; preciso implementar uma estrat&#233;gia de a&#231;&#227;o inovadora que estimule a intera&#231;&#227;o e coopera&#231;&#227;o entre pesquisadores b&#225;sicos, cl&#237;nicos, profissionais de laborat&#243;rio e fabricantes de dispositivos. </p>
    <p>Em nenhuma outra &#225;rea isso &#233; mais evidente do que na cardiologia intervencionista, uma vez que a interven&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular percut&#226;nea deixou de ser um procedimento experimental para formar a base terap&#234;utica dos portadores de doen&#231;a cardiovascular sintom&#225;tica. Os estudos pr&#233;-cl&#237;nicos com modelos animais desempenham um papel importante no desenvolvimento dessas tecnologias. Ap&#243;s a introdu&#231;&#227;o dessas tecnologias na esfera cl&#237;nica (da bancada para beira do leito), seus mecanismos terap&#234;uticos podem ser ainda mais bem compreendidos atrav&#233;s de an&#225;lises comparativas entre os achados das pesquisas animais com o de amostras de material anatomopatol&#243;gico (da beira do leito para a bancada).</p>
    <p>Esta revis&#227;o apresenta um apanhado geral do est&#225;gio da aplica&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e das limita&#231;&#245;es das tecnologias usadas atualmente nas interven&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares percut&#226;neas, das tecnologias que ainda est&#227;o em fase de desenvolvimento e dos resultados dos estudos pr&#233;-cl&#237;nicos realizados com modelos animais.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Modelo animal experimental de reestenose e tecnologias para interven&#231;&#227;o coronariana</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Estamos em uma nova era no campo da interven&#231;&#227;o coronariana percut&#226;nea: os <italic>stents</italic> farmacol&#243;gicos (SF)<sup>1,2</sup>. Esses <italic>stents</italic> s&#227;o revestidos com f&#225;rmacos antiproliferativos, como o sirolimus, e demonstraram limitar a reestenose intra-<italic>stent </italic>em les&#245;es curtas<sup>3</sup>. Outros f&#225;rmacos, como os an&#225;logos de paclitaxel, demonstraram efic&#225;cia semelhante<sup>4</sup>. O &#234;xito desses agentes antiproliferativos se baseia n&#227;o s&#243; em dados dos primeiros estudos cl&#237;nicos realizados com seres humanos como tamb&#233;m em estudos pr&#233;-cl&#237;nicos realizados com modelo su&#237;no de reestenose coronariana<sup>5-8</sup>. Ainda n&#227;o est&#225; claro se alguma esp&#233;cie animal em particular tem maior valor progn&#243;stico para a resposta humana a esses <italic>stents </italic>revestidos. Assim sendo, achamos que os diversos modelos animais atualmente descritos ainda podem fornecer informa&#231;&#245;es sobre importantes processos biol&#243;gicos e resposta ao tratamento. Esses modelos animais, portanto, podem ajudar a comprovar hip&#243;teses important&#237;ssimas sobre os supostos mecanismos de a&#231;&#227;o de uma interven&#231;&#227;o, embora n&#227;o possam ser utilizados para prever efic&#225;cia<sup>9</sup>. A pr&#243;xima se&#231;&#227;o apresenta um breve apanhado geral das tecnologias atuais de <italic>stents</italic> coronarianos, bem como dos modelos animais usados na avalia&#231;&#227;o desses dispositivos.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Breve apanhado sobre cada modelo animal</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Modelo animal de pequeno porte</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O modelo de art&#233;ria car&#243;tida de rato desenvolvido na d&#233;cada de 1960 estabeleceu as bases da biologia vascular. Embora inicialmente fosse usado para o estudo da aterosclerose humana, mais tarde esse modelo foi adaptado para aumentar a compreens&#227;o da reestenose e testar terapias anti-reestenose, tornando-se uma refer&#234;ncia no estudo da prolifera&#231;&#227;o das c&#233;lulas musculares lisas ap&#243;s o desnudamento endotelial<sup>10-13</sup>. Uma das vantagens &#233; que ele oferece a oportunidade para estudar a biologia molecular<sup>14-16</sup>. Em contrapartida, esse modelo passou a ter menor import&#226;ncia depois da realiza&#231;&#227;o de diversos estudos sobre inibidores da enzima conversora de angiotensina<sup>17-21</sup>, pois o fato de n&#227;o prever resultados negativos nos estudos cl&#237;nicos fez com que ele fosse preterido pelos pesquisadores.A les&#227;o arterial de camundongo como modelo de reestenose foi desenvolvida a partir do seq&#252;enciamento do genoma do camundongo e da disponibilidade de m&#233;todos moleculares que permitem o estudo dos eventos que ocorrem ap&#243;s a les&#227;o arterial<sup>22,23</sup>. Como os vasos desse modelo t&#234;m um calibre muito fino, os m&#233;todos tradicionais de les&#227;o por bal&#227;o ou <italic>stent</italic> n&#227;o s&#227;o pr&#225;ticos. No lugar desses m&#233;todos, a les&#227;o vascular pode ser realizada girando-se um pequeno fio-guia no interior do vaso, ou por corrente el&#233;trica, ou ainda pela coloca&#231;&#227;o de um manguito perivascular n&#227;o-constritivo ao redor da art&#233;ria femoral do camundongo<sup>24,25</sup>. Esses m&#233;todos provocam nos locais lesados um espessamento neointimal vari&#225;vel proporcional &#224; magnitude da les&#227;o, com pouca forma&#231;&#227;o de trombo. Depois de tr&#234;s semanas ocorre a forma&#231;&#227;o de uma neo&#237;ntima delgada (aproximadamente 0,03 mm)<sup>2</sup>. O poder da biologia molecular e da gen&#233;tica no modelo de camundongo permitir&#225; avan&#231;os substanciais na compreens&#227;o das intera&#231;&#245;es entre prolifera&#231;&#227;o celular, migra&#231;&#227;o celular, forma&#231;&#227;o de trombo e remodelamento.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Modelo animal de grande porte</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O modelo de reestenose de art&#233;ria il&#237;aca de coelho tamb&#233;m foi extensamente estudado para testar terapias anti-reestenose e elucidar os mecanismos celulares e moleculares<sup>26-28</sup>. Os n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de colesterol geralmente s&#227;o superiores a 1,000 mg/dl e causam les&#227;o arterial bioqu&#237;mica, que pode ser complementada por les&#227;o mec&#226;nica. A les&#227;o inicial nesses modelos pode ser induzida por desseca&#231;&#227;o a ar, seguida por dieta hipercolesterol&#234;mica e insufla&#231;&#227;o do bal&#227;o para lesar ainda mais o vaso. Os estudos histopatol&#243;gicos desse modelo revelam a presen&#231;a de c&#233;lulas espumosas (macr&#243;fagos que ingeriram uma quantidade excessiva de lip&#237;dios) e uma matriz extracelular volumosa. Uma cr&#237;tica a esse modelo &#233; que c&#233;lulas espumosas s&#227;o raras na neo&#237;ntima reesten&#243;tica de seres humanos. No entanto, a angioplastia por bal&#227;o nesse modelo produz uma les&#227;o histopatol&#243;gica compar&#225;vel &#224; observada na angioplastia humana, com dissec&#231;&#227;o medial e ruptura da placa. Nos locais de ruptura de placa induzida por bal&#227;o ocorre uma r&#225;pida deposi&#231;&#227;o de plaquetas. Por esse motivo, o uso de antiagregantes plaquet&#225;rios como uma poss&#237;vel terapia anti-reestenose<sup>29,30</sup> foi estudado no in&#237;cio do desenvolvimento desse modelo e mostrou ser eficaz na redu&#231;&#227;o da espessura neointimal.</p>
    <p>Ap&#243;s uma les&#227;o, as art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias de porcos dom&#233;sticos respondem de forma semelhante &#224;s art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias humanas<sup>31,32</sup>. Quando art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias su&#237;nas s&#227;o lesadas, uma espessa neo&#237;ntima id&#234;ntica &#224; neo&#237;ntima reesten&#243;tica humana se forma dentro de 28 dias. Em uma les&#227;o causada exclusivamente por bal&#227;o, ocorre uma lacera&#231;&#227;o t&#237;pica da m&#233;dia, que em 28 dias &#233; preenchida por neo&#237;ntima. Al&#233;m disso, a magnitude do espessamento neointimal &#233; diretamente proporcional &#224; les&#227;o, permitindo, assim, estabelecer uma rela&#231;&#227;o entre les&#227;o e regress&#227;o da resposta capaz de quantificar a resposta &#224;s poss&#237;veis terapias<sup>33,34</sup>.</p>
    <p>A experi&#234;ncia indica que as art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias dos porcos dom&#233;sticos e as art&#233;rias il&#237;acas dos coelhos s&#227;o apropriadas para esse tipo de estudo, pois seu calibre e acesso, bem como a resposta &#224; les&#227;o, s&#227;o semelhantes aos dos seres humanos e, portanto, permitem a avalia&#231;&#227;o de dispositivos que podem ser usados na avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica<sup>35</sup>. Apesar do menor n&#250;mero de vasos colaterais, o sistema cardiovascular su&#237;no &#233; semelhante ao humano, inclusive a distribui&#231;&#227;o de art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias epic&#225;rdicas.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Considera&#231;&#245;es t&#233;cnicas sobre o modelo coronariano su&#237;no</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Os modelos coronarianos su&#237;nos que utilizam m&#233;todos de les&#227;o vascular s&#227;o os padr&#245;es aceitos atualmente para o estudo de terapias anti-reestenose<sup>35</sup>. No modelo su&#237;no, o tronco da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria esquerda (TCE) geralmente bifurca-se precocemente originando as art&#233;rias descendente anterior esquerda (DA) e circunflexa (Cx) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01">Fig. 1</xref>). O di&#226;metro desses vasos &#233; semelhante ao dos vasos humanos (2,0 a 4,0 mm). Da mesma forma, a art&#233;ria circunflexa tem de um a tr&#234;s ramos marginais, e a art&#233;ria DA irriga o septo (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01">Fig.1</xref>). Al&#233;m disso, o di&#226;metro da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria direita (ACD) su&#237;na &#233; semelhante ao da humana, embora nos porcos sua domin&#226;ncia seja menos freq&#252;ente do que nos seres humanos, cuja domin&#226;ncia &#233; observada em 80% dos casos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01">Fig.1</xref>).</p>
    <fig id="fig01">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-91-05-0348-00011-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>
      <bold>T&#233;cnicas de cateteriza&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca</bold>
    </p>
    <p> Em v&#225;rios aspectos, as t&#233;cnicas de cateteriza&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca no porco s&#227;o semelhantes &#224;s usadas no ser humano. Em geral, os procedimentos s&#227;o realizados sob anestesia geral. A intuba&#231;&#227;o pode ser feita com tubos endotraqueais humanos, embora a faringe mais longa do porco possa tornar essa t&#233;cnica mais complexa. A via de acesso pode ser a art&#233;ria car&#243;tida ou femoral, por dissec&#231;&#227;o ou puntura percut&#226;nea direta pela t&#233;cnica modificada de Seldinger, respectivamente. O equipamento diagn&#243;stico e intervencionista pode ser o utilizado em seres humanos, e a escolha do cateter depende da abordagem empregada. Em geral, quando a via de acesso era a car&#243;tida, nosso grupo tem utilizado um cateter-guia Judkins de coron&#225;ria esquerda 3,5 ou 4,0<sup>36-39</sup>. Com a via de acesso femoral, o cateter-guia tipo "Hockey Stick" pode ser usado tanto para o &#243;stio da coron&#225;ria esquerda como da coron&#225;ria direita<sup>8</sup>, ou um cateter-guia Judkins direita 4,0 para a coron&#225;ria direita (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01">Fig.1</xref>). </p>
    <p>Recomenda-se o uso de terapia antiplaquet&#225;ria, com aspirina (300 mg), institu&#237;da na v&#233;spera do procedimento e mantida at&#233; o sacrif&#237;cio do animal<sup>6, 8</sup>.Clopidogrel (75 mg) tamb&#233;m tem sido empregado al&#233;m da aspirina<sup>36,40</sup>. Heparina (100&#150;300 U/kg) muitas vezes &#233; usada durante o procedimento como agente antitromb&#243;tico, embora mesmo com o uso desse esquema terap&#234;utico ainda possa ocorrer trombose intra-<italic>stent</italic>, como no ser humano<sup>41</sup>. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Implanta&#231;&#227;o do stent</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Deve-se implantar apenas um <italic>stent </italic>por art&#233;ria, exceto quando quest&#245;es sobre sobreposi&#231;&#227;o de <italic>stents</italic> ou dosagem do medicamento com o uso de diversos <italic>stents</italic> s&#227;o levadas em considera&#231;&#227;o. &#201; poss&#237;vel implantar <italic>stents</italic> em diversas art&#233;rias do mesmo animal, inclusive <italic>stents</italic> convencionais para o desenvolvimento de modelo de reestenose, como os de cobre e/ou ouro, ou <italic>stents</italic> somente com ve&#237;culo carreador, como material polim&#233;rico, ou ainda <italic>stents </italic>com ve&#237;culo carreador e f&#225;rmaco para a avalia&#231;&#227;o do<italic> stent </italic>farmacol&#243;gico (SF). Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; avalia&#231;&#227;o do <italic>stent </italic>farmacol&#243;gico, as recomenda&#231;&#245;es de um grupo de consenso sobre estudos pr&#233;-cl&#237;nicos s&#227;o de que o <italic>stent</italic> deve ter um di&#226;metro apropriado, calculado pela mensura&#231;&#227;o visual ou quantitativa da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria com base em uma rela&#231;&#227;o entre <italic>stent</italic> e di&#226;metro da art&#233;ria <underline>&lt;</underline>1:1, pois o uso de uma rela&#231;&#227;o <italic>stent</italic>:art&#233;ria elevada poderia induzir o desenvolvimento de grave les&#227;o arterial e estenose consider&#225;vel da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria<sup>9</sup>. </p>
    <p>Na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica, &#233; comum a ocorr&#234;ncia de sobreposi&#231;&#227;o dos <italic>stents</italic> durante o implante, e a sobreposi&#231;&#227;o de<italic> stents</italic> farmacol&#243;gicos pode acarretar um efeito combinado dos medicamentos liberados pelos dois stents. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Avalia&#231;&#227;o do desempenho do stent</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O dispositivo deve ser tamb&#233;m avaliado atrav&#233;s da apresenta&#231;&#227;o de uma escala rigorosa, pr&#233;-definida, (semi)quantitativa para a descri&#231;&#227;o de:</p>
    <p><bold>1) Escore da les&#227;o e da inflama&#231;&#227;o:</bold> a avalia&#231;&#227;o histopatol&#243;gica da inflama&#231;&#227;o pode abranger um escore para a les&#227;o no local de cada haste do<italic> stent</italic> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig02">Fig. 2</xref>), uma descri&#231;&#227;o da inflama&#231;&#227;o (ausente ou tipos de c&#233;lula e localiza&#231;&#227;o) e um escore de inflama&#231;&#227;o para o vaso como um todo, bem como para a advent&#237;cia, m&#233;dia e neo&#237;ntima, e nos locais onde ficam posicionadas as hastes do <italic>stent</italic>. Quando poss&#237;vel, a densidade celular nos compartimentos teciduais deve ser registrada como o n&#250;mero de c&#233;lulas por &#225;rea<sup>32,42</sup>.</p>
    <fig id="fig02">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-91-05-0348-00011-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
    <p><bold>2) Posi&#231;&#227;o das hastes do <italic>stent</italic> e tecido adjacente:</bold> Outros dados obtidos por observa&#231;&#227;o incluem a aposi&#231;&#227;o das hastes do <italic>stent</italic> sobre a parede do vaso e hastes cobertas por tecido ou endot&#233;lio. &#201; preciso fazer tamb&#233;m uma descri&#231;&#227;o subjetiva do tecido adjacente, inclusive adelga&#231;amento da m&#233;dia, perda de celularidade e hialiniza&#231;&#227;o. </p>
    <p><bold>3) Histomorfometria quantitativa:</bold> a histomorfometria dos cortes histopatol&#243;gicos &#233; essencial para a avalia&#231;&#227;o do <italic>stent</italic>. A mensura&#231;&#227;o de todos os cortes deve incluir a &#225;rea da m&#233;dia, &#225;rea da l&#226;mina el&#225;stica interna (LEI), &#225;rea da l&#226;mina el&#225;stica externa (LEE), &#225;rea luminal e &#225;rea do <italic>stent</italic> (&#225;rea no interior do pr&#243;prio <italic>stent</italic>). A mensura&#231;&#227;o da neo&#237;ntima &#233; importante para a avalia&#231;&#227;o da efic&#225;cia, devendo incluir a espessura no local de cada haste do <italic>stent</italic> e a &#225;rea neointimal total<sup>9</sup>. </p>
    <p><bold>4) Resposta vascular e cicatriza&#231;&#227;o:</bold> a escolha do f&#225;rmaco e a cin&#233;tica de libera&#231;&#227;o do f&#225;rmaco s&#227;o os componentes mais importantes na tecnologia do <italic>stent </italic>farmacol&#243;gico (SF), pois esses s&#227;o os fatores que determinam o tipo de resposta vascular e o tempo de cicatriza&#231;&#227;o. Existe um volume consider&#225;vel de dados sobre as diferen&#231;as entre o sirolimus e o paclitaxel em termos dos efeitos desses medicamentos sobre a parede arterial<sup>43,46</sup>.</p>
    <p>A endoteliza&#231;&#227;o ap&#243;s o implante do <italic>stent</italic> deve ser registrada como ausente, parcial ou completa em todos os cortes, e o tempo de reendoteliza&#231;&#227;o deve ser estimado. No modelo de <italic>stent </italic>coronariano su&#237;no, uma espessa neo&#237;ntima &#233; induzida em 28 dias (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig03">Fig. 3</xref>), e v&#225;rios estudos analisaram a resposta celular f&#225;sica que ocorre com o passar do tempo ap&#243;s a implanta&#231;&#227;o do<italic> stent</italic><sup>47-49</sup>.Estudos pr&#233;-cl&#237;nicos realizados com <italic>stents</italic> com elui&#231;&#227;o de sirolimus (SES) e <italic>stents</italic> com elui&#231;&#227;o de paclitaxel (SEP) demonstraram a efic&#225;cia desses <italic>stents </italic>farmacol&#243;gicos em rela&#231;&#227;o ao <italic>stent </italic>met&#225;lico convencional (SM)<sup>6,8</sup>. Entretanto, o entusiasmo com essa tecnologia arrefeceu um pouco recentemente em decorr&#234;ncia de preocupa&#231;&#245;es com a ocorr&#234;ncia de trombose tardia do <italic>stent</italic>. Uma importante cr&#237;tica aos primeiros estudos pr&#233;-cl&#237;nicos, que levaram &#224; aprova&#231;&#227;o dos dois tipos de <italic>stents</italic> pelo FDA americano, foi o fato de n&#227;o terem sido detectadas diferen&#231;as significativas na resposta de cicatriza&#231;&#227;o da parede arterial depois de 28 dias quando comparados ao <italic>stent</italic> convencional (SM), enquanto dados angiosc&#243;picos e necrosc&#243;picos humanos demonstravam claramente a exist&#234;ncia de diferen&#231;as consider&#225;veis na cicatriza&#231;&#227;o<sup>50, 51</sup>. A maior parte dos estudos pr&#233;-cl&#237;nicos n&#227;o demonstrou diferen&#231;as significativas entre os <italic>stents </italic>farmacol&#243;gicos (SF) e os <italic>stents </italic>convencionais (SM) quanto &#224; extens&#227;o da cobertura endotelial no caso de uma rela&#231;&#227;o bal&#227;o:art&#233;ria de 1,1:1. Essas diferen&#231;as s&#243; foram identificadas depois que os resultados de um estudo que utilizou SES e SEP sobrepostos em um modelo de art&#233;ria il&#237;aca de coelho mostraram endoteliza&#231;&#227;o incompleta em rela&#231;&#227;o aos controles tratados com SM<sup>52</sup>. Recentemente, Nakazawa e cols.<sup>53</sup> e colegas analisaram a compara&#231;&#227;o dos dados pr&#233;-cl&#237;nicos do SES, SEP e o Endeavor, um <italic>stent</italic> com elui&#231;&#227;o de zotarolimus revestido com fosforilcolina (Medtronic Vascular, Santa Rosa, CA). Nessa an&#225;lise, observou-se uma cobertura endotelial incompleta em locais com e sem sobreposi&#231;&#227;o dos <italic>stents</italic>, tanto do SES quanto do SEP, comparado com o SEZ e o SM, embora as diferen&#231;as n&#227;o fossem mais pronunciadas nos segmentos sobrepostos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig04">Fig. 4</xref>). Esses achados foram acompanhados de maior aumento de fibrina e c&#233;lulas inflamat&#243;rias no SES do que no SEP ou no SM, aumento esse que persistiu por 90 dias ap&#243;s a implanta&#231;&#227;o do dispositivo<sup>53</sup>.</p>
    <fig id="fig03">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-91-05-0348-00011-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
    <fig id="fig04">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-91-05-0348-00011-gf04.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>Dois estudos que utilizaram amostras de aut&#243;psia humana indicaram que a cobertura endotelial incompleta das hastes do <italic>stent </italic>desempenharam um papel importante como preditor morfom&#233;trico de trombose tardia do <italic>sten</italic>t, embora a causa desse problema provavelmente seja multifatorial, com reendoteliza&#231;&#227;o retardada associada a outros fatores de risco cl&#237;nicos e/ou relacionados ao procedimento<sup>51,52</sup>. O desempenho do <italic>stent</italic> deve ser avaliado em dois momentos: o primeiro depois de 28 dias para observar a ocorr&#234;ncia de hiperplasia neointimal, e pelo menos mais uma vez para analisar os efeitos a longo prazo. A segunda avalia&#231;&#227;o (depois de 3 a 6 meses) depende da &#233;poca em que a "cicatriza&#231;&#227;o" e a libera&#231;&#227;o do f&#225;rmaco tenham sido conclu&#237;das. &#201; importante observar que o FDA recomenda um intervalo de seis meses ap&#243;s a implanta&#231;&#227;o do <italic>stent</italic> para a obten&#231;&#227;o dos dados pr&#233;-cl&#237;nicos.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Modelo de reestenose por les&#227;o t&#233;rmica em su&#237;nos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O modelo de reestenose de <italic>stent </italic>coronariano em su&#237;nos &#233; um padr&#227;o bem aceito. Entretanto, a principal desvantagem desse modelo &#233; que n&#227;o h&#225; les&#227;o esten&#243;tica nas art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias, e o pr&#243;prio <italic>stent </italic>&#233; um material estranho. Conseq&#252;entemente, ele pode n&#227;o ser apropriado para avaliar o desempenho de <italic>stents</italic> em bifurca&#231;&#227;o ou de <italic>stents</italic> bioabsorv&#237;veis, devido &#224; aus&#234;ncia de uma verdadeira les&#227;o esten&#243;tica. Al&#233;m disso, as imagens das art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias, como tomografia computadorizada (TC), resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica (RM), ultra-som intravascular (USIV) e tomografia de coer&#234;ncia &#243;ptica (TCO), podem ser prejudicadas, uma vez que o <italic>stent</italic> pode produzir artefato.</p>
    <p>A angioplastia com bal&#227;o t&#233;rmico e radiofreq&#252;&#234;ncia foi introduzida na d&#233;cada de 1990 como uma nova t&#233;cnica de dilata&#231;&#227;o arterial percut&#226;nea<sup>54-56</sup>. No entanto, em virtude do aumento das taxas de reestenose nos pacientes que receberam essa terapia<sup>57</sup>, n&#227;o demorou muito para que a t&#233;cnica fosse abandonada como op&#231;&#227;o de tratamento percut&#226;neo.Usando esse sistema, Staab e col.<sup>58</sup> e o nosso laborat&#243;rio<sup>39</sup> analisaram um modelo su&#237;no de reestenose por les&#227;o t&#233;rmica. No nosso estudo, realizado com 22 porcos e um total de 54 art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias, estenoses coronarianas foram sistematicamente desenvolvidas quatro semanas ap&#243;s a les&#227;o induzida por calor (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig05">Fig. 5</xref>). Com base nesses resultados, esse modelo su&#237;no de reestenose coronariana pode ser &#250;til na avalia&#231;&#227;o de <italic>stents</italic> em bifurca&#231;&#227;o e <italic>stents </italic>bioabsorv&#237;veis, em estudos de imagens coronarianas, como RM, TC, USIV e TCO, e no treinamento t&#233;cnico de interven&#231;&#245;es coronarianas percut&#226;neas complexas, como a implanta&#231;&#227;o de <italic>stents</italic> em les&#245;es de bifurca&#231;&#227;o e aterectomia<sup>39</sup>.</p>
    <fig id="fig05">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-91-05-0348-00011-gf05.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>
      <bold>Modelo animal experimental de oclus&#227;o total cr&#244;nica (OTC)</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Avan&#231;os recentes alcan&#231;ados na tecnologia dos <italic>stents</italic> farmacol&#243;gicos (SF) mudaram o enfoque da cardiologia intervencionista de preven&#231;&#227;o da reestenose para o tratamento de OTC. A recanaliza&#231;&#227;o da oclus&#227;o total cr&#244;nica (OTC) &#233; considerada a "&#250;ltima fronteira" da interven&#231;&#227;o coronariana percut&#226;nea. Esse interesse estimulou o desenvolvimento de dispositivos especializados, como o Frontrunner (Lumend Inc., Redwood City, CA), que realiza microdissec&#231;&#245;es rombas<sup>59</sup>, e o Safecross (Intraluminal Therapeutics Inc., Carlsbad, CA), que usa reflectometria de coer&#234;ncia &#243;ptica para transpassar a OTC<sup>60</sup>. Embora a ocorr&#234;ncia de oclus&#227;o total cr&#244;nica seja comum, existe pouqu&#237;ssima informa&#231;&#227;o sobre a sua fisiopatologia, e n&#227;o se sabe por que algumas podem ser transpassadas e outras n&#227;o. Nos &#250;ltimos anos, os pesquisadores desenvolveram modelos de OTC para nortear as investiga&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas, inclusive interven&#231;&#245;es guiadas por imagem e o desenvolvimento de novos dispositivos. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Apanhado geral sobre modelos animais para OTC</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A ruptura espont&#226;nea da placa ateroscler&#243;tica e a subseq&#252;ente oclus&#227;o arterial n&#227;o ocorrem naturalmente em nenhum modelo animal, mesmo naqueles que foram geneticamente modificados para apresentar maior forma&#231;&#227;o de ateroma. Nos &#250;ltimos anos, os pesquisadores t&#234;m tentado desenvolver diversos tipos de modelos animais de OTC. O m&#233;todo inicial utilizado para a produ&#231;&#227;o de uma oclus&#227;o total usou ligadura externa ou constri&#231;&#227;o amer&#243;ide<sup>61,62</sup>. Entretanto, uma grande desvantagem desse m&#233;todo &#233; a incapacidade de facilitar o desenvolvimento de dispositivos para recanalizar a OTC. As t&#233;cnicas empregadas subseq&#252;entemente para a forma&#231;&#227;o endoluminal de OTC em art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias e perif&#233;ricas diferiam em sua abordagem. Murphy e cols.<sup>63</sup> avaliaram quatro m&#233;todos em um modelo de art&#233;ria il&#237;aca de coelho para o desenvolvimento de trombose obliterante arterial perif&#233;rica. Desses m&#233;todos, o que emprega secagem a g&#225;s, inje&#231;&#227;o de trombina e dieta hipercolesterol&#234;mica foi considerado o mais eficaz. Strauss e colegas posteriormente modificaram o modelo de inje&#231;&#227;o de trombina infundindo colagenase antes da passagem do fio-guia<sup>64</sup>. V&#225;rias caracter&#237;sticas da OTC humana ficaram evidentes nesse modelo, inclusive a presen&#231;a de tecido fibroso maduro, m&#250;ltiplos microcanais vasculares intraluminais, dep&#243;sitos lip&#237;dicos extracelulares e ruptura da l&#226;mina el&#225;stica interna (LEI) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig06">Fig.6</xref>). Esse estudo indicou que os microcanais podem facilitar a passagem do fio-guia no local da oclus&#227;o<sup>65</sup>. Outros modelos de OTC foram <italic>stents</italic> com fluxo obstru&#237;do e at&#233; mesmo inje&#231;&#227;o direta de &#225;lcool para promover trombose<sup>66</sup>. O desenvolvimento de um modelo preciso e reprodut&#237;vel de OTC coron&#225;ria semelhante &#224; humana &#233; uma tarefa complexa, pois 1) os vasos coron&#225;rios s&#227;o menos acess&#237;veis a uma abordagem cir&#250;rgica direta; 2) &#233; dif&#237;cil simular uma patologia luminal e medial, que inclua tamb&#233;m a forma&#231;&#227;o de microcalcifica&#231;&#245;es; e 3) para mimetizar uma les&#227;o OTC humana &#233; preciso que haja um componente inflamat&#243;rio concomitante<sup>67,68</sup>.A angioplastia com bal&#227;o e a implanta&#231;&#227;o de <italic>stents</italic> em art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias de animais, ambos m&#233;todos padronizados para o desnudamento dos vasos e a conseq&#252;ente prolifera&#231;&#227;o neointimal, raramente resultam no desenvolvimento de OTC. Algumas medidas mais agressivas j&#225; testadas s&#227;o o uso de les&#227;o t&#233;rmica e a implanta&#231;&#227;o de <italic>stent</italic> de cobre, como descrito anteriormente<sup>39</sup>. Foram utilizados tamb&#233;m pol&#237;meros para produzir oclus&#245;es coronarianas cr&#244;nicas. Os primeiros implantes polim&#233;ricos foram abandonados como plataformas de <italic>stents</italic>, pois induziam uma forte resposta inflamat&#243;ria e oclus&#227;o do vaso<sup>69</sup>. Prosser e cols.<sup>70</sup> relataram a coloca&#231;&#227;o do pol&#237;mero acido poli-L-l&#225;ctico microporoso em art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias de porcos e c&#227;es. O pol&#237;mero &#233; absorvido em cerca de 28 dias, produzindo uma oclus&#227;o com microcanais histologicamente semelhante ao do ser humano<sup>70</sup>. Esses modelos animais podem contribuir para uma maior compreens&#227;o da biologia da OTC humana, permitindo a realiza&#231;&#227;o de pesquisas sobre novos dispositivos e f&#225;rmacos com o objetivo de aumentar a taxa de sucesso da recanaliza&#231;&#227;o dessas les&#245;es complexas.</p>
    <fig id="fig06">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-91-05-0348-00011-gf06.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>
      <bold>Interven&#231;&#245;es percut&#226;neas para tratamento de valvopatia</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Reparo e substitui&#231;&#227;o de valva s&#227;o procedimentos cir&#250;rgicos comuns e eficazes na elimina&#231;&#227;o ou redu&#231;&#227;o significativa da disfun&#231;&#227;o valvar. Entretanto, o uso desses procedimentos como tratamento &#250;nico de pacientes com baixa fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o ainda &#233; objeto de controv&#233;rsia. A dificuldade no tratamento de pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca congestiva causada por valvopatia reside na escolha de um &#250;nico m&#233;todo de reparo para abordar diversos fatores, como alinhamento dos folhetos valvares, o di&#226;metro do anel e a geometria do aparelho subvalvar. Aliado ao risco de morbimortalidade associado &#224; cirurgia card&#237;aca a c&#233;u aberto, esses procedimentos representam um desafio para o cirurgi&#227;o e um risco para o paciente. Isso motivou os cientistas a projetar dispositivos capazes de tratar a disfun&#231;&#227;o valvar de maneira minimamente invasiva. Com base na experi&#234;ncia adquirida com o desenvolvimento de pr&#243;teses valvares cir&#250;rgicas, o FDA estabeleceu diretrizes detalhadas para a avalia&#231;&#227;o de fatores como fadiga, din&#226;mica de fluxo e hidrodin&#226;mica dos implantes valvares, bem como processos para estudos pr&#233;-cl&#237;nicos <italic>in vitro</italic> e <italic>in vivo</italic> de pr&#243;teses valvares card&#237;acas. O objetivo desses estudos pr&#233;-cl&#237;nicos n&#227;o &#233; apenas o desenvolvimento dos dispositivos e a aplica&#231;&#227;o de testes de durabilidade, mas tamb&#233;m otimizar a avalia&#231;&#227;o por m&#233;todos de imagem e estabelecer protocolos ideais para o implante das pr&#243;teses. Al&#233;m disso, os &#250;ltimos est&#225;gios da avalia&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;-cl&#237;nica devem incluir um treinamento abrangente do usu&#225;rio<sup>71</sup>.</p>
    <p>A pr&#243;xima se&#231;&#227;o enfocar&#225; o tratamento percut&#226;neo de valvopatia.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Substitui&#231;&#227;o de valva a&#243;rtica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A aortopatia relacionada com a idade contribui para o aumento cont&#237;nuo da morbidade e mortalidade em todo o mundo e est&#225; associada ao aumento do n&#250;mero de procedimentos de substitui&#231;&#227;o da valva a&#243;rtica registrado na &#250;ltima d&#233;cada. Estenose a&#243;rtica degenerativa, uma anomalia valvar comum do adulto<sup>72</sup>, tem sido tratada por m&#233;todos percut&#226;neos desde meados da d&#233;cada de 1980. At&#233; o momento, foram introduzidos dois procedimentos de valvoplastia a&#243;rtica percut&#226;nea<sup>73,74</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig07">Fig.7</xref>).O modelo ovino &#233; o preferido para a avalia&#231;&#227;o<italic> in vivo</italic> de dispositivos percut&#226;neos de valva a&#243;rtica. Atualmente, n&#227;o existe modelo animal cr&#244;nico de estenose a&#243;rtica. Embora o modelo ovino saud&#225;vel tenha contribu&#237;do para a valida&#231;&#227;o do funcionamento do cateter, ancoramento da pr&#243;tese, funcionamento do dispositivo ap&#243;s a implanta&#231;&#227;o e fluxo de sangue coronariano normal, esse modelo tem diversas limita&#231;&#245;es:</p>
    <p><bold>1) </bold>o di&#226;metro das art&#233;rias femorais (geralmente <underline>&lt;</underline> 5mm);</p>
    <p><bold>2)</bold> a angula&#231;&#227;o do arco a&#243;rtico (a causa de dobra do sistema introdutor); </p>
    <p><bold>3)</bold> o comprimento do arco a&#243;rtico (mais curto do que o do ser humano); e </p>
    <p><bold>4)</bold> a localiza&#231;&#227;o dos &#243;stios coron&#225;rios (mais pr&#243;ximos da valva a&#243;rtica do que no ser humano)<sup>71</sup>. Novas tecnologias valvares poder&#227;o solucionar os problemas de acesso e outras limita&#231;&#245;es dos dispositivos de primeira gera&#231;&#227;o. </p>
    <fig id="fig07">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-91-05-0348-00011-gf07.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>
      <bold>Reparo da valva mitral</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A valva mitral &#233; uma estrutura anat&#244;mica e fisiologicamente complexa. Seu funcionamento adequado depende de uma intera&#231;&#227;o coordenada entre o anel mitral, as c&#250;spides, as cordas, os m&#250;sculos papilares e o ventr&#237;culo esquerdo. Uma maior compreens&#227;o dos mecanismos da disfun&#231;&#227;o da valva mitral, associada aos avan&#231;os alcan&#231;ados na tecnologia de cateter, levou ao desenvolvimento de diversas abordagens percut&#226;neas para reparo da valva mitral<sup>75</sup>. As inova&#231;&#245;es tentam reproduzir as t&#233;cnicas de reparo mitral cir&#250;rgico. Assim como no caso das pr&#243;teses de valva a&#243;rtica, o modelo ovino &#233; o preferido para avalia&#231;&#227;o<italic> in vivo</italic> de dispositivos percut&#226;neos de valva mitral. At&#233; hoje, foram publicados os dados de dois tipos de modelos animais<sup>76-79</sup>. Um deles &#233; o modelo de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca induzida por estimula&#231;&#227;o r&#225;pida, e o outro &#233; o modelo de insufici&#234;ncia mitral (IM) isqu&#234;mica. Com o emprego de estimula&#231;&#227;o ventricular r&#225;pida progressiva durante 5 a 8 semanas (180 a 240 batimentos por minuto), o aumento na dimens&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo produz insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca congestiva e insufici&#234;ncia mitral. Alguns estudos relatam redu&#231;&#227;o de at&#233; 24% a 28% da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (FEVE) e o desenvolvimento de insufici&#234;ncia mitral moderada a grave ap&#243;s estimula&#231;&#227;o r&#225;pida<sup>77,78,80</sup>. Uma desvantagem desse modelo &#233; que, ap&#243;s a recupera&#231;&#227;o da estimula&#231;&#227;o r&#225;pida, a fun&#231;&#227;o do VE retorna aos n&#237;veis observados em animais sadios<sup>81</sup>. Os pesquisadores devem atentar para esse fato na hora de avaliar a efic&#225;cia do dispositivo. A insufici&#234;ncia mitral isqu&#234;mica &#233; induzida por oclus&#227;o da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria; no entanto, a anatomia vari&#225;vel da &#225;rvore coronariana representa uma dificuldade. Gorman e cols.<sup>82</sup> analisaram a rela&#231;&#227;o entre a anatomia da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria e o desenvolvimento de insufici&#234;ncia mitral isqu&#234;mica e conclu&#237;ram que s&#243; um infarto posterior por oclus&#227;o da art&#233;ria circunflexa esquerda era capaz de induzir IM isqu&#234;mica aguda ou cr&#244;nica. As principais preocupa&#231;&#245;es em rela&#231;&#227;o a esse modelo s&#227;o a mortalidade e o desenvolvimento sistem&#225;tico de insufici&#234;ncia mitral. A taxa de mortalidade associada ao infarto do mioc&#225;rdio &#233; de aproximadamente 30% a 40%, e o desenvolvimento de insufici&#234;ncia mitral gira em torno de 20% a 30%<sup>82</sup>. Talvez n&#227;o seja necess&#225;rio um modelo "doente" para o desenvolvimento de dispositivos ou para a elabora&#231;&#227;o de testes de durabilidade dos protocolos de coloca&#231;&#227;o ideal. Duas abordagens percut&#226;neas &#150; reparo borda a borda e anuloplastia &#150; foram submetidas a extensos estudos pr&#233;-cl&#237;nicos e a uma an&#225;lise cl&#237;nica preliminar, como mostra a tabela:</p>
    <p><bold>1) Reparo borda a borda:</bold> o primeiro estudo de fase I de viabilidade sobre um dispositivo mitral percut&#226;neo j&#225; foi conclu&#237;do<sup>83</sup>. Um clipe mitral transcateter (MitraClip<sup>TM</sup> , EValve, Menlo Park, CA) colocado nas bordas livres dos folhetos mitrais atrav&#233;s de uma pun&#231;&#227;o transeptal simula o procedimento cir&#250;rgico de Alfieri (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig08">Fig.8</xref>). Outra tecnologia de reparo borda a borda, o sistema de reparo de folheto valvar MIOBIUS (Edwards Lifesciences, Irvine, CA), usa uma tecnologia baseada em sutura para completar um reparo do tipo de Alfieri. Os resultados dos estudos pr&#233;-cl&#237;nicos confirmaram a viabilidade dessa abordagem para a cria&#231;&#227;o de um reparo borda a borda<sup>84</sup>.</p>
    <table-wrap id="tab">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-91-05-0348-00011-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <fig id="fig08">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-91-05-0348-00011-gf08.jpg"/></fig>
    <p><bold>2) Anuloplastia:</bold> foram desenvolvidas diversas t&#233;cnicas percut&#226;neas para alterar a geometria do anel mitral, como anuloplastia baseada no seio coron&#225;rio, anuloplastia intracavit&#225;ria direta e outros dispositivos constritivos novos<sup>76-79,85</sup>. O encurtamento ou remodelamento do anel por meio da inser&#231;&#227;o de um dispositivo no seio coron&#225;rio pode imitar uma anuloplastia cir&#250;rgica. Provas preliminares de conceito foram demonstradas experimentalmente com a publica&#231;&#227;o de um estudo inicial de viabilidade em seres humanos com o MONARCH<sup>TM</sup> (Edwards Lifesciences, Irvine, CA), que consiste em um implante de nitinol auto-expans&#237;vel com &#226;ncoras distais e proximais semelhantes a um <italic>stent</italic><sup>86</sup>.</p>
    <p>Existem v&#225;rios outros dispositivos valvares percut&#226;neos em desenvolvimento. Ao longo da pr&#243;xima d&#233;cada, os estudos cl&#237;nicos elucidar&#227;o a rela&#231;&#227;o dessas novas abordagens entre si e em rela&#231;&#227;o aos tratamentos cir&#250;rgicos e cl&#237;nicos atuais. Essas tecnologias percut&#226;neas ser&#227;o cuidadosamente estudadas e submetidas a um escrut&#237;nio muito maior do que o aplicado &#224;s novas terapias cir&#250;rgicas.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Conclus&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A &#225;rea de tecnologia de interven&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares percut&#226;neas est&#225; se desenvolvendo rapidamente, o que significa que as informa&#231;&#245;es contidas neste artigo em breve poder&#227;o estar obsoletas. Ser&#225; importante, por&#233;m, compreender os conceitos b&#225;sicos, pois todos os futuros avan&#231;os ser&#227;o gerados pelos estudos iniciais, inclusive os estudos pr&#233;-cl&#237;nicos. O sucesso dessa subespecialidade intervencionista depende de um trabalho conjunto entre o cardiologista, o cirurgi&#227;o card&#237;aco e a ind&#250;stria de aparelhos m&#233;dicos. Est&#225; come&#231;ando uma nova era na disciplina de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares, com implica&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o apenas no tratamento dos pacientes, mas tamb&#233;m na &#225;rea de coopera&#231;&#227;o multidisciplinar.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Agradecimentos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Agradecemos ao Dr. Heidi Bonneau, RN, MS, CCA, pela revis&#227;o editorial deste trabalho.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="end" fn-type="corresp">
        <p>Correspond&#234;ncia:</p>
        <p> Fumiaki Ikeno, M.D </p>
        <p> Stanford University, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine </p>
        <p> 300 Pasteur Drive, Falk CVRB007, Stanford, CA94305a </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="fikeno@cvmed.stanford.edu">fikeno@cvmed.stanford.edu</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
  </body>
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      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">The importance of pre-clinical animal testing in interventional cardiology</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>The treatment of cardiovascular disease has changed dramatically over the past 2 decades, allowing patients to live longer and better quality lives. The introduction of new therapies has contributed much to this success. Nowhere has this been more evident than in interventional cardiology, where percutaneous cardiovascular intervention has evolved in the past 2 decades from a quirky experimental procedure to a therapeutic cornerstone for patients with symptomatic cardiovascular disease. The development of these technologies from the earliest stages requires preclinical experiments using animal models. Once introduced into the clinical arena, an understanding of therapeutic mechanisms of these devices can be ascertained through comparisons of animal model research findings with clinical pathological specimens. This review provides an overview of the emerging role, results of preclinical studies and development, and evaluation of animal models for percutaneous cardiovascular intervention technologies for patients with symptomatic cardiovascular disease.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Applied research</kwd>
        <kwd>models, animals</kwd>
        <kwd>coronary angiography</kwd>
        <kwd>heart catheterization</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>REVIEW ARTICLE</bold>
      </p>
      <p><undefined id="tx-body2"/>The importance of pre-clinical animal testing in interventional cardiology</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Yoriyasu Suzuki; Alan C. Yeung; Fumiaki Ikeno</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA</p>
      <p>Mailing Address</p>
      <p>
        <bold>SUMMARY</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The treatment of cardiovascular disease has changed dramatically over the past 2 decades, allowing patients to live longer and better quality lives. The introduction of new therapies has contributed much to this success. Nowhere has this been more evident than in interventional cardiology, where percutaneous cardiovascular intervention has evolved in the past 2 decades from a quirky experimental procedure to a therapeutic cornerstone for patients with symptomatic cardiovascular disease. The development of these technologies from the earliest stages requires preclinical experiments using animal models. Once introduced into the clinical arena, an understanding of therapeutic mechanisms of these devices can be ascertained through comparisons of animal model research findings with clinical pathological specimens.</p>
      <p> This review provides an overview of the emerging role, results of preclinical studies and development, and evaluation of animal models for percutaneous cardiovascular intervention technologies for patients with symptomatic cardiovascular disease.</p>
      <p><bold>Key Words:</bold> Applied research; models, animals; coronary angiography; heart catheterization.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>To improve human health, scientific discoveries and technologies must be translated into practical applications. Such advances typically begin at "the bench" with basic research where scientists study disease at a molecular or cellular level and then progresses to the clinical level, or the patient's "bedside." Translational research is an interchangeable term that underscores the pressing need to translate the practical benefits for those affected by symptomatic cardiovascular disease with the extensive investments divested by the private and public sectors in biomedical research. Translational research should be viewed as a two-way road: bench to bedside, and bedside to bench. In particular, to facilitate a more effective translation process, a new road map should be implemented to foster interaction and cooperation between basic researchers, clinicians, laboratory professionals and device manufacturers.</p>
      <p>Nowhere has this been more evident than in interventional cardiology, where percutaneous cardiovascular intervention has evolved from a quirky experimental procedure to a therapeutic cornerstone for patients with symptomatic cardiovascular disease. Inherent in the development of these technologies is the role of preclinical testing using animal models. Once these technologies enter the clinical arena (bench to bedside), a further understanding of their therapeutic mechanisms can be realized through comparative analysis of animal model research findings with those of clinical pathological specimens (bedside to bench).</p>
      <p>This review will provide an overview of the clinical application status and limitations of current percutaneous cardiovascular intervention technologies, future technologies under development, and results of preclinical studies including animal models.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Experimental animal model for restenosis and coronary intervention technologies</bold>
      </p>
      <p>A new era in the field of percutaneous coronary intervention has arrived: the drug-eluting stent (DES)<sup>1, 2</sup>. These stents are coated with antiproliferative drugs such as sirolimus, and have been shown to limit in-stent restenosis in discrete lesions<sup>3</sup>. Other drug coatings, such as paclitaxel analogs, have shown similar efficacy<sup>4</sup>. The success of these antiproliferative agents is founded not only in initial human clinical data but also on preclinical studies using the porcine coronary restenosis model<sup>5-8</sup>. Presently, it is unclear whether any single animal species is more predictive of the human response to such coated stents. As such, we maintain that most animal models currently available can still provide mechanistic insight into fundamental biological processes and response. These animal models can therefore help prove critical hypotheses regarding putative mechanisms of action of an intervention yet cannot be used to predict efficacy<sup>9</sup>. The following section will summarize an overview of current coronary stent technologies as well as the animal models used in their evaluation.</p>
      <p>Brief over view of each animal model</p>
      <p> Small animal model</p>
      <p>The rat carotid artery model was developed in the 1960s, and from it the foundations of vascular biology were derived. Although initially used to gain insight into human atherosclerosis, this model was later adapted to better understand restenosis and to test restenosis therapies. This model has become a standard for studying smooth muscle cell proliferation after endothelial denudation<sup>10-13</sup>. One advantage of the model is that it provides an opportunity to study molecular biology<sup>14-16</sup>. Conversely, this model assumed less importance after several early studies of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors<sup>17-21</sup>, where failure of this model to predict negative clinical trial results caused it to lose favor among investigators.</p>
      <p>The mouse arterial injury as a restenosis model developed from the availability of the mouse genome and molecular methods to study events after arterial injury<sup>22,23</sup>. Since this model has very small vessels, traditional injury methods by balloon or stent are not practical. Vascular injury may instead be performed by rotating a small guide wire in the vessel or electrical injury, and placement of a non-constrictive peri-vascular cuff around the mouse femoral artery<sup>24,25</sup>. Through the use of these methods, variable focal neointimal thickening forms at injury sites proportionate to the amount of injury with little thrombus formation. A thin neointima (roughly 0.03 mm<sup>2</sup>) forms by three weeks. The power of molecular biology and genetics in the mouse model will permit substantial advances in understanding the interactions between cell proliferation, cell migration, thrombus formation, and remodeling.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Large animal model</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The rabbit iliac restenosis model has also been studied extensively to test restenosis therapies and to understand cellular and molecular mechanisms<sup>26-28</sup>. Blood cholesterol levels are typically &gt;1,000 mg/dl and cause biochemical arterial injury which can be further supplemented by mechanical injury. These models can have initial injury induced by air desiccation to hypercholesterolemic diets and then balloon inflation to further injure the vessel. Histopathology in this model shows foam cells (macrophages that have ingested excessive lipid) and voluminous extracellular matrix. One criticism of this model is that foam cells are rare in human restenotic neointima. However, balloon angioplasty in this model does cause histopathologic injury comparable to that seen with human angioplasty, with medial dissection and plaque fracture. Platelet deposition occurs rapidly at sites of a balloon-induced plaque fracture. Thus, antiplatelet agents, as a potential anti-restenosis therapy, were studied early in the history of this model<sup>29, 30</sup> and showed efficacy in reducing neointimal thickness.</p>
      <p>The coronary arteries of domestic pigs after injury respond in similar fashion as human coronary arteries<sup>31, 32</sup>. Furthermore, when porcine coronary arteries are injured, thick neointima will be seen within 28 days and is identical to human restenotic neointima. When a balloon-only injury is performed, a typical medial laceration occurs and is filled at 28 days by neointima. In addition, the amount of neointimal thickening is directly proportional to injury thereby permitting the creation of an injury-response regression relationship that can further quantify the response to potential treatment therapies<sup>33,34</sup>.</p>
      <p>Experience suggests that the coronary arteries in domestic swine and iliac arteries of rabbits are suitable in that their size, access, and injury response are similar to human vessels, and therefore allow assessment of devices that might be used in clinical evaluation<sup>35</sup>. Although armed with fewer collateral vessels, there are pertinent similarities between the pig and human cardiovascular system, including the distribution of epicardial coronary arteries.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Technical consideration of porcine coronary model</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Porcine coronary models using vascular injury methods are now accepted standards by which potential restenosis therapies are studied<sup>35</sup>.</p>
      <p>In the porcine model, the left main coronary artery (LMCA) generally bifurcates early into the left anterior descending (LAD) and circumflex (LCx) coronary arteries (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01-body2">Fig.1</xref>). These vessels are of similar diameter to those in the human (2.0&#150;4.0 mm). Similarly, the LCx commonly has 1&#150;3 marginal branches and the LAD supplies the septum (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01-body2">Fig.1</xref>). Furthermore, the porcine right coronary artery (RCA) is usually of similar diameter to the human RCA, although it is less often dominant than in humans, where RCA dominance occurs in 80% of cases (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01-body2">Fig.1</xref>).</p>
      <fig id="fig01-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-91-05-0348-00011-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>
        <bold>Cardiac catheterization techniques</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Cardiac catheterization techniques in the pig are similar in many ways to the techniques used in humans. Procedures are often performed under general anesthesia. Intubation can be achieved using human endotracheal tubes, although the pig's longer pharynx may make this more technically challenging. Arterial access can be achieved via the carotid or femoral arteries, using a cut-down approach or by direct percutaneous puncture using a modified Seldinger technique, respectively.</p>
      <p>Standard human diagnostic and interventional equipment may be used, with catheter choice dependent on the approach. In general, via the carotid approach, our group has usually used a Judkins left 3.5 or 4.0 guide catheter<sup>36-39</sup>. Via the femoral approach, the hockey stick guide catheter may be used for both left main and RCA ostia<sup>8</sup>, or Judkins right 4.0 guide catheter for the RCA (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01-body2">Fig.1</xref>).</p>
      <p>Antiplatelet therapy is recommended, using aspirin (300 mg) started the day before the procedure and continuing until sacrifice<sup>6,8</sup>. Clopidogrel (75 mg) has also been used in addition to aspirin<sup>36,40</sup>. Heparin (100&#150;300 U/kg) is often used during the procedure as an antithrombotic although stent thrombosis may still occur with this regimen, as in the human<sup>41</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Stent implantation</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Only one stent should be implanted per artery except when issues of stent overlap or multiple stent dosing are considered. The stent may be placed in multiple different arteries in the same animal including bare metal stents such as copper and/or gold stents for development of restenosis model, carrier-only such as polymeric material, and carrier plus DES for evaluation of DES. Regarding DES evaluation, recommendations from a preclinical studies consensus group suggest that the stent should be appropriately sized by visual or quantitative coronary artery measurement using a stent:artery ratio <underline>&lt;</underline> 1:1 , as using a higher stent:artery ratio could induce severe arterial injury and considerable coronary artery stenosis<sup>9</sup>.</p>
      <p>Stent overlap frequently occurs during clinical implant and overlapping DES present the possibility of a combined effect from drug released from the 2 stents.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Evaluation of stent performance</bold>
      </p>
      <p>A rigorous, (semi)quantitative and defined scale for device evaluation should be presented as well:</p>
      <p><bold>1) Injury and inflammation score:</bold> Inflammation by histopathologic evaluation can include an injury score at each stent strut site (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig02-body2">Fig.2</xref>), an inflammation description (absent, or cell types and location), and an inflammation score for the overall vessel as well as for the adventitia, media, neointima, and at stent strut sites. When possible, cell density in tissue compartments should be recorded as number of cells per area<sup>32,42</sup>.</p>
      <fig id="fig02-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-91-05-0348-00011-gf02-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p><bold>2) Stent strut position and adjacent tissue:</bold> Other observational data should include stent strut apposition to the vessel wall and stent struts covered by tissue or endothelium. A subjective description should also be rendered for adjacent tissue, including medial thinning, loss of cellularity, and hyalinization.</p>
      <p><bold>3) Quantitative histomorphometry:</bold> histomorphometry of histopathologic sections is essential for stent evaluation. Measurements at all sections should include medial area, IEL area (area within the internal elastic lamina), EEL area (area within the external elastic lamina), lumen area, and stent area (area within the stent itself). Neointimal measurement is important for efficacy assessment and should include thickness at each stent strut site and total neointimal area<sup>9</sup>.</p>
      <p><bold>4) Vascular response, and healing:</bold> Drug choice and release kinetics are the most important components of DES technology because they determine the type of vascular response and time-course of healing. From numerous studies, considerable data exist on how sirolimus and paclitaxel differ in terms of their effects on the arterial wall<sup>43,46</sup>.</p>
      <p>Endothelialization after stent implantation should be recorded as absent, partial, or complete in all sections and the time of re-endothelialization should be estimated. In the porcine coronary stent model, a thick neointima was reliably induced by 28 days (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig03-body2">Fig. 3</xref>) and several reports have investigated the phasic, time-dependent cellular response after stenting<sup>47-49</sup>.</p>
      <fig id="fig03-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-91-05-0348-00011-gf03-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>Preclinical studies of both sirolimus-eluting stents (SES) and paclitaxel-eluting stents (PES) have demonstrated the efficacy compared with BMS<sup>6,8</sup>. However, enthusiasm for this technology has recently dampened by concerns of late stent thrombosis. A major criticism of earlier preclinical studies leading to the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval of both stents was their failure to detect significant differences in the healing response of the arterial wall when compared with BMS at 28 days while human angioscopic and autopsy data clearly demonstrated significant differences in healing<sup>50,51</sup>. Most preclinical studies have failed to show any significant differences between DES and BMS in the extent of endothelial coverage when a 1.1:1 balloon artery ratio was chosen. It was not until the results of a study using overlapping commercially available SES and PES stents in the rabbit iliac artery model showed incomplete endothelialization compared with matched BMS controls that these differences were recongnized<sup>52</sup>. Recently, Nakazawa et al.<sup>53</sup> have reviewed the comparison of preclinical data from SES, PES, and the phosphorylcholine-coated Endeavor zotarolimus-eluting stent (ZES; Medtronic Vascular, Santa Rosa, CA). In this review, incomplete endothelial coverage was seen in non-overlapping and overlapping sites of both SES and PES compared with both ZES and BMS, though the differences were more pronounced in overlapping segments (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig04-body2">Fig.4</xref>). Accompanying these findings were more increases in fibrin and inflammatory cells in SES than in either ZES or BMS, which persisted out to 90 days after stent implantation<sup>53</sup>. Two studies using human autopsy samples suggested that incomplete endothelial coverage of stent struts played one of the very important roles as the morphometric predictor of late stent thrombosis although the cause of late stent thrombosis is likely multifactorial, with delayed re-endothelialization in combination with other clinical and/or procedural risk factors<sup>51,52</sup>.</p>
      <fig id="fig04-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-91-05-0348-00011-gf04-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>Two time points should be used for the evaluation of stent performance, the first at 28 days to observe for neointimal hyperplasia, and at least one later time point to examine long term effects. The later time point (3 or 6 months) depends on when "healing" and drug release are both complete. Of note, the FDA has typically recommended 6 months follow up as the interval to acquire preclinical stent data.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Porcine heat-injury restenosis model</bold>
      </p>
      <p> The porcine coronary stent restenosis model is a well-accepted standard. However, the fundamental drawback of this model is that there is no stenosis lesion in coronary arteries and that the stent itself is foreign material. As a result, this model may not be suitable to evaluate the performance of bifurcation or bioabsorbable stents due to lack of a true stenosis lesion. Also, results of coronary artery imaging such as computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), intravascular ultrasound (IVUS), and optical coherence tomography (OCT) may be hampered as the stent can produce artifact.</p>
      <p>Radiofrequency thermal balloon angioplasty was introduced as a new technique for percutaneous arterial dilatation in the 1990's<sup>54-56</sup>, yet due to increased restenosis rates observed in patients receiving this therapy<sup>57</sup>, it was soon abandoned as a percutaneous interventional treatment option. Using this system, Staab et al.<sup>58</sup> and our laboratory<sup>39</sup> have investigated a porcine heat-injury restenosis model.</p>
      <p>In our study using 22 swine with a total of 54 coronary arteries, coronary artery stenoses were consistently developed at 4 weeks after heat-injury (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig05-body2">Fig.5</xref>). In light of these results, this porcine coronary restenosis model might be useful for the evaluation of bifurcation stents and bioabsorbable stents, coronary imaging studies such as MRI, CT, IVUS, and OCT, and for the technical training of complex percutaneous coronary interventions such as bifurcation stenting and atherectomy<sup>39</sup>.</p>
      <fig id="fig05-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-91-05-0348-00011-gf05-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>
        <bold>Experimental animal model for chronic total occlusion (CTO) </bold>
      </p>
      <p>Recent advances of DES technology has shifted focus within interventional cardiology from restenosis prevention to the treatment of CTO. It is often stated that successful chronic total occlusion (CTO) recanalization represents the "last frontier" of percutaneous coronary intervention. This interest has stimulated the development of specialized devices such as the Frontrunner (Lumend Inc., Redwood City, CA) that performs blunt micro-dissection<sup>59</sup>, and the Safecross (Intraluminal Therapeutics Inc., Carlsbad, CA) that utilizes optical coherence reflectometry for traversing the CTO<sup>60</sup>. Despite its common occurrence, there is surprisingly little information about the pathophysiology of CTO, and why some CTO can be crossed while in others, crossing is unsuccessful. For the past several years, researchers have developed CTO models to guide therapeutic investigations, including image-guidance intervention and device development.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Overview of animal model for CTO </bold>
      </p>
      <p>Spontaneous atherosclerotic plaque rupture and subsequent arterial occlusion do not occur naturally in any animal model, even among those models that have been genetically engineered to have increased atheroma formation. For the past several years, researchers have tried to develop several kinds of animal CTO models. The initial method of producing a total occlusion utilized external ligature or ameroid constriction<sup>61,62</sup>. However, a fundamental drawback of this method is the inability to facilitate the development of devices to recanalize CTO. Subsequent techniques for endoluminal formation of CTO in coronary and peripheral arteries have differed in their fundamental approach. Murphy et al.<sup>63</sup> evaluated 4 methods in a rabbit iliac model for developing peripheral arterial thrombosis obliterans. Of these, gas-drying with thrombin and a high-cholesterol diet was deemed the most efficacious. Strauss et al. subsequently modified the thrombin injection model by infusing collagenase before wire passage<sup>64</sup>. Several characteristics of human CTO were evident in this model, including mature fibrous tissue, multiple small intraluminal vascular channels, occasional extracellular lipid deposits, and disruption of the internal elastic lamina (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig06-body2">Fig.6</xref>). Their reports suggested that the microchannels may be a critical determinant of successful CTO guide wire crossing<sup>65</sup>. Other CTO models have included stents with occluded outflow and even direct alcohol injection to promote thrombosis<sup>66</sup>. Developing an accurate and reproducible human-like coronary CTO model has been a complex undertaking because <bold>1)</bold> coronary vessels are less amenable to a direct surgical approach; <bold>2)</bold> simulating luminal and medial pathology, including microcalcification, has been difficult; and <bold>3)</bold> an inflammatory component must be present to mimic human CTO lesions<sup>67,68</sup>. Balloon angioplasty and stent implantation in animal coronary arteries, both standard methods of denuding the vessel and engendering neointimal proliferation, rarely result in CTO development. More aggressive measures tried have involved the use of thermal injury and copper stent implantation as described above<sup>39</sup>. Polymers have also been used to invoke chronic coronary occlusions. Early polymeric implants were abandoned as stent platforms because they induced severe inflammatory responses and vessel occlusion<sup>69</sup>. Prosser et al.<sup>70</sup> reported placement of a microporous poly L-lactic acid polymer into pig and dog coronary arteries. The polymer is absorbed by 28 days, resulting in a micro-channeled occlusion histologically similar to a human CTO<sup>70</sup>. These animal models may contribute to a deeper understanding of the biology of human CTO and enable new device and pharmacological investigation to improve recanalization success in these challenging lesions.</p>
      <fig id="fig06-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-91-05-0348-00011-gf06-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>
        <bold>Percutaneous interventions for the treatment of valvular heart disease</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Valve repair and replacement are common surgical procedures and are typically effective in eliminating or significantly reducing valve dysfunction. However, these procedures remain controversial as sole treatments for patients with a low ejection fraction. The challenge in treating patients with congestive heart failure due to valvular disease is deciding the mode of repair to address multiple factors such as alignment of the leaflets, the size of annulus, and geometries of subvalvular apparatus. Coupled with the risk of morbidity and mortality due to open heart surgery, these reconstructive procedures have proven to be a challenge to the surgeon and a risk to the patient, thereby motivating scientists to design devices that can treat valvular dysfunction in a minimally invasive manner. Based on the experience gained from the development of surgical valve prostheses, the FDA has established detailed guidelines for the assessment of fatigue, flow dynamics, and hydrodynamics of valve implants as well as processes for in vitro and in vivo preclinical testing of heart valve prostheses. In these preclinical studies, not only device development and durability testing but also optimal imaging and deployment protocols should be established and comprehensive user training should be initiated in the latter stages of the preclinical evaluation<sup>71</sup>.</p>
      <p>This section will focus on the percutaneous treatment of valvular heart disease. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Aortic valve replacement</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Age-related aortic valve disease contributes to continuously increasing morbidity and mortality worldwide and is associated with an increase in aortic valve replacement procedures over the past decade. Degenerative aortic stenosis, a common adult valvular abnormality<sup>72</sup>, has been the focus of percutaneous treatments since the mid 1980s . To date, 2 percutaneous aortic valve procedures have been introduced in clinical setting<sup>73,74</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig07-body2">Fig.7</xref>).</p>
      <fig id="fig07-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-91-05-0348-00011-gf07-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>The ovine model is preferred for in vivo assessment of percutaneous aortic valve devices. Currently there is no chronic animal model representative of aortic stenosis. While the healthy ovine model has provided validation of catheter function, prosthesis anchoring, device function post-implantation, and unimpaired coronary blood flow, this model has several limitations: </p>
      <p>1) the size of femoral arteries (typically <underline>&lt;</underline>5mm);</p>
      <p>2) the angulation of the aortic arch (the cause of kinking of the delivery system); </p>
      <p>3) the length of the aortic arch (shorter than that of human); and </p>
      <p>4) the location of coronary ostia (closer to the aortic valve than in the human)<sup>71</sup>. Newer valve technologies may provide solutions to access issues and other limitations of first generation devices. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Mitral Valve Repair </bold>
      </p>
      <p>The mitral valve is a complex anatomic and physiologic structure. Its proper function depends on coordinated interaction of the mitral annulus, leaflets, chordae, papillary muscles, and the left ventricle. Improved understanding of the mechanisms of mitral valve dysfunction coupled with advances in catheter-based technology has resulted in several potential percutaneous approaches to mitral valve repair<sup>75</sup>. Innovations attempt to duplicate techniques of surgical mitral repair. Similar to aortic valve devices, the ovine model is preferred for in vivo assessment of percutaneous mitral valve devices. To date, 2 types of diseased animal models were used in published data<sup>76-79</sup>. One type is the rapid-pacing heart failure model and the other type is the ischemic mitral regurgitation (MR) model. By using progressive rapid ventricular pacing for 5 to 8 weeks (180-240 beats/minute), the increase in left ventricular dimension results in congestive hear failure and MR. In some publications, left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) reduced up to 24-28% and moderate to severe MR was developed after rapid pacing<sup>77,78,80</sup>. One drawback of this model is that after recovery from rapid pacing, LV function return to levels seen in the healthy animals<sup>81</sup>. In light of this observation, researchers should pay attention to this fact with regard to evaluation of device efficacy. Ischemic MR is induced by coronary arterial occlusion, however, variable anatomy of the coronary artery tree poses a challenge. Gorman et al.<sup>82</sup> has investigated the relationship between the coronary arterial anatomy and development of ischemic MR and concluded that only posterior infarction by occlusion of the left circumflex could induce acute or chronic ischemic MR. The primary concern of this model is the mortality and consistence of MR development. Mortality related to myocardial infarction is about 30-40% and consistence of MR development is about 20-30%<sup>82</sup>. A "diseased" model might not be necessary for device development or for durability testing of optimal deployment protocols. Two percutaneous approaches &#150; edge to edge repair and annuloplasty &#150; have been subjected to extensive preclinical testing and to preliminary clinical investigation as shown in the table: <bold>1) Edge-to-Edge repair</bold>; The first phase I feasibility trial on a percutaneous mitral device has been completed<sup>83</sup>. A transcatheter mitral clip (MitraClip<sup>TM</sup> , EValve, Menlo Park, CA) placed on the free edges of the mitral leaflets through a transseptal puncture, mimics the Alfieri surgical procedure (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig08-body2">Fig.8</xref>).</p>
      <fig id="fig08-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-91-05-0348-00011-gf08-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-91-05-0348-00011-e01-en.jpg"/></p>
      <p>Another edge-to-edge repair technology, the MIOBIUS leaflet repair system (Edwards Lifesciences, Irvine, CA) uses a suture-based technology to complete an Alfieri-type repair. The preclinical results have confirmed the feasibility of this approach for creation of an edge-to-edge repair<sup>84</sup>. <bold>2) Annuloplasy:</bold> A variety of percutaneous technologies have been developed to alter mitral annular geometry such as coronary sinus-based annuloplasty, direct intracavitary annuloplasty, and other novel cinching devices<sup>76-79, 85</sup>. Shortening or reshaping the annulus by insertion of a device into the coronary sinus has the potential to mimic surgical annuloplasty. Proof of concept has been demonstrated experimentally with recent publication of an initial human feasibility study using the MONARCH<sup>TM </sup>(Edwards Lifesciences, Irvine, CA) which consists of a self-expanding nitinol implant with distal and proximal stent-like anchors<sup>86</sup>. </p>
      <p>A variety of other percutaneous valve devices are under development. Over the next decade, clinical trials will clarify the roles of these new approaches in relation to each other and to current surgical and medical therapies. These percutaneous technologies will be carefully studied and subjected to a level of scrutiny far beyond those applied to new surgical therapies.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Conclusion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The field of percutaneous cardiovascular intervention technology is developing quickly and reflects the time sensitivity of the information contained within this chapter. The basic concepts, however, will be important to understand as all further advances will be generated by the early beginnings including preclinical studies. The success of this interventional subspecialty will be driven by the results of a collaborative relationship between the cardiologist, cardiac surgeon, and the medical device industry. A new era is coming yet again for the discipline of cardiovascular diseases, with new implications not only involving patient care but also in the area of multidisciplinary cooperation.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Acknowledgment</bold>
      </p>
      <p>In the preparation of this review, we thank Heidi Bonneau, RN, MS, CCA for her editorial review.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
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  </sub-article>
</article>
